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Charging System Tests

by Richard Atwell
(c) Copyright 2005-2011

Contents:
1. Battery Tests
2. Battery Charging
3. Battery Load Testing
4. A word about Optima
5. Terminals
6. How does the Alternator work

Quite often when your battery stops charging

you are left wondering why subsequent
attempts at component replacement fail to
cure the problem. I've provided a set of
detailed steps to follow to help you determine
which parts have failed. Steps are many but
thorough to help to hunt down your electrical
gremlins.

7. Alternator Output

This article only covers bus alternators and

8. How the Voltage Regulator Works not the early style generators.
9. Testing the Voltage Regulator
10. Testing the Alternator
11. Alternator Wear

Before we start, there are two conventions to observe. First, VW wiring systems are
negative ground which means that the negative post of the battery is connected to the
vehicle body. This may seem natural but positive ground systems exists (like vintage
British made Jaguars) which can be confusing to people who have worked on the
opposite system.

Second, when talking about current, in the automotive field we more often mean
conventional current which states that current flows from positive to negative. In reality,
electrons (which are the charge carriers) flow from negative to positive but the
conventional system is illustrated in more texts (a hold over from the early days of
science).

Overview:

The charging system is made up of 3

components: (A) the battery, (C) alternator
and (C') voltage regulator. The battery is
the heart of the system that produces
voltage and provides storage for electrical
current. When the engine is off, the battery
powers the lights and accessories. When
you are trying to start the engine, the
battery powers the starter and ignition
system. It also energizes the alternator
which begins to produce its own current
when the alternator nears the engine's idle
speed.
The alternator charges the battery while
the engine is running; without it, the
battery would run down very quickly.
Although the alternator is a source of
current, you might think that once you start
the engine you could disconnect the
battery but the system is not designed to
operate that way. You should not run the engine without the battery
connected especially if you have FI or sensitive electronics that always expect 12-14V.
The battery is integral to the proper functioning of the electrical system.
When the engine is running, the battery and alternator provide power simultaneously.
The alternator tries to power the electrical system and charge the battery at the same
time but because the alternator's output is somewhat dependent on the engine rpm,
when loads are high the battery can instantly supply more current when necessary. It's
the electrical "shock absorber" in the system which is essential a huge capacitor
(measured in F not uF!). When the alternator is spinning at high rpm it is easily
producing enough electricity to meet all of the current requirements.
How and when to charge the battery is determined by the voltage regulator which
controls the current flow from the alternator to the battery. It's mounted on the firewall

which acts as a ground and heat sink. The VR reads the battery voltage and varies the
alternator's output accordingly.
Because the battery, alternator and VR are so closely coupled, figuring out which one is
at fault can be difficult without following the proper diagnostic steps. The diagram on the
right shows the tight electrical coupling between components. Generally battery tests
are simple but determining whether the alternator or VR is at fault can be complicated
unless you understand how they work.
In the wiring schematic you can see how the alternator is indirectly connected to the
battery via the starter solenoid. You can also see how the ignition switch is battery
powered and activates the warning lamp which serves a dual purpose: it completes a
circuit that also energizes the alternator via the voltage regulator even before the engine
has been started. What's important to note from the beginning is that there are a lot of
electrical contacts involved. Print out this diagram and keep it in your glove
compartment.
Because the battery is the easiest to test and the most essential, we'll figure out how to
test it first. Then we'll proceed to the voltage regulator and the alternator last. Along the
way I'll explain how each works so the reason for each tests can be understood.

Battery Tests:
Disclaimer: Electricity and battery acid can both be very dangerous. Electrical shorts
can start fires. When handling batteries, use all precautions because the contents are a
highly corrosive potentially explosive poison. Use ventilation, remove jewelry, wear
protective clothing and eyewear, etc.
The stock size battery for the bus is a Group 42 or Group 41 as rated by the Battery
Council International (BCI). These are European style batteries: they look the same but
the terminals are reversed compared to an "American" battery. For Europe, positive is
on the right and negative on the left with the terminals facing towards you. If you
purchase another group battery for your bus, the cables might not reach if you flip it
around so the terminals face the body, especially on a 73-79 bus. Note that the 68-72
models have the battery cables reversed (ground strap is behind the taillight) so you
could use a US battery.
As you can see, of the two batteries the dimensions are very similar with the Group 41
being about 2" longer.
Group

CCA

CA

Ah

RC

Size (inches)

42

450

565

54

76 min

9-5/8 x 7 x 6-3/4

41

650

815

63

110 min

11-1/2 x 6-7/8 x 6-5/8

So what do the ratings mean?

Cold Cranking Amps (CCA) - How many amps that can be delivered for 30 sec at
0F (-17C) before the voltage drops below 7.2V. That is the minimum voltage
required to engage most starters and solenoids.

Cranking Amps (CA) - How many amps that can be delivered in the same
scenario but for 30s at 32F (zero C).

Amp Hours (Ah) - How much current a fully charged battery can supply for 20
hours before the voltage drops below 10.5V at 80F (27C). For example, 3A
delivered for 20 hours would justify an 60Ah rating. While driving, a 3A load is
below the typical current draw which is why batteries run down so easily.

Reserve Capacity (RC) - This is the time in minutes that the bus can be driven
with the headlights on after the alternator fails. This test assumes a 25A load at
80F (27C) and is the length of time it takes for the voltage to drop to 10.5V. As
you can see the group 42 is going to last about an hour if your alternator fails at
night where as the slightly large group 41 will last 50% longer.

