Jet engine

For a general overview of aircraft engines, see Aircraft

engine.

Simulation of a low-bypass turbofans airow.

A Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engine for the F-15 Eagle being tested in the hush house at Florida Air National Guard base.
The tunnel behind the engine mues noise and allows exhaust
to escape

Jet engine airow during take-o.

sonic ight. Modern subsonic jet aircraft usually use

high-bypass turbofan engines. These engines oer high
speed and greater fuel eciency than piston and propeller
aeroengines over long distances.[1]

U.S. Air Force F-15E Strike Eagles

A jet engine is a reaction engine discharging a fast moving jet that generates thrust by jet propulsion in accordance with Newtons laws of motion. This broad denition of jet engines includes turbojets, turbofans, rockets, 1 History
ramjets, and pulse jets. In general, jet engines are combustion engines but non-combusting forms also exist.
Main article: History of the jet engine
In common parlance, the term jet engine loosely refers to See also: Timeline of jet power
an internal combustion airbreathing jet engine (a duct engine). These typically consist of an engine with a rotary
(rotating) air compressor powered by a turbine ("Brayton
cycle"), with the leftover power providing thrust via a
propelling nozzle. Jet aircraft use these types of engines for long-distance travel. Early jet aircraft used
turbojet engines which were relatively inecient for sub-

Jet engines date back to the invention of the aeolipile

before the rst century AD. This device directed steam
power through two nozzles to cause a sphere to spin
rapidly on its axis. So far as is known, it did not supply
mechanical power and the potential practical applications
of this invention did not receive recognition. Instead, it
1

HISTORY

was seen as a curiosity.

Jet propulsion only took o, literally and guratively,
with the invention of the gunpowder-powered rocket by
the Chinese in the 13th century as a type of reworks,
and gradually progressed to propel formidable weaponry.
However, although very powerful, at reasonable ight
speeds rockets are very inecient and so jet propulsion
technology stalled for hundreds of years.
The earliest attempts at airbreathing jet engines were hybrid designs in which an external power source rst compressed air, which was then mixed with fuel and burned
for jet thrust. In one such system, called a thermojet by
Secondo Campini but more commonly, motorjet, the air
was compressed by a fan driven by a conventional piston
engine. Examples of this type of design were the Caproni
Campini N.1, and the Japanese Tsu-11 engine intended The Whittle W.2/700 engine ew in the Gloster E.28/39, the rst
to power Ohka kamikaze planes towards the end of World British aircraft to y with a turbojet engine, and the Gloster MeWar II. None were entirely successful and the N.1 ended teor
up being slower than the same design with a traditional
engine and propeller combination.
In 1928, RAF College Cranwell cadet[5] Frank Whittle
formally submitted his ideas for a turbojet to his superiors. In October 1929 he developed his ideas further.[6]
On 16 January 1930 in England, Whittle submitted his
rst patent (granted in 1932).[7] The patent showed a twostage axial compressor feeding a single-sided centrifugal
compressor. Practical axial compressors were made possible by ideas from A.A.Grith in a seminal paper in
1926 (An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design).
Albert Fon's ramjet-cannonball from 1915
Whittle would later concentrate on the simpler centrifuEven before the start of World War II, engineers were gal compressor only, for a variety of practical reasons.
beginning to realize that engines driving propellers were Whittle had his rst engine running in April 1937. It
self-limiting in terms of the maximum performance was liquid-fuelled, and included a self-contained fuel
which could be attained; the limit was due to issues re- pump. Whittles team experienced near-panic when the
lated to propeller eciency,[2] which declined as blade engine would not stop, accelerating even after the fuel
tips approached the speed of sound. If aircraft perfor- was switched o. It turned out that fuel had leaked into
mance were ever to increase beyond such a barrier, a the engine and accumulated in pools, so the engine would
way would have to be found to use a dierent propulsion not stop until all the leaked fuel had burned o. Whittle
mechanism. This was the motivation behind the develop- was unable to interest the government in his invention,
ment of the gas turbine engine, commonly called a jet and development continued at a slow pace.
engine.
The key to a practical jet engine was the gas turbine,
used to extract energy from the engine itself to drive the
compressor. The gas turbine was not an idea developed in
the 1930s: the patent for a stationary turbine was granted
to John Barber in England in 1791. The rst gas turbine
to successfully run self-sustaining was built in 1903 by
Norwegian engineer gidius Elling.[3] Limitations in design and practical engineering and metallurgy prevented
such engines reaching manufacture. The main problems Heinkel He 178, the worlds rst aircraft to y purely on turbojet
were safety, reliability, weight and, especially, sustained power
operation.
The rst patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft In 1935 Hans von Ohain started work on a similar[8]design
was led in 1921 by Frenchman Maxime Guillaume.[4] in Germany, initially unaware of Whittles work.
His engine was an axial-ow turbojet. Alan Arnold Grif- Von Ohains rst device was strictly experimental and
th published An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design could run only under external power, but he was able
in 1926 leading to experimental work at the RAE.
to demonstrate the basic concept. Ohain was then in-

