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moves the workpiece past a fixed tool. After each reciprocating cycle, the
workpiece is advanced laterally to expose a new section to the tool. Like
the shaper, the planer is intended to produce vertical, horizontal, or
diagonal cuts. It is also possible to mount several tools at one time in any
or all tool holders of a planer to execute multiple simultaneous cuts.
MILLING MACHINE In a milling machine, a workpiece is fed against a
circular device with a series of cutting edges on its circumference. The
workpiece is held on a table that controls the feed against the cutter. The
table conventionally has three possible movements: longitudinal,
horizontal, and vertical; in some cases it can also rotate. Milling machines
are the most versatile of all machine tools. Flat or contoured surfaces may
be machined with excellent finish and accuracy. Angles, slots, gear teeth,
and recess cuts can be made by using various cutters.
DRILLING AND BORING MACHINES :Hole-making machine tools
are used to drill a hole where none previously existed; to alter a hole in
accordance with some specification (by boring or reaming to enlarge it, or
by tapping to cut threads for a screw); or to lap or hone a hole to create an
accurate size or a smooth finish.
Drilling machines vary in size and function, ranging from portable drills to
radial drilling machines, multispindle units, automatic production
machines, and deep-hole-drilling machines. See Drill.
Boring is a process that enlarges holes previously drilled, usually with a
rotating single-point cutter held on a boring bar and fed against a stationary
workpiece. Boring machines include jig borers and vertical and horizontal
boring mills.
GRINDERS: Grinding is the removal of metal by a rotating abrasive
wheel; the action is similar to that of a milling cutter. The wheel is
composed of many small grains of abrasive, bonded together, with each
grain acting as a miniature cutting tool. The process produces extremely
smooth and accurate finishes. Because only a small amount of material is
removed at each pass of the wheel, grinding machines require fine wheel
regulation. The pressure of the wheel against the workpiece can be made
very slight, so that grinding can be carried out on fragile materials that
cannot be machined by other conventional devices. See Grinding and
Polishing.
SAWS:Commonly used power-driven saws are classified into three general
types, according to the kind of motion used in the cutting action:
The LBM process can make holes in refractory metals and ceramics and in
very thin materials without warping the workpiece. Extremely fine wires
can also be welded using LBM equipment.
Electrodischarge Electrodischarge machining (EDM), also known as
spark erosion, employs electrical energy to remove metal from the
workpiece without touching it. A pulsating high- frequency electric current
is applied between the tool point and the workpiece, causing sparks to
jump the gap and vaporize small areas of the workpiece. Because no
cutting forces are involved, light, delicate operations can be performed on
thin workpieces. EDM can produce shapes unobtainable by any
conventional machining process.
Electrochemical Electrochemical machining (ECM) also uses electrical
energy to remove material. An electrolytic cell is created in an electrolyte
medium, with the tool as the cathode and the workpiece as the anode. A
high-amperage, low-voltage current is used to dissolve the metal and to
remove it