The rule of thumb with regard to battery selection is to favor CCA in cold climates and
RC in warmer climates when comparison shopping. Always apply the minimum BCI
group ratings in your selection process before you elect to choose another battery group
that fits the battery clamp so you don't end up picking an underpowered battery.
Here's a list of typical drain levels for a fuel injected engine to give you an idea of the
current demands:
Condition

Amperage

Ignition on

3.5A

+ parking lights

3.8A

+ low beams (55W)

15.5A

+ high beams (60W)

17.2A

Engine on

5.0A

+ low beams (55W)

17.2A

+ high beams (60W)

18.8A

+ alternator

-5.0A

As you can see the amount of running time you'll have at night will be slightly longer
than the RC rating of you battery because the load is less than 25A specified by the
standard. If you are running your stereo as well, YMMV. The last entry in the table is the
most interesting as it shows the alternator powering all of the electrical loads (minus the
lights) while charging the battery at the same time.

Beyond size, there are two basic types of batteries that are constructed differently:
starter and deep cycle. A deep cycle battery can be discharged almost completely and
recharged over and over but only with moderately low current draw. A starter battery
cannot be deep discharged. Why not use a deep cycle all the timer? Because it's not
deigned to deliver high current loads for short periods of time to run the starter. Failure
to use each battery type as intended will shorten its lifespan.
Test 1. Confirm the battery voltage
Alternators are designed to keep a battery charged and power the accessories in the
bus. They are not designed to recharge a dead battery so you must test the battery
before you attempt to diagnose the rest of the charging system. Alternators seem like
they are working 100% of the time but in actuality they are turning on/off at regular
intervals. Attempting to recharge a dead battery will overwork the alternator and may
burn it out.
Automotive electrical systems are not exactly 12V. The lead-acid battery consists of 6
cells connected together in series. Each cell produces approx 2.1V from from the
electrochemical reaction so the battery voltage is really closer to 12.6-12.8V when fully
charged. You need a voltmeter to measure the battery.

Because we are so used to hearing about 12V automotive electrical systems, we tend
to ignore the exact battery voltage. Take for example a battery that reads 12.35V. At first
it seems to be in perfect condition (about 12V right?) but in reality a 12.35V battery is
only 50% charged, 12.0V is 25% and 11.80V is completely drained. Whenever the
battery reads 11.99V or lower it is basically a "dead" battery that has lost almost all of its
charge. This will give you a rough guide to the state of charge (SOC).
What are the critical voltages for operation?
1. 7-9V to engage the starter

2. 10.5V to fire the fuel injectors on (75-79 models)

3. ignition system: varies according to spark plug gap
Below those minimums you will be stuck trying to start the engine.
When batteries go bad, the plates inside sulphate and interfere with the normal
chemical reaction. Sulfation is a term that refers to the battery chemistry. Each cell,
contains positive lead plates that are coated with lead and negative plates that are
coated with lead dioxide. When the battery is connected to a load that causes current to
flow, the hydrogen and sulphate ions in the electrolyte combine with the plates to form
lead sulphate which form as crystals. As the electrolyte becomes devoid of ions, it
becomes weaker and the ability to pass current lessens. When the battery is recharged
(current reversed) the lead sulphate returns to solution leaving lead behind on one plate
and lead dioxide on the other.
To say a battery has sulfated means that the lead sulphate cannot return to solution.
This is because the bond between the sulphate and the plate requires more electricity to
break than can be generated thru normal charging. Simply leaving a battery on the shelf
for a month will cause a light level of sulfation that can be reversed by recharging. The
longer the battery size that more layers of crystals build up and eventually the battery
dies. The cure is to recharge batteries regularly whether on the shelf or in use.
It's also possible for vibration and deep discharging to cause the lead plates to shed
their coating and eventually short out the cell. Since the battery electrical chemistry is
based on surface area, it becomes weaker in the same way that a low electrolyte level
cause the battery to underperform (low voltage and low current capacity). Shedding also
occurs from age.
Low electrolyte levels and sulfation from deep discharging are reported to account for
over 50% of battery failures yet they are easy to prevent. Regular check-ups of the
battery can easily extended their life to full.
Often a battery that appears good cannot provide enough current to start the engine.
Before taking any readings, with the engine off, turn on the headlights for 15 minutes to
remove any surface charge from the battery then turn the lights off and take your
measurements.
Once you turn on the engine and the alternator kicks in, the battery voltage will rise near
14V. The higher voltage is necessary to charge the battery (push the electrons against
the battery voltage). More on the alternator later so avoid turning the engine on at this
point.
Chemical reactions are temperature dependent so your exact measurement will vary
from mine even if you have the same brand of battery:

Condition

Battery Voltage

Initial check

12.70V

Key in

12.50V

Lights on

12.21V

15 min later

12.12V

Lights off

12.41V

another 5 min later

12.60V

Be sure to test the voltage at the battery posts and not at the clamps because there
maybe corrosion that will affect the true reading.
After this test, my true battery reading shows that it's down 0.10V (12.7-12.6V) or 90%
charged. A battery with a higher level of surface charge would show a much lower final
value after the headlights had put the battery under load so you can see why testing the
initial voltage isn't sufficient.
A seemingly good battery when tested for voltage can exhibit a large voltage drop under
load. Keep the probes on the terminals for 10-15s to notice any continual voltage drops.
The voltage should hold fairly steady on a good battery while the lights are on but would
0.01V drop every 1-2s on a weak battery. After 15min if the battery voltage is in the 9.xx
range and still dropping you can be sure that it is time to replace the battery because it
cannot deliver power for electrical loads anymore.
A battery like this will often spring back to a 12.xx voltage after you turn the lights off
which demonstrates the importance of taking multiple voltage readings and watching
the results while the lights are still on.
It is much easier to notice these decremental voltage drops on a digital meter compared
to an analog one.
If you can't figure out why your battery is running down when your let you bus sit you
may have a current drain issue. The factory clock and draws only a few mA and if you
have a stereo it might draw some current to keep it settings. These accessories are
called parasitic loads and they will eventually drain your battery down to the point that it
cannot start your engine. Connect your ammeter between the battery negative cable
and post to test for excessive loads. DO NOT start the engine or turn on the headlights
or you will blow your ammeter. Only an inductive clamp should be used to measure
those large amounts of current while the engine is starting/running. Do not connect your
ammeter if you are not 100% sure that the current draw is less than the current rating of
your ammeter if you are not using a current clamp and instead measuring it directly.