3
troduced to Ernst Heinkel, one of the larger aircraft industrialists of the day, who immediately saw the promise
of the design. Heinkel had recently purchased the Hirth
engine company, and Ohain and his master machinist
Max Hahn were set up there as a new division of the
Hirth company. They had their rst HeS 1 centrifugal
engine running by September 1937. Unlike Whittles design, Ohain used hydrogen as fuel, supplied under external pressure. Their subsequent designs culminated in the
gasoline-fuelled HeS 3 of 1,100 lbf (5 kN), which was
tted to Heinkels simple and compact He 178 airframe
and own by Erich Warsitz in the early morning of August 27, 1939, from Rostock-Marienehe aerodrome, an
impressively short time for development. The He 178 was
the worlds rst jet plane.[9]

were also jet powered, leaving the piston engine in lowcost niche roles such as cargo ights.
The eciency of turbojet engines was still rather worse
than piston engines, but by the 1970s, with the advent of
high-bypass turbofan jet engines (an innovation not foreseen by the early commentators such as Edgar Buckingham, at high speeds and high altitudes that seemed absurd
to them), fuel eciency was about the same as the best
piston and propeller engines.[1]

2 Uses

A cutaway of the Junkers Jumo 004 engine

Austrian Anselm Franz of Junkers' engine division

(Junkers Motoren or Jumo) introduced the axial-ow
compressor in their jet engine. Jumo was assigned the
next engine number in the RLM 109-0xx numbering sequence for gas turbine aircraft powerplants, 004, and
the result was the Jumo 004 engine. After many lesser
technical diculties were solved, mass production of this
engine started in 1944 as a powerplant for the worlds rst
jet-ghter aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 (and later
the worlds rst jet-bomber aircraft, the Arado Ar 234).
A variety of reasons conspired to delay the engines availability, causing the ghter to arrive too late to improve
Germanys position in World War II. Nonetheless, it will
be remembered as the rst use of jet engines in service.

A JT9D turbofan jet engine installed on a Boeing 747 aircraft.

Jet engines power aircraft, cruise missiles and unmanned

aerial vehicles. In the form of rocket engines they
power reworks, model rocketry, spaceight, and military missiles.
Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly
drag racers, with the all-time record held by a rocket car.
A turbofan powered car, ThrustSSC, currently holds the
land speed record.

Meanwhile, in Britain the Gloster E28/39 had its maiden

Jet engine designs are frequently modied for non-aircraft
ight on 15 May 1941 and the Gloster Meteor nally en- applications, as industrial gas turbines or marine powertered service with the RAF in July 1944.
plants. These are used in electrical power generation, for
Following the end of the war the German jet aircraft and powering water, natural gas, or oil pumps, and providjet engines were extensively studied by the victorious al- ing propulsion for ships and locomotives. Industrial gas
lies and contributed to work on early Soviet and US jet turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horsepower. Many
ghters. The legacy of the axial-ow engine is seen in the of these engines are derived from older military turbojets
fact that practically all jet engines on xed-wing aircraft such as the Pratt & Whitney J57 and J75 models. There is
have had some inspiration from this design.
also a derivative of the P&W JT8D low-bypass turbofan
By the 1950s the jet engine was almost universal in com- that creates up to 35,000 HP.
bat aircraft, with the exception of cargo, liaison and other
specialty types. By this point some of the British designs
were already cleared for civilian use, and had appeared
on early models like the de Havilland Comet and Avro
Canada Jetliner. By the 1960s all large civilian aircraft

Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share

certain components such as engine cores, with turboshaft
and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine
engines that are typically used to power helicopters and
some propeller-driven aircraft..

TYPES

Types

There are a large number of dierent types of jet engines,

all of which achieve forward thrust from the principle of
jet propulsion.

3.1

Airbreathing

Main article: Airbreathing jet engine

Commonly aircraft are propelled by airbreathing jet engines. Most airbreathing jet engines that are in use are Schematic diagram illustrating the operation of a low-bypass turturbofan jet engines, which give good eciency at speeds bofan engine.
just below the speed of sound.
3.1.1

Turbine powered

Main article: Gas turbine

Gas turbines are rotary engines that extract energy from
a ow of combustion gas. They have an upstream compressor coupled to a downstream turbine with a combustion chamber in-between. In aircraft engines, those three
core components are often called the gas generator.[10]
There are many dierent variations of gas turbines, but
they all use a gas generator system of some type.

