French Grammar Notes

Comparative with ne and indicative, superlative with

subjunctive/indicative
Concessive is: whatever + noun = quel/l/e/s + que subj + noun as subj
(e.g. quelles que soient vos ides) or = quelque/s + noun as obj + que
subj (e.g. quelques livres que vous ayez lus); however + adjective =
quelque (/si/aussi/pour) (inv) + adj + que subj (e.g. quelque petits quils
soient)
Neuter nouns quelque chose, quelquun, rien with qualifier followed by
de and agrees
Subjunctive triggered when phrase introduces a subordinate clause: non
pas que, ce nest pas que, sans que, de peur/crainte que; triggered with
impersonal verbs: il est important/necessaire/regrettable/temps/vaut
mieux que
Pass simple
-Er verbs

Singular
Plural
-ai
-mes
-as
-tes
-a
-rent
-Re/Ir verbs
-is
-mes
-is
-tes
-it
-irent
-Oir verbs
-us
-mes
-us
-tes
-ut
-urent
Time phrases: dans is after a certain time, en is within a certain time, pour
in the future, dans as during in past/future contexts
Cela used in place of il when verb takes a direct object, e.g. Cela mennuie
but Il lui convient de
Use de/ etc. + qui for people, duquel/auquel etc. for animals/things
Aigu, ambigu and contigu become u when feminine
Banal, bancal, fatal, glacial and natal do not become aux in the plural
Invariable adjectives include orange, marron, crme, cerise, bon march,
sympa and chic (exc. plural)
Imperfect subjunctive
Any verb

Singular
Plural
-sse
-ssions
-sses
-ssiez
-^t
-ssent
Numbers are used without hyphens if contain et (e.g. vingt et un),
otherwise more than world contains hyphens (e.g. quatre-vingt); and s
added when isolated at end of phrase (e.g. jen ai vu quatre-vingts), when
describing non-numberal nouns (e.g. quatre-vingts fermiers) and before
millions/milliards
Measurements are either long/haut/large/profond/pais de X or X de
long/haut/profondeur/paiisseur
In singular imperative, -s retained if tu form ends in es/as

 If habitual but we are told that within a certain time frame then in pass
compos/simple
For imperatives which reference the future use the pass compos with an
imperative auxiliary (e.g. Aie fini la vaisselle)
Same time/after main verb
Present/Pass compose

Before main verb

Present subjunctive

Perfect subjunctive

Imperfect/Pluperfect/Pas
Imperfect subjunctive
Pluperfect subjunctive
s simple
Even directly prior to another in the past can be described with pass
antrieur or double compound (e.g. Ds quils eurent fini/avaient eu fini)
o Double compound can also be used in future tense to describe
urgency
Across/through translated as: travers in sense of through, via medium of
(door), au travers de in sense of across/over (state, lying) and en travers
de in sense of through, across (action, walking)
Pronoun

Me/te etc.

Le/la/les

Lui/leur
etc.
Lui/leur etc.

En

In
Le/la/les
Me/te etc.
Y
En
imperative
How big/fast etc. translated with specific phrases: De quelle taille, avec
quelle frquence/ quelle vitesse/ quelle distance/ quelle heure
Ne omitted with verbs of prevention: empcher, viter, prendre garde que
and verbs of denial in the negative: ne douter, ignorer, nier pas que
Alternatives to depuis que are voil/voici que, il y a que
Since in sense of given that is translated as (puisque/comme) vu, tant
donn que
As in sense of all the while that translated as mesure que
The second clause after quand/bien que begins with que as well, and the
mood remains the same except when si structure and second clause with
que it is also in the subjunctive
Ne
Jamais/gu Plus
Rien
(participle/inf
Perso
Que
Negat
re
nitive)
n
or
Object pronouns with a verb appear directly before if is main verb, appear
before auxiliary if verb is participle, appear before verb as infinitive (incl. if
verb follows auxiliary and participle)
Tout as adverb is invariable before another adverb or preposition, but
agrees if feminine followed by a consonant
Preposition
En

Par

Vehicle
Auto/voiture/vlo/navire/avion/hlicopt
re/taxi
Bicyclette/cheval
Bus/train

 Agreement of preceding object with phrases such as Quelle voiture as-tu

achete
Neuf as showing something newly made (and follows noun), antonym of
vieux; nouveau is new just to owner, antonym of ancient

German Grammar Notes

Reported speech in German is forward a tense, so Er sagte, er habe einen
Hund gesehen becomes He said he had found a dog
Use of modal verbs for alternative meanings: drfen in Konj 2 (drfe etc.)
shows a probable; sollen in present shows a rumour, i.e. it is said that;
wollen as meaning be going to with more forceful intention than werden;
wollen with perfect infinitive (participle and auxiliary infinitive) shows
something claimed but is false
Word
Auch

Meaning
-False impression
-Ask for confirmation in a
question/makes rhetorical if w-
question
-Emphasise commands
Etwa
-Expect negative answer to yes/no
question
-Emphasise negative in sentence
-Emphasise possibility in conditional
sentence
Gleich
-Ask for confirmation in w- question
Vielleicht
-Express surprise (really) in
exclamations
-Expect negative (dont tell me) in
yes/no question
Noch
-Jog memory of speaker in w-
question
When two clauses occur simultaneously, link with und ( dabei) or wobei;
continuous action also conveyed normally with eben/gerade or
schon/gleich if there is movement
o Present participle can be replaced with (gerade/eben) dabei sein,
etw. zu tun
Imperative is used with e when the verb stem ends in ig/m/n (e.g.
segnen, entschuldigen)

 Passive terms are specific: von must be the agent carrying out the action;
durch is the means by which something happens; mit is the instrument
Declining
nouns
Adjectival
nouns

Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural indefinite
definite
definite
indefinite
(-)
Der e
Die en
Ein er
-e
Den en
Die en
Einen en
-e
Des en
Der en
Eines en
-er/en
Dem en
Den en
Einem en
-en
Weak
Der e (- w/o)
Die en
Ein
-en
Masculine
Den en
Die en
Einen en
-en
Nouns (e.g.
Des en
Der en
Eines en
-en
Polizist)
Dem en
Den en
Einem en
-en
Irregular
Der e
Die en
Ein e
-en
Masculine
Den en
Die en
Einen en
-en
Nouns (e.g.
Des ens
Der en
Eines ens
-en
Name)
Dem en
Den en
Einem en
-en
Weak (definite article) endings used after: dieser, jener, jeder, welcher,
alle, keine, beide, smtliche, irgendwelche, solche, meine
Strong (indefinite article) endings used after: manche, einige, etliche,
folgende, mehrere, viele, wenige
Order of personal pronouns is NOM-ACC-DAT (if more than two then placed
after noun subject)
o Sich before noun subject unless is a pronoun
Order of noun subjects and objects is NOM-DAT-ACC
Adver
Time
Attitud
Viewpoin Pla Manne
b
(when/how how/how Reason
e
t
ce
r
Order
often)
Genitive ending es is used with nouns ending in s//x/z; an apostrophe is
used with names
o Take ending on last word except when using article, when no ending
is used (e.g. Des Knigs Wilhelm/Knig Wilhelms