Anytime the current draw is greater than 35mA you should suspect an accessory or
wiring problem. The best way to attempt to isolate the issue is to pull fuses one and a
time and watch your ammeter to see where the largest drop in current occurs. From
there you can examine the wiring diagram for that part of the wiring harness to try and
pinpoint the problem.
Test 2. Check the electrolyte level
A lead acid battery is so named because it consists of lead plates and a sulfuric acid
solution. The solution is 64% distilled water and 36% sulphuric acid (H2SO4). If you get
this solution on your clothing it will eat through it so always be careful around an open
battery. You do not want it getting in your eyes either.
If you have a sealed battery it will often have an indicator on the top that indicates the
battery state of charge along with a legend to read it. It's usually a colored indicator that
shows good, weak and dead. Unfortunately they only test one of the six cells so their
usefulness is limited.

Many batteries are not sealed and you have to check on the electrolyte level by popping
the sealing caps. Some sealed batteries will let you open them but only attempt this if
there are caps on top. Attempting to crack open another kind of sealed battery is
counter productive. I recommend selecting a non-sealed battery in warm climate. They
will more easily allow you to add distilled water that tends to evaporate/boil away in hot
weather and will extend the life or your battery.
You can peer into the filler openings to check the fluid. More often that not the
electrolyte level is too low from the heat having evaporated the water inside the battery.
Because the battery has large plates inside any portion of the plates not covered by
electrolyte, will not participate in the electrical reaction. In other words less current will
be produced.
The filler caps are designed to let hydrogen gasses escape and allow the acid mist to
condense and drop back into the battery. Keep the area around these caps clean and
do not allow any contaminants to fall into the battery.
Only fill up the battery with distilled water from the grocery store. Often you can buy a
gallon for $1 or so. Make a note of how low each cell is and do not overfill. Pour in just
enough to cover the tops of the plates inside. If you overfill them, they make leak on you
if the battery boils over from being overcharged.
Sometimes a battery low on water will permanently damage itself. You may be able to
fill, recharge and return the battery to normal but you will find that it slowly discharges
and strands you within 2-3 months. When that happens you need to purchase a new
battery.
Test 3. Test the electrolyte
The state of the electrolyte is measured using a hydrometer which measures the
specific gravity of solution. You insert the hydrometer into the cell, squeeze the bulb to
suck up the electrolyte and take the reading at the eye level of the fluid. You then return
the electrolyte to the cell and repeat the process for the other cells. It's very important to
keep the hydrometer clean otherwise you will contaminate the electrolyte and the
mineral deposits will interfere with battery cell operation.
Look for a tester that has numbers. The ones with colored balls or a floating strip are
hard to read the exact specific gravity.
Specific gravity (SG) is a term from chemistry that indicates the weight of a solution
relative to water which is given the value of 1.000. Sulfuric acid has an SG of 1.835 and
so a fully charged battery has an SG of 1.270. As the battery discharges, the sulphate
ions in the solution combine with the lead plates and the solution becomes weaker. By
measuring the solution we can figure out how much charge the battery has left.

You may wonder you can't multiply/add 1.835 (35% acid) + 1.000 (64% water) to get
1.270? It is because a) the acid solution already had some water content and b) those
number are based on a standard temperature which is much lower than the ambient
temperature that you are taking your measurements at.

Test chart:
Percentage charge

Specific Gravity at 68F

Voltage

100%

1.265

12.67

75%

1.225

12.47

50%

1.190

12.26

25%

1.155

12.08

1.120

11.91

If the difference between the higher and lowest value from all six cells is greater than
0.050 you also have a bad battery. Sometimes a cell fails completely and naturally
results in a substantial total voltage drop (either 0V or any reading below 11V) so again
it's time to replace that battery.
Some hydrometers are temperature compensating; others are not and calibrated at 80F.
If yours is not auto compensating, then you must add 0.004 to your result for every 10F
above 80F and subtract 0.004 for every 10F below 80F. Luckily this variation is small
enough that you can largely ignore it unless you are performing your tests at
temperature extremes.
Be sure your battery is secured properly: vibration has been known to cause them to fail
prematurely.