A turbofan engine is a gas turbine engine that is very similar to a turbojet. Like a turbojet, it uses the gas generator
core (compressor, combustor, turbine) to convert internal
energy in fuel to kinetic energy in the exhaust. Turbofans
dier from turbojets in that they have an additional component, a fan. Like the compressor, the fan is powered
by the turbine section of the engine. Unlike the turbojet, some of the ow accelerated by the fan bypasses the
gas generator core of the engine and is exhausted through
a nozzle. The bypassed ow is at lower velocities, but
a higher mass, making thrust produced by the fan more
ecient than thrust produced by the core. Turbofans are
generally more ecient than turbojets at subsonic speeds,
but they have a larger frontal area which generates more
drag.[12]

Turbojet Main article: Turbojet

A turbojet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by There are two general types of turbofan engines, lowbypass and high-bypass. Low-bypass turbofans have a
bypass ratio of around 2:1 or less, meaning that for each
kilogram of air that passes through the core of the engine,
two kilograms or less of air bypass the core. Low-bypass
turbofans often use a mixed exhaust nozzle meaning that
the bypassed ow and the core ow exit from the same
nozzle.[13] High-bypass turbofans have larger bypass ratios, sometimes on the order of 5:1 or 6:1. These turbofans can produce much more thrust than low-bypass turbofans or turbojets because of the large mass of air that
Turbojet engine
the fan can accelerate, and are often more fuel ecient
compressing air with an inlet and a compressor (axial, than low-bypass turbofans or turbojets.
centrifugal, or both), mixing fuel with the compressed air,
burning the mixture in the combustor, and then passing
the hot, high pressure air through a turbine and a nozzle.
The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts
energy from the expanding gas passing through it. The
engine converts internal energy in the fuel to kinetic energy in the exhaust, producing thrust. All the air ingested
by the inlet is passed through the compressor, combustor, and turbine, unlike the turbofan engine described
below.[11]
Turbofan Main article: Turbofan

Turboprop and turboshaft Main articles: Turboprop

and Turboshaft
Turboprop engines are jet engine derivatives, still gas turbines, that extract work from the hot-exhaust jet to turn
a rotating shaft, which is then used to produce thrust by
some other means. While not strictly jet engines in that
they rely on an auxiliary mechanism to produce thrust,
turboprops are very similar to other turbine-based jet engines, and are often described as such.
In turboprop engines, a portion of the engines thrust
is produced by spinning a propeller, rather than relying
solely on high-speed jet exhaust. As their jet thrust is

3.1

Airbreathing

5
engines. Like turboprop engines, propfans generate most
of their thrust from the propeller and not the exhaust jet.
The primary dierence between turboprop and propfan
design is that the propeller blades on a propfan are highly
swept to allow them to operate at speeds around Mach
0.8, which is competitive with modern commercial turbofans. These engines have the fuel eciency advantages of
turboprops with the performance capability of commercial turbofans.[16] While signicant research and testing
(including ight testing) has been conducted on propfans,
no propfan engines have entered production.

Turboprop engine

augmented by a propeller, turboprops are occasionally

referred to as a type of hybrid jet engine. They are
quite similar to turbofans in many respects, except that
they use a traditional propeller to provide the majority
of thrust, rather than a ducted fan. Both fans and propellers are powered the same way, although most turboprops use gear-reduction between the turbine and the
propeller (geared turbofans also feature gear reduction).
While many turboprops generate the majority of their
thrust with the propeller, the hot-jet exhaust is an important design point, and maximum thrust is obtained
by matching thrust contributions of the propeller to the
hot jet.[14] Turboprops generally have better performance
than turbojets or turbofans at low speeds where propeller
eciency is high, but become increasingly noisy and inecient at high speeds.[15]
Turboshaft engines are very similar to turboprops, diering in that nearly all energy in the exhaust is extracted to
spin the rotating shaft, which is used to power machinery
rather than a propeller, they therefore generate little to no
jet thrust and are often used to power helicopters.[13]

3.1.2 Ram powered

Ram powered jet engines are airbreathing engines similar
to gas turbine engines and they both follow the Brayton
cycle. Gas turbine and ram powered engines dier,
however, in how they compress the incoming airow.
Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only
on air compressed through the inlet or diuser.[17] Ram
powered engines are considered the most simple type of
air breathing jet engine because they can contain no moving parts.[18]

Ramjet Main article: Ramjet

Ramjets are the most basic type of ram powered jet enInlet
(M>1)

Fuel injection
Flame holder

Nozzle
(M=1)

Propfan Main article: Propfan

A propfan engine (also called unducted fan, open roCompression
(M<1)

Combustion
chamber

Exhaust
(M>1)

A schematic of a ramjet engine, where M is the Mach number

of the airow.