Battery Charging:
If you've determined your battery is dead and is too weak to start the engine, you've got
to charge it. Getting a jump from another vehicle is an option. Here's how to do it safely:
1. Make sure the dead battery isn't frozen
2. Keep cars insulated from each other
3. Connect +ve jumper cable from good battery to dead battery
4. Connect the -ve jumper cable from the good battery to the engine block or a
good ground away from the dead battery to avoid sparks.
5. Start the booster car (with the good battery)
6. Run the booster car for 10 minutes at 2000 rpm to invigorate the dead battery
and warm the electrolyte

7. Start the bus with the dead battery

8. Turn on the headlights and fan on the bus with the dead battery
9. Remove -ve jumper cable from good battery, then dead battery
10. Repeat above with +ve (this will prevent an accidental short with the cable)
Your VR won't be able to tell you've got a good or bad battery while connected to the
other booster car. Once you disconnect, run your engine at speed for 30 minutes or so
and will you be able to determine if your battery is charging properly by turning it off and
attempting to restart. Do not do this if you are far from home! When you finally turn off
the engine, you should check the voltages and SG again to confirm if the battery has
been partially restored to health.
A useful device to own is a battery charger. These are great for keeping shelf batteries
charged because they slowly drain down on their own. These inexpensive models are
automatic, come in auto and motorcycle sizes. If you use the motorcycle units to charge
a car battery they will taken a long time but still work effectively (good to know if you
have both types of vehicles because the average auto charger will over-charge a
motorcycle battery).
The manual type chargers are timer based and deliver a higher current more quickly.
These units are usually very bulky (they have wheels!) and often expensive. If you don't
understand the manufacturer's spec on your battery you may damage it by supplying
too much current.
Remember to always disconnect the ground cable if you are going to charge the battery
in the bus to avoid voltage spikes and limit the voltage that is seen by accessories
because the chargers operate above 14V during some of their charging phases.

Battery Load Testing:

While voltmeters and hydrometers are good diagnostic tools, once you determine that
your battery is at least 75% charged, it's safe to load test without further charging. Any
of these tests are suitable:

Turn on high beams for 5 minutes.

Disable the ignition and fuel pump/injectors and crank the engine for 15 secs.

During the test the voltage should not drop below 9.6V. If you wait 5 minutes after the
test the battery should regain it's 50% charge voltage level. If either of these tests fail,
you should replace the battery.
If you still aren't sure if your battery is bad after testing and attempting to recharge, you
can have it load tested at the local auto parts store. They will often use a carbon pile
based load tester that simulates a large current like a starter would draw. The battery
usually needs to have at least a 75% charge before the test and the tester is usually set
to 3x the amp-hour rating of the battery or 1/2 the CCA rating.
The tester will have a gauge that shows good/bad and usually a reading of 9.6V or
higher during the load test indicates a good battery. The test lasts 10-15 second max. If
the battery is not at room temperature, the cut-off for the threshold voltage should
increase/decrease 0.1V per 10F change of electrolyte temperature.
Most of these load testers are NOT compatible with the newer AGM style batteries like
Optima. AGM stands for Absorbed Glass Matte and the electrolyte is suspended in a gel
so the battery doesn't leak. You may permanently damage this type of battery trying to
test it at the auto parts store.
Midtronics is a company that makes a new kind of battery tester that is starting to
appear at auto parts stores. It is compact and easy to use although it has varying
reports of accuracy. They sell many models but most only provide pass/fail information.
This tester measures the conductance of the battery instead of simulating a real load
like the carbon pile testers. The conductance (inverse of resistance) changes as the
surface condition of the plates inside change. All batteries have some internal
resistance inside and the microprocessor inside the tester put the battery through a
series of tests before rendering a decision. Because its results are table lookup based, if
it asks for the CCA of the battery and you can't find it on the battery label you won't be
able to test it and depend on the results.
Some of these testers do not test the newer AGM style batteries like Optima and some
do. Make sure you know the requirements before buying one of these conductance
testers. Personally, I don't think they are worth the cost.

A word about Optima:

Optima is battery unlike you've even seen before. It's made by Johnson Controls (one
the largest battery manufacturers) and is the closest yet to a leakproof design. If you are
tired of leaks rusting out your battery tray, you need an Optima. They cost more than a
normal battery but they also last longer because they don't lose water long before
you've noticed with a regular battery. They can also deliver a huge amount of starting
current compared to a normal battery because they have a very low internal resistance
of 3 milliohms.
The Optima 34R is the model that fits our busses (pictured below). 34 is the BCI group
number and R means the terminals are reversed (European layout).
Optima
34R

CCA
1000

CA
800

Ah
50

RC
110 min

Size (inches)
10 x 6 7/8" x 7 16/16"

According to Optima, when fully charged the voltage should be 12.8V and the battery is
compatible with any charging system that outputs 13.3-15.0V. When the battery is dead
it reads 10.5V.

Terminals:
As the battery terminals corrode, the electrical resistance that builds up is enough to
impede both the charging and starting system. A small 0.1 ohm resistance at the battery
terminals can reduce the starter's output by 92% because of the enormous current
drawn. The power to the headlights is also reduced by 32% which reduces the visual
intensity by more than 50%. Why does this happen? Ohms law: when the current level
is high, the voltage drop is proportionally high. For example, 0.1 ohm and 10A = 1V
drop.
A majority of charing and starting difficulties can be traced to the wiring in the form of
corrosion or damage to terminal or sometimes it's as simple as loose connection. Either
way, you are bound to experience this on a 25-30 year old vehicle like a baywindow
bus.
Test 1. Check for resistance
The copper ends of the cables corrode as do the lead terminals and the battery posts.
Start by measuring the resistance between the terminal and the battery posts and then
each end of the cable.

In both cases the voltage you want to see 0.0V volts with the battery connected or 0.1
ohms or less resistance with the ground cable disconnected. Turn on the headlights
when testing the voltage because a load on the battery will make voltage drops easier
to witness. Do not turn on the headlights when testing the resistance. Only test
resistance with the battery ground cable disconnected.

When measuring resistance you want to first determine what reading you get by simply
touching the probes together. Wires and internal components that are part of your meter
have resistance that you have to account for in your measurements. If you measure 0.2
ohms and your probes account for 0.1 ohms you are really measuring 0.1 ohms.
In addition to the braided cable connecting the battery negative to the body you must
also check the transmission ground strap that connects the starter (via it's casing) to the
body. A large enough voltage drop there will also cause starting difficulties (more about
this below).
Test 2. Clean the terminals
Heavy corrosion can be neutralized and cleaned with a wire brush and a solution of
baking soda and water. Special terminal cleaners are sold that can clean the posts (left)
and the cables (right).

When terminals are clean and dry, reattach the cables and coat the terminals with
petroleum jelly or a special purpose battery terminal spray.
If the corrosion is extensive you may have to replace the cable or crimp/solder on a new
terminal. Lead based terminals should be avoided because they don't hold their shape
and corrode badly. I prefer the high quality components used below. They don't corrode
and provide a soldered moisture proof connection from the cable to the terminals.

Some people insist that you replace the entire cable but that depends on the condition
of the cable and if they sell cables! A simple terminal replacement like this can bring
your electrical system back to life and prevent the unnecessary purchase of a new
starter or alternator.
Test 3. Check the starter terminals
You also want to clean the large terminal on the starter solenoid. For some reason VW
chose not to put a rubber boot over these items. Any other electrical connection in the
undercarriage that is protected by a boot is usually in great shape after 25-30 years. Not
so with the solenoid. The large terminal where the battery (black) and alternator (grey)
cables meet is terminal 30.

Ignore my remove starter comment in the photo: I reused it from another article.
In addition, you need to make sure you've got good continuity between between all the
starter terminals because if you can't start you can't charge either. Following the circuit,
cleaning and testing:

Battery +ve to starter (terminal 30).

Starter (terminal 50) to starter (terminal 30) via ignition switch

Starter solenoid to starter body (short ground strap)

Starter Body to transmission (virtually guaranteed good).

Transmission ground strap to vehicle frame.

Battery ground strap to battery -ve terminal.

Lastly, the battery case itself should be clean because voltage can leak from the
positive terminal to the battery body to ground through the dust and acid that collects on
top. Use a mild baking soda solution and completely dry the battery before installing it.

How does the Alternator work:

Before I explain how to test the voltage regulator and alternator I need to explain how
both work. If you are familiar with its operation you may want to skip the next 3 sections.
The alternator charges the battery by reversing the current flow through it and reversing
the chemical reaction inside as a result. It also supplies current to the entire electrical

system. Fully testing the alternator requires an understanding of how it operates and
when it generates voltage and current.
The alternator is an electric generator with rectified output. This means that unlike DC
generators it produces AC and turns it into DC instead of producing DC directly. This
has proven to be a more efficient design than generators because:

more current can be produced at low rpms

voltage can be more accurately controlled with solid state regulators

they need less maintenance

they cost less to manufacture

If you let your old beetle idle, the battery tends to run down more easily with a
generator. You may also notice the charging light on the dash at idle or when driving at
night time. This is because the generator by design has to be driven at a lower max.
speed than an alternator which can easily be driven at 2x engine speed. Six volt
electrical systems were even worse: the headlight output would increase as you revved
the engine because the generator was so poor and providing current to keep the battery
charged at idle.
An alternator consist of a moving coil of wire called the rotor and a stationary coil of wire
called the stator. Both coils are wrapped around magnets to increase their respective
electrical strengths.
DC current is supplied to the rotor by the voltage regulator and this generates a current
in the stator. A slip ring on the rotor is in continuous contact with a pair of brushes as it
spins which connect the rotor to the voltage regulator. This is unlike the mechanical
switching that occurs in the commutator of a generator which is limiting. The constant
contact is possible because the solid state power diodes in the rectifier circuit of the
alternator provide the current polarity switching function. This also means that no output
current passes through the brushes to wear them out prematurely.
To make the alternator more efficient, three sets of wires make up the stator and
because of the way they are wrapped, voltage is produced in 3 separate phases much
like transmission in city power lines. The power diodes rectify the 3-phase AC into a DClike waveform with very little ripple. This is preferred by batteries as they charge as well
as electronics you may be operating. The frequency of the AC is derived from the speed
of the rotor which is governed by the engine speed.
The shape of the rotor is a claw-pole design consisting of an magnetic iron shell that
keeps the wiring inside from flying out (exploding) at high rpms. It is a precision
machined part with a shaft that runs in two roller bearings. Current flows through the
windings of the rotor and the exact amount flowing determines how much current is

induced in the
stator following
the laws of

electromagnetism. Precisely metering the output current is the job of the voltage
regulator which monitors the battery voltage to determine its load and state of charge.

Alternator Output:
Often not well known is that alternators do not produce voltage/current as soon as they
start to spin. There is a zero-ampere speed at which the alternator reaches its rated
voltage before it can generate any current. This is typically 1000 rpm (500 engine rpm).
I came up which the second figure because the alternator pulley on the bus is half the
size of the engine fan pulley and so the alternator spins at twice the engine speed. Next
in the series of important events during alternator spin up is the idling speed: typically at
1500 rpm (750 engine rpm) the alternator must be able to satisfy the needs for long
term consumers (basic electrical demands) without running down the battery.
Just above the idle speed is the cut-in speed at which the alternator begins to deliver
current for the first time. The exact speed depends on the battery voltage, voltage from
the alternator warning light (pre-excitation power), the rate of change of rotational-speed

and the magnetic remanence of the rotor's magnets. If you've started your engine and
"heard" the alternator slow down the engine at the beginning of fast idle warm-up this is
the cut-in speed heard in action.
There is also a speed rating for the maximum current output, typically 6000 rpm (3000
engine rpm) and there is a maximum rpm at which the alternator can spin which is
dictated by the roller bearings and carbon brushes inside as well as the fan because it
take power to pull air through. On average this limit is 20,000 rpm (10,000 engine rpm):
much higher than any stock VW engine can reach and any that do are drag racers who
have no need for an alternator (substitute a dry cell battery or magneto powered ignition
system).
Finally, the alternator can't run all day long at 100% duty cycle (80% is more
reasonable) so you should factor your current load requirements with that in mind.