gines. They consist of three sections; an inlet to compress

incoming air, a combustor to inject and combust fuel, and
a nozzle to expel the hot gases and produce thrust. Ramjets require a relatively high speed to eciently compress
the incoming air, so ramjets cannot operate at a standstill
and they are most ecient at supersonic speeds. A key
trait of ramjet engines is that combustion is done at subsonic speeds. The supersonic incoming air is dramatically
slowed through the inlet, where it is then combusted at the
much slower, subsonic, speeds.[17] The faster the incomA propfan engine
ing air is, however, the less ecient it becomes to slow it
tor, or ultra-high bypass) is a jet engine that uses its gas to subsonic speeds. Therefore, ramjet engines are limited
generator to power an exposed fan, similar to turboprop to approximately Mach 5.[19]

4 GENERAL PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES

Scramjet Main article: Scramjet

rocket engines themselves have a very high thrust-toScramjets are mechanically very similar to ramjets. Like weight ratio.
However, the high exhaust speed and the heavier,
oxidizer-rich propellant results in far more propellant use
than turbofans. Even so, at extremely high speeds they
become energy-ecient.
An approximate equation for the net thrust of a rocket
engine is:

Scramjet engine operation

FN = m
g0 Ispvac Ae p

a ramjet, they consist of an inlet, a combustor, and a nozzle. The primary dierence between ramjets and scramjets is that scramjets do not slow the oncoming airow
to subsonic speeds for combustion, they use supersonic
combustion instead. The name scramjet comes from
supersonic combusting ramjet. Since scramjets use supersonic combustion they can operate at speeds above
Mach 6 where traditional ramjets are too inecient. Another dierence between ramjets and scramjets comes
from how each type of engine compresses the oncoming
airow: while the inlet provides most of the compression
for ramjets, the high speeds at which scramjets operate
allow them to take advantage of the compression generated by shock waves, primarily oblique shocks.[20]

Where FN is the net thrust, Isp(vac) is the specic impulse, g0 is a standard gravity, m
is the propellant ow
in kg/s, Ae is the cross-sectional area at the exit of the
exhaust nozzle, and p is the atmospheric pressure.

3.3 Hybrid
Combined cycle engines simultaneously use 2 or more
dierent jet engine operating principles.

3.4 Water jet

Very few scramjet engines have ever been built and own. Main article: Pump-jet
In May 2010 the Boeing X-51 set the endurance record
for the longest scramjet burn at over 200 seconds.[21]
A water jet, or pump jet, is a marine propulsion system
that utilizes a jet of water. The mechanical arrangement
may be a ducted propeller with nozzle, or a centrifugal
3.1.3 Non-continuous combustion
compressor and nozzle.

3.2

Rocket

Main article: Rocket engine

The rocket engine uses the same basic physical principles

Rocket engine propulsion

as the jet engine for propulsion via thrust, but is distinct in

that it does not require atmospheric air to provide oxygen;
the rocket carries all components of the reaction mass.
This allows them to operate at arbitrary altitudes and in
space.

A pump jet schematic.

4 General physical principles

This type of engine is used for launching satellites, space All jet engines are reaction engines that generate thrust by
exploration and manned access, and permitted landing on emitting a jet of uid rearwards at relatively high speed.
the moon in 1969.
The forces on the inside of the engine needed to create
Rocket engines are used for high altitude ights, or any- this jet give a strong thrust on the engine which pushes
where where very high accelerations are needed since the craft forwards.

4.3

Energy eciency

Jet engines make their jet from propellant from tankage

that is attached to the engine (as in a 'rocket') as well as
FN = m
air (ve v)
in duct engines (those commonly used on aircraft) by ingesting an external uid (very typically air) and expelling The velocity of the jet (ve) must exceed the true airspeed
it at higher speed.
of the aircraft (v) if there is to be a net forward thrust on
the aircraft. The velocity (ve) can be calculated thermodynamically based on adiabatic expansion.[26]

4.1

Propelling nozzle

Main article: Propelling nozzle

The propelling nozzle is the key component of all jet
engines as it creates the exhaust jet. Propelling nozzles turn pressurized, slow moving, usually hot gas, into
lower pressure, fast moving, colder gas by adiabatic expansion.[23] Propelling nozzles can be subsonic, sonic, or
supersonic,[24] but in normal operation nozzles are usually sonic or supersonic. Nozzles operate to constrict the
ow, and hence help raise the pressure in the engine, and
physically the nozzles are very typically convergent, or
convergent-divergent. Convergent-divergent nozzles can
give supersonic jet velocity within the divergent section,
whereas in a convergent nozzle the exhaust uid cannot
exceed the speed of sound of the gas within the nozzle.

4.2

Thrust

4.2.1 Thrust augmentation

Jet thrust can be increased by injecting additional uids
and it is then called wet thrust. Early engines and some
current non-afterburning engines use water injection to
temporarily increase thrust. Water is injected at the air
compressor inlet or the diuser to cool the compressing
air which permits an increase in pressure for higher burning. A 10 to 30% additional thrust can thus be gained.
Methyl or ethyl alcohol (or a mixture of one or both of
these with water) has been used in the past for injection.
However, water has a higher heat of evaporation, and is
therefore the only liquid generally used for thrust augmentation today.
Todays military combat engines use an afterburner for
increased thrust.