How the Voltage Regulator Works:

The voltage regulator controls the field current in the rotor of the alternator. It measures
the voltage of the battery (decreasing) and by changing the current (increasing) in the
rotor, more voltage/current (increasing) is produced in the stator of the alternator which
is used to charge the battery. This inverse relationship between the voltage regulator
and the alternator is all that's required to keep the battery charged and the electrical
system powered most of the time.
The earliest voltage regulators installed on baywindows were mechanical relay based
devices but they have been replaced by longer lasting more accurate solid state
versions. Both styles are configured to produce 14V from the alternator and no more,
hence their namesake. The mechanical versions are the easiest to understand so I'll
skip the details of the microcontroller and NPN power transistor wiring in the solid state
version.
If the alternator were run at idle speed on a bench you could measure the output
current/voltage by changing the input current. The slip ring path through the rotor has a
fixed resistance so according to ohms law (I = V/R) you can increase the current to the
rotor simply by varying the voltage. This is the basis for how the voltage regulator
controls the alternator's output.

In the diagram the left image shows the basic wiring layout and the 3 diagrams on the
right show how current flows in the 3 stages of operation. Yellow arrows indicate small
current flow while orange arrows indicate a larger current flow. The voltage regulator
takes a 3 wire input which is uses to sense the alternator voltage and control it:

1. rotor negative D- (brown)

C - Alternator

2. rotor field DF (green)

C' - Voltage Regulator

3. stator output D+ (red)

T1a - wiring connector to warning lamp

The blue wire leads to the warning lamp in the instrument panel and the red wire at B+
leads to the battery (via the starter solenoid). Using the legend in the wiring diagram
section of Bentley's electrical chapter, you can learn to read the VR internal wiring
schematic: inside is a relay controlling two contacts and a few resistors. The black block
to the left of C represents the rotor inside the alternator.
The VR operates in 3 stages. The first stage (key on) initiates when the ignition key is
turned to the on position but before the engine is started (alternator off). Power from the
ignition switch flows through the warning lamp and through the rotor field winding in
order to excite the alternator.
In stage 2 (alternator on) the engine has started, the alternator spins up at 2x engine
speed and near the alternator's zero-ampere speed (around 500 engine rpm), it begins
to produce voltage at B+ through one set of diodes which is fed to the battery and also
to D+ which is picked up at the voltage regulator. The voltage at D+ follows B+ but
varies slightly because D+ receives its signal from the stator through a separate set of
diodes.

With similar voltage at both ends of the warning lamp now, it goes out. It's also
interesting to note that the zero-ampere speed is largely determined by the power rating
of the warning lamp. In our case, it's a normal 1.2W instrument light bulb.
The voltage at D+ is fed to DF by the VR and the increasing magnetic field in the rotor
induces an alternating current in the stator which is rectified into DC and fed to the
battery via B+. The output voltage varies according to the input voltage (fed back into
the rotor by the VR) and the engine rpm.
In the 3rd stage (alternator idle) the output voltage has reached the 14V set point at
which time the relay (coil) inside the regulator energizes and breaks the contact inside
which connects D+ and DF and shunts DF to ground via D-. While the majority of
current flows to ground, a small current is fed through the rotor so the alternator isn't
completely turned off. The diodes inside the alternator protect it from the battery at all
times during these switching operations.

As the voltage drops at B+, the relay

contacts re-open and the VR cycles to
stage 2 and the process begins all over
again. The voltage is controlled using a
variable frequency duty cycle approach.
This system is pretty brainless and slow to
respond. It's hoped that a) any sudden
changes are absorbed by the battery b) a
10V "dead" battery won't be present to
force the alternator to run 100% duty cycle
trying to charge it. These are two reasons
that solid state regulators are so much
better: the better ones are microcontroller based and understand a lot more about the
state of the electrical system than a simple relay. You just have to make sure you invest
in one from Bosch (0 192 062 007) pictured right and not a piece of junk from Autozone.
The latter contains an underpowered switching transistor and only about $1 worth of
electronic parts inside.
Solid state VRs can also exert much finer control over the rotor's field voltage. At low
rpms the field voltage can be set high to help the alternator keep the battery charged
because it's less efficient at low rpms. Every alternator has a spec that describes a
curve of current output vs. engine speed which tend to rise sharply around the idle
speed and then level off.
At higher rpms, the alternator output is sufficient that only a low voltage is required.
When the battery voltage is low (high current drain) the rotor voltage is increased to
increase the output. All this happens instantaneously as the solid state VR monitors the
battery and alternator as the electrical load and rpms change. How does it accomplish

this control? By sensing the phase of the output voltage it can determine the rotor
speed. As a side note, even though the alternator output is rectified from AC to DC,
some of the AC leaks through the diodes and appears as a DC ripple.
When the regulator fails, the battery is either a) in danger of being overcharged or b)
fails to charge. When the voltage level is too high most batteries will give off gas as the
sulphuric acid and water in the electrolyte decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.
Remember the Hindenburg? You don't not want any sparks to occur when this is
happening which is why the jump starting tips recommend that you connect the negative
jumper cable to a good engine ground away from the battery negative post.

Testing the Voltage Regulator:

Now we know how the system works, we can easily diagnose it. Always check the
regulator before the alternator because they fail more often.
Test 1. Indicator Lamp
If the lamp is not coming on when you turn the key to on you need to verify that the bulb
is good. If the battery is connected then the bulb should be getting battery voltage. What
is often misunderstood is the back of the instrument cluster is not made from a single
piece of metal. Most of it is grounded to the body by the circle of spaded connectors on
the back but the area where the indicator/warning lights reside is insulated by plastic,
sometimes in two separate sections. You'll see a tab on that insulated section to provide
12V just for those lights instead of the usual ground.
Since it's only a bulb it can burn out like any other instrument lamp. To change the bulb
you don't need to remove the instrument cluster but I would advise you to disconnect
the battery before you accidentally short out the instrument panel and smoke the
instrument wiring harness or start a fire.
Test 2. Verify voltage at harness plug
To test the regulator you need a voltmeter and a set of probes that can reach into the
underside of the connector to touch the terminals. Undo the right-side mounting screw
and the let the VR rotate 90 CW so you can more easily access the underside of the
connector.

D+
(red/blue)

DF
(green)

DLamp
(brown)

State
Ignition off, engine off

0V

0V

0V

off

Ignition on, engine off

1.28V

0.64V

0V

on

Ignition on, engine idle

14V

5V

0V

on

Engine on (fast idle)

14V

5V

0V

off

Note: All voltages are DC. If you try to measure the AC voltage at DF with the engine
running you should see only a few mV. The DF voltage with the engine on depends on
the actual battery voltage. You will see ~5V on a fully charged battery and up to 12V as
the SOC of the battery decreases. When the engine is off it will also depend on the
battery voltage (SOC + electrical load) and the reading will be less than 1V.
It takes very little time for the engine to spin the alternator fast enough to generate full
output voltage. If you have to rev the engine to get the warning light to go out you will
probably confirm an alternator problem by measuring a battery level voltage at D+ with
the key on and the engine off. A reading of 1-2V reading at both D+ and DF after the
engine starts indicates a diode problem in the alternator.
Measure the battery voltage with the engine running. It should be 13.8-14.2 even with
the lights on. The exact voltage depends on your alternator and wiring resistances but
it's not uncommon to see a 0.4-0.8V drop with the lights on. You'll find that the
mechanical voltage regulators have trouble keeping the voltage right at 14V when the
system is under load.
If the VR seems to be charging the battery correctly then a full-field test of the alternator
should be performed.
Test 3. Test the regulator
If your voltage regulator is mechanical you should feel it clicking. If you can't feel it
above the engine vibration, you'll need to open it up. By looking at the photo you might

wonder, did Bosch really just seal it up with tape. Yes! To remove the cap, simply cut the
tape in the middle all the way around with
a utility knife and carefully wiggle the top
off.
Inside is a field coil (solenoid), a choke
and a pair of contacts that resemble a set
of Bosch ignition points. The coil is
connected across D+ and D-. When the
ignition is on, battery voltage at D+ comes
from the ignition switch and flows through
the points to the rotor. This is the initial
excitation that the alternator requires.
When the alternator starts producing the
14V set point voltage, the coil energizes,
breaks the contacts and the field current
goes almost to zero. The choke exists to
limit the arcing through the points.
If the mechanical regulator hasn't burned out you should see these readings when
measuring resistance between terminals:

D+ and DF - 0.3 ohms

D- an DF - open

D- and D+ - 80 ohms

If you have the later style VR with a real power transistor mounted on the bottom (solid
state), then your readings will be very different so don't worry.
On the bottom is a thermal resistor that drops in resistance as the intake temperature
decreases. The purpose is the alter the charging set point because batteries can be
charged to higher voltages in the cold. Similarly when they get too hot, the set point is
lowered in order to keep them from boiling over.
It's not possible to test the thermistor without switching the contacts inside because the
current from your ohm meter takes the path of least resistance which is between D+ and
DF. You have to open the regulator and toggle the switch by hand. Take the thermistor
reading between D+ and DF. It should read about 2.3 ohms at 68F and decrease with
temperature (a quick blast of cold spray will confirm).

If the regulator checks out, then you need

to perform a full-field test of the alternator
to rule the VR out completely. This
involves, disconnecting the plug from the
VR and connecting the battery positive via
patch cable (preferably at the B+ terminal
on the alternator) to the DF (green wire)
terminal of the plug. Now run the engine
for a few seconds; just long enough to
verify voltage at the battery. This should
only be done for an instant because the
voltage coming out of the alternator will be
unregulated but it will determine if the VR
needs to be replaced or if the alternator is
at fault. Because we've bypassed the VR, sensitive electronics maybe at risk! If your
engine is fuel injected I recommend that you take the alternator to an alternator repair
shop for a full field bench test instead (tests are usually free).
Does it get hot? Sometimes it can. The VR takes 12V from the battery as input. If it
needs to pass 2A of current through the 4.5 ohm rotor to raise the output voltage to 12V
that means it has to send 9V through. This means it has to absorb 3V at 2A of current
which equates to 6W of power that it has to dissipate as heat.
Test 4. Test the wiring harness
This isn't an easy step with the alternator installed but it is possible. You need to
disconnect the harness plug from the alternator to test the resistance of each wire.
Resistance should be 0.1 ohms or less. Corrosion is usually heavier on the alternator
side but you should also examine the voltage regulator plug including the wiring that
leads to the indicator light on the dash. Use a pick and bend the tabs inside from the
front to remove the uninsulated terminals from the rear. Badly corroded terminals can be
replaced easily because this harness tends to have a lot of slack in it.
If the wire is bad, you'll have to replace the wiring and shrink wrap it. I recommend using
the same colors and be sure not to get the colors mixed up when you reattach the
terminals to the plugs or you'll smoke the alternator.