4.3 Energy eciency

Main article: Thrust

The net thrust (FN) of a turbojet is given by:[25]

FN = ( m
air + m
f uel )ve m
air v
The above equation applies only for air-breathing jet engines. It does not apply to rocket engines. Most types
of jet engine have an air intake, which provides the bulk
of the uid exiting the exhaust. Conventional rocket engines, however, do not have an intake, the oxidizer and
fuel both being carried within the vehicle. Therefore,
rocket engines do not have ram drag and the gross thrust
of the rocket engine nozzle is the net thrust of the engine.
Consequently, the thrust characteristics of a rocket motor
are dierent from that of an air breathing jet engine, and
thrust is independent of velocity.
If the velocity of the jet from a jet engine is equal to sonic
velocity, the jet engines nozzle is said to be choked. If the
nozzle is choked, the pressure at the nozzle exit plane is
greater than atmospheric pressure, and extra terms must
be added to the above equation to account for the pressure
thrust.[25]

Dependence of propulsion eciency () upon the vehicle

speed/exhaust velocity ratio (v/ve) for air-breathing jet and
rocket engines.

The energy eciency ( ) of jet engines installed in vehicles has two main components:
propulsive eciency ( p ): how much of the energy
of the jet ends up in the vehicle body rather than
being carried away as kinetic energy of the jet.
cycle eciency ( ve ): how eciently the engine can
accelerate the jet

The rate of ow of fuel entering the engine is very small Even though overall energy eciency is simply:
compared with the rate of ow of air.[25] If the contribution of fuel to the nozzle gross thrust is ignored, the net
= p ve
thrust is:

4 GENERAL PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES

2
p =
1 + vve

200/1

150/1
air/fuel ratio

for all jet engines the propulsive eciency is highest when

the engine emits an exhaust jet at a velocity that is the
same as, or nearly the same as, the vehicle speed as this
gives the smallest residual kinetic energy.[27] The formula
for air-breathing engines moving at speed v with an exhaust velocity ve , and neglecting fuel ow, is:[28]

50/1

And for a rocket:

p =

In addition to propulsive eciency, another factor is cycle eciency; essentially a jet engine is typically a form
of heat engine. Heat engine eciency is determined by
the ratio of temperatures reached in the engine to that exhausted at the nozzle. This improves constantly over time
as new materials are introduced into the design. For example, composite materials, combining metals with ceramics, are being used in fan blades in the rst stage,
which is the most critical stage.[30] The eciency is also
limited by the overall pressure ratio that can be achieved.
Cycle eciency is highest in rocket engines (~60+%),
as they can achieve extremely high combustion temperatures. Cycle eciency in turbojet and similar is nearer
to 30%, due to much lower peak cycle temperatures.

Combustion Efficiency

ak

lim

stable region

rich limit

air mass flow

Typical combustion stability limits of an aircraft gas turbine.

1 + ( vve )2

100

we

it

100/1

[29]

2 ( vve )

ignition loop

creasing air mass ow reduces the fuel ratio below certain

value, ame extinction occurs.[31]
In aircraft turbines, the regular fuel ratio is less than the
most ecient fuel ratio of 15%. Therefore, only a part of
the air is being used in the combustion process. Part of
the fuel isn't completely burned, leaving a mix of carbon
monoxide, soot, and hydrocarbon behind. At idle these
amount to 50-2000 ppm, and decreases during cruising to
1-50 ppm. That is why the air around airports is bad.[32]

normal conditions

90

80

70

60

normal operation range

50/1

70

90
air/fuel ratio

110

130

Typical combustion eciency of an aircraft gas turbine over the

operational range.

The combustion eciency of most aircraft gas turbine

engines at sea level takeo conditions is almost 100%. It
decreases nonlinear to 98% at altitude cruise conditions.
Air-fuel ratio ranges from 50:1 to 130:1. For any type
of combustion chamber there is a rich and weak limit to
the air-fuel ratio, beyond which the ame is extinguished.
The range of air-fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an increase of air velocity. If the in-

Specic impulse as a function of speed for dierent jet types with

kerosene fuel (hydrogen Isp would be about twice as high). Although eciency plummets with speed, greater distances are covered. Eciency per unit distance (per km or mile) is roughly
independent of speed for jet engines as a group; however, airframes become inecient at supersonic speeds.

4.4 Consumption of fuel or propellant

A closely related (but dierent) concept to energy
eciency is the rate of consumption of propellant
mass. Propellant consumption in jet engines is measured
by Specic Fuel Consumption, Specic impulse or
Eective exhaust velocity. They all measure the same
thing. Specic impulse and eective exhaust velocity are
strictly proportional, whereas specic fuel consumption is

4.6

Comparison of types

inversely proportional to the others.

For airbreathing engines such as turbojets, energy eciency and propellant (fuel) eciency are much the same
thing, since the propellant is a fuel and the source of
energy. In rocketry, the propellant is also the exhaust,
and this means that a high energy propellant gives better
propellant eciency but can in some cases actually give
lower energy eciency.
It can be seen in the table (just below) that the subsonic
turbofans such as General Electrics CF6 turbofan use
a lot less fuel to generate thrust for a second than did
the Concordes Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 turbojet. However, since energy is force times distance
and the distance per second was greater for Concorde,
the actual power generated by the engine for the same
amount of fuel was higher for Concorde at Mach 2 than
the CF6. Thus, the Concordes engines were more eComparative suitability for (left to right) turboshaft, low bypass
cient in terms of thrust per mile.
and turbojet to y at 10 km altitude in various speeds. Horizontal
axis - speed, m/s. Vertical axis displays engine eciency.

4.5

Thrust-to-weight ratio

Main article: Thrust-to-weight ratio

much higher speeds which are made possible by using a

de Laval nozzle to accelerate the engine exhaust. This is
The thrust-to-weight ratio of jet engines of similar princi- why they are suitable for aircraft traveling at supersonic
ples varies somewhat with scale, but is mostly a function and higher speeds.
of engine construction technology. Clearly for a given enTurbofans have a mixed exhaust consisting of the bypass
gine, the lighter the engine, the better the thrust-to-weight
air and the hot combustion product gas from the core enis, the less fuel is used to compensate for drag due to the
gine. The amount of air that bypasses the core engine
lift needed to carry the engine weight, or to accelerate the
compared to the amount owing into the engine determass of the engine.
mines what is called a turbofans bypass ratio (BPR).
As can be seen in the following table, rocket engines
While a turbojet engine uses all of the engines output to
generally achieve very much higher thrust-to-weight raproduce thrust in the form of a hot high-velocity exhaust
tios than duct engines such as turbojet and turbofan engas jet, a turbofans cool low-velocity bypass air yields
gines. This is primarily because rockets almost univerbetween 30 percent and 70 percent of the total thrust prosally use dense liquid or solid reaction mass which gives
duced by a turbofan system.[48]
a much smaller volume and hence the pressurisation system that supplies the nozzle is much smaller and lighter The net thrust (FN) generated by a turbofan is:[49]
for the same performance. Duct engines have to deal with
air which is two to three orders of magnitude less dense
and this gives pressures over much larger areas, which in
turn results in more engineering materials being needed
FN = m
e ve m
o vo + BP R (m
c vf )
to hold the engine together and for the air compressor.
Rocket thrusts are vacuum thrusts unless otherwise noted
where:

4.6

Comparison of types

Propeller engines are useful for comparison. They accelerate a large mass of air but by a relatively small maximum change in speed. This low speed limits the maximum thrust of any propeller driven airplane. However,
because they accelerate a large mass of air, propeller engines, such as turboprops, can be very ecient.
On the other hand, turbojets accelerate a much smaller
mass of intake air and burned fuel, but they emit it at the

Rocket engines have extremely high exhaust velocity and

thus are best suited for high speeds (hypersonic) and great
altitudes. At any given throttle, the thrust and eciency
of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude (because the back-pressure falls thus increasing net
thrust at the nozzle exit plane), whereas with a turbojet (or
turbofan) the falling density of the air entering the intake
(and the hot gases leaving the nozzle) causes the net thrust
to decrease with increasing altitude. Rocket engines are
more ecient than even scramjets above roughly Mach
15.[50]

10

4.7

Altitude and speed

With the exception of scramjets, jet engines, deprived of

their inlet systems can only accept air at around half the
speed of sound. The inlet systems job for transonic and
supersonic aircraft is to slow the air and perform some of
the compression.
The limit on maximum altitude for engines is set by
ammability- at very high altitudes the air becomes too
thin to burn, or after compression, too hot. For turbojet
engines altitudes of about 40 km appear to be possible,
whereas for ramjet engines 55 km may be achievable.
Scramjets may theoretically manage 75 km.[51] Rocket
engines of course have no upper limit.
At more modest altitudes, ying faster compresses the
air at the front of the engine, and this greatly heats the
air. The upper limit is usually thought to be about Mach
5-8, as above about Mach 5.5, the atmospheric nitrogen
tends to react due to the high temperatures at the inlet and
this consumes signicant energy. The exception to this is
scramjets which may be able to achieve about Mach 15
or more, as they avoid slowing the air, and rockets again
have no particular speed limit.