Testing the Alternator:

Test 1. Physical indicators
Is the belt tight? If it's too tight it will place a side load on the bearings and prematurely
wear them out. If it's too loose, it may slip on the pulley and not spin the alternator fast
enough. Excessive slipping noises are always obvious but not always present. The belt

stretches and requires re-adjustment, especially after you install a new one. I've even
seen belt stretch from the engine almost overheating in extremely hot/dry weather.
Since the rotor is magnetic you can test that it is getting current without disassembling it
(the VR has to be working with the key on for this test):

Engine off - no magnetism between pulley nut and screwdriver.

Engine on - attraction means magnetic field is present so brushes and rotor are
making good contact.

Be sure to test that the screwdriver has no residual magnetic pull before you test it
against the alternator. If there is little or no pull on the screwdriver, unplug the VR and
short the red and green wires together. Now turn on the key and this will provide the
rotor with a direct 12V field which should increase the magnetic pull.
If there is still no pull, test the voltage of the red wire. If there is no voltage the harness
maybe broken or not making proper contact. If there is still no magnetism then the
alternator maybe bad (diode, short, etc).

Test 2. Full field test

This was described above in the VR
section. The alternator should produce
90% of its rated output during the test to
be considered good. In the photo you can
see the technician at the rebuild shop just
uses a large electric motor to spin up the
alternator. They all seem to have this kind
of home made setup and usually have
some hard to read oscilloscope.
Keep in mind that alternators are designed to operate at 80% or so duty cycle. When
you drive the alternator with full input voltage at DF you risk damage to it unless the test
is brief.

Test 3. Electrical faults

A Bosch alternator has 9

diodes: 3 negative and 3
positive power diodes
form the full-wave bridge
rectifier that convert AC
to DC. Then there are 3
smaller
isolation/excitation
diodes. The last 3 are
the ones that control D+
on the voltage regulator
but most auto part stores
have no inclination of
testing them: they apply
a voltage to DF, spin it
up, the alternator puts
out 90-100% rated amps
at B+ and they say it's
good but that test doesn't
prove the alternator is
working correctly! If the
output waveform at D+
isn't checked you can't
be sure the alternator is
working!!! Abnormal
output at D+ is usually
caused by bad diodes.
For example, a high cutin rpm is a common sideeffect of diode failure.
The reason for testing the smaller isolation diodes properly is that when they fail the VR
will be confused and not know how to control an alternator that can otherwise output full
voltage/current. They provide the voltage signal used to determine the battery voltage. If
the test is skipped, you may simply get back home with your alternator, reinstall it,
replace the regulator on the advice of the auto parts store and still have charging
problems. You need an oscilloscope to detect this without disassembling the alternator.
Rate their test procedure...a complete test of the alternator would consist of:

rotor continuity

stator continuity

full field test for maximum power output (980W for 70A)

maximum output power under full load (70A)

voltage regulator set point (14V)

voltage regulator set point hot (temp compensation)

cut-in speed (indicator lamp out)

output waveform

ripple voltage @ maximum output

rectifier diodes voltage drop and forward current tests

rectifier diodes leakage current tested at 12 volts

Of course, since the test is free, they only do the minimum: full field-test.
Disconnecting the battery while the alternator is running can fry the diodes inside so
never do that even when the engine if turned off. You should not do this in order to test
the alternator by seeing if the car still runs or by checking the voltage at the battery. The
battery also acts like a huge capacitor that smoothes out the power delivery from the
alternator. Sensitive electronics may fry if you run the alternator without the battery.

Alternator Wear:
If the alternator checks out electrically, you still need to inspect the parts so you don't
get stuck on the road. Alternators have a limited life before they require rebuilding. You
can expect to get 200k miles out of a factory unit. By that time, you will have one or
many of the following problems:

Worn bearings

Worn brushes

Worn slip-rings

There should be no side to side play in the rotor/pulley. That indicates your bearings are
shot. In there is excessive endplay it means that the rotor is not press fit to the bearing
anymore or the drive end bearing retaining cap has come loose and the bearing is no
longer press fit to the drive end plate (housing).

Bearing replacement requires complete disassembly. Often the bearings are so old that
the grease inside has dried up, become contaminated or no longer contacts the
bearings. Bearing grease can dry out long before the expected life of the bearing is
reached, so you may have worn bearings after 100k miles if your alternator sat unused
for many years. If the bearings spin easily and make a metallic rolling sounds they are
wearing. If you hear any grinding noises they are finished. Only a silent bearing that
spins down very quickly is in excellent condition.
Worn brushes are a simply matter of replacement. The brushes are carbon based and a
spring presses them against the slip-rings. When the springs are fully extended (about
4-6mm of wear) they no longer make good contact with the slip-rings. Brushes should
be inspected every 75k miles on a Bosch alternator.
Quite often the symptom of worn out brushes is a a flickering warning light on the dash.
Worn slip-rings are a more involved repair. The slip-rings are made from copper and the
brushes carve a groove into them. You can turn the slip rings if they are not too worn but
the mileage of the alternator will depend on how much copper is left. At some point the
slip rings have to be removed, replaced and re-soldered to the rotor.
Noise mainly comes from worn out bearings. With the engine running your cannot hear
the noise from worn brushes although you can hear it when you spin the rotor by hand
as well as see it on an oscilloscope.