REFERENCES

Balancing machine
Jet engine performance
Reverse thrust
Jetboat
Variable Cycle Engine
Pulse jet
Turborocket
Rocket turbine engine
Rocket engine nozzles
Spacecraft propulsion
Water injection (engines)
Turbojet development at the RAE
Components of jet engines
Turboprop
Turboshaft
Turbofan

4.8

Noise

The noise emitted by a jet engine has many sources.

These include, in the case of gas turbine engines, the fan,
compressor, combustor, turbine and propelling jet/s.[52]

Turbojet
Gas turbine

The propelling jet produces jet noise which is caused 6 References

by the violent mixing action of the high speed jet with
the surrounding air. In the subsonic case the noise is 6.1 Notes
produced by eddies and in the supersonic case by Mach
waves.[53] The sound power radiated from a jet varies [1] ch10-3. Hq.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2010-03-26.
with the jet velocity raised to the eighth power for velocities up to 2,000 ft/sec and varies with the velocity [2] propeller eciency Archived June 10, 2015 at the
Wayback Machine
cubed above 2,000 ft/sec.[54] Thus, the lower speed exhaust jets emitted from engines such as high bypass tur- [3] Centenary of the First Gas Turbine to Give Net Power
Output: A Tribute to gidius Elling. The American Sobofans are the quietest, whereas the fastest jets, such as
ciety of Mechanical Engineers. 14 June 2004. Retrieved
rockets, turbojets, and ramjets, are the loudest. For com26 April 2015.
mercial jet aircraft the jet noise has reduced from the turbojet through bypass engines to turbofans as a result of a [4] Maxime Guillaume, Propulseur par raction sur l'air,
progressive reduction in propelling jet velocities. For exFrench patent no. 534,801 (led: 3 May 1921; issued:
ample, the JT8D, a bypass engine, has a jet velocity of
13 January 1922). Available on-line (in French) at:
1450 ft/sec whereas the JT9D, a turbofan, has jet velochttp://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=
ities of 885 ft/sec (cold) and 1190 ft/sec (hot).[55]
FR534801&F=0&QPN=FR534801 .
The advent of the turbofan replaced the very distinctive
jet noise with another sound known as buzz saw noise.
The origin is the shockwaves originating at the supersonic
fan blades at takeo thrust.[56]

See also
Air turboramjet

[5] Chasing the Sun - Frank Whittle. PBS. Retrieved 201003-26.

[6] History - Frank Whittle (1907 - 1996)". BBC. Retrieved
2010-03-26.
[7] Frank Whittle, Improvements relating to the propulsion of aircraft and other vehicles, British patent
no.
347,206 (led: 16 January 1930).
Available on-line at: http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?DB=
EPODOC&IDX=GB347206&F=0&QPN=GB347206 .

6.1

Notes

11

[8] The History of the Jet Engine - Sir Frank Whittle - Hans
Von Ohain Ohain said that he had not read Whittles patent
and Whittle believed him. (Frank Whittle 1907-1996).

[29] George P. Sutton and Oscar Biblarz (2001). Rocket

Propulsion Elements (7th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp.
3738. ISBN 0-471-32642-9.

[9] Warsitz, Lutz: THE FIRST JET PILOT - The Story of German Test Pilot Erich Warsitz (p. 125), Pen and Sword
Books Ltd., England, 2009

[30] S. Walston, A. Cetel, R. MacKay, K. OHara, D. Duhl,

and R. Dresheld (2004). Joint Development of a Fourth
Generation Single Crystal Superalloy. NASA TM
2004-213062. December 2004. Retrieved: 16 June
2010.

[10] Mattingly, Jack D. (2006). Elements of Propulsion: Gas

Turbines and Rockets. AIAA Education Series. Reston,
VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
p. 6. ISBN 1-56347-779-3.
[11] Mattingly, pp. 6-8
[12] Mattingly, pp. 9-11
[13] Mattingly, p. 12
[14] Hill & Peterson 1992, pp. 190.
[15] Mattingly 2006, pp. 12-14.
[16] Sweetman, Bill (2005). The Short, Happy Life of the
Prop-fan. Air & Space Magazine. 1 September 2005.
[17] Mattingly, p. 14
[18]

Flack, Ronald D. (2005).

Fundamentals of
Jet Propulsion with Applications.
Cambridge
Aerospace Series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-521-81983-1.

[19] Benson, Tom. Ramjet Propulsion. NASA Glenn Research Center. Updated: 11 July 2008. Retrieved: 23
July 2010.
[20] Heiser, William H.; Pratt, David T. (1994). Hypersonic
Airbreathing Propulsion. AIAA Education Series. Washington, D.C.: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. pp. 234. ISBN 1-56347-035-7.
[21] X-51 Waverider makes historic hypersonic ight. United
States Air Force. 26 May 2010. Retrieved: 23 July 2010.

[31] Claire Soares, Gas Turbines: A Handbook of Air, Land

and Sea Applications, pp. 140.
[32] Klaus Huenecke, Die Technik des modernen Verkehrsugzeuges, pp. 111-117.
[33] Astronautix NK33
[34] Astronautix SSME
[35] Data on Large Turbofan Engines. Aircraft Aerodynamics and Design Group. Stanford University. Retrieved 22
December 2009.
[36] Wade, Mark. RD-0410. Encyclopedia Astronautica.
Retrieved 2009-09-25.
[37] "Konstruktorskoe Buro Khimavtomatiky - ScienticResearch Complex / RD0410. Nuclear Rocket Engine.
Advanced launch vehicles. KBKhA - Chemical Automatics Design Bureau. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
[38] Aircraft: Lockheed SR-71A Blackbird
[39] Factsheets : Pratt & Whitney J58 Turbojet. National
Museum of the United States Air Force. Retrieved 201004-15.
[40] Rolls-Royce SNECMA Olympus - Janes Transport
News. Retrieved 2009-09-25. With afterburner, reverser and nozzle ... 3,175 kg ... Afterburner ... 169.2
kN
[41] Military Jet Engine Acquisition, RAND, 2002.

[22] Rocket Thrust Equation. Grc.nasa.gov. 2008-07-11.

Retrieved 2010-03-26.
[23] GFC Rogers, and Cohen, H. Gas Turbine Theory, p.108
(5th Edition), HIH Saravanamuttoo
[24] Rocket propulsion elements, Sutton, Biblarz- table 3-1
[25] Nicholas Cumpsty (2003). Jet Propulsion (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54144-1.
[26] 16.Unied: Thermodynamics and Propulsion, Prof. Z. S.
Spakovszky. Scroll down to Performance of Turbojet
Engines, Section 11.6.4. (Obtained from the website of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
[27] Note: In Newtonian mechanics kinetic energy is frame
dependent. The kinetic energy is easiest to calculate when
the speed is measured in the center of mass frame of the
vehicle and (less obviously) its reaction mass / air (i.e., the
stationary frame before takeo begins.
[28] Jet Propulsion Nicholas Cumpsty ISBN 0 521 59674 2
p24

[42] "Konstruktorskoe Buro Khimavtomatiky - ScienticResearch Complex / RD0750.. KBKhA - Chemical Automatics Design Bureau. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
[43] SSME
[44] RD-180. Retrieved 2009-09-25.
[45] Encyclopedia Astronautica: F-1
[46] Astronautix NK-33 entry
[47] Taylor, John. Press Kit June 2015 SpaceX CRS-7 Mission Cargo Resupply Services (PDF). NASA. pp. 1718.
Archived from the original on 2015-06-27. Retrieved 28
June 2015.
[48] Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2004). FAAH-8083-3B Airplane Flying Handbook Handbook (PDF).
Federal Aviation Administration.
[49] Turbofan Thrust, Glenn Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

12

[50] Microsoft PowerPoint - KTHhigspeed08.ppt (PDF).

Retrieved 2010-03-26.
[51] Scramjet. Orbitalvector.com. 2002-07-30. Retrieved
2010-03-26.
[52] Softly, softly towards the quiet jet Michael J. T. Smith
New Scientist 19 February 1970 p350
[53] Silencing the sources of jet noise Dr David Crighton
New Scientist 27 July 1972 p185
[54] Noise I.C. Cheeseman Flight International 16 April
1970 p639
[55] The Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine and its operation
United Technologies Pratt & Whitney Part No. P&W
182408 December 1982 Sea level static internal pressures
and temperatures p219/220
[56] 'Quietening a Quiet Engine- The RB211 Demonstrator
Programme M. J. T. Smith SAE paper 760897 Intake
Noise Suppression p5

6.2

Bibliography

Brooks, David S. (1997). Vikings at Waterloo:

Wartime Work on the Whittle Jet Engine by the Rover
Company. Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust. ISBN 1872922-08-2.
Golley, John (1997). Genesis of the Jet: Frank Whittle and the Invention of the Jet Engine. Crowood
Press. ISBN 1-85310-860-X.
Hill, Philip; Peterson, Carl (1992), Mechanics and
Thermodynamics of Propulsion (2nd ed.), New
York: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-14659-2
Kerrebrock, Jack L. (1992). Aircraft Engines and
Gas Turbines (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0-262-11162-1.

External links
Media about jet engines from Rolls-Royce
How Stu Works article on how a Gas Turbine Engine works
Inuence of the Jet Engine on the Aerospace Industry
An Overview of Military Jet Engine History, Appendix B, pp. 97120, in Military Jet Engine Acquisition (Rand Corp., 24 pgs, PDF)
Basic jet engine tutorial (QuickTime Video)

EXTERNAL LINKS

13

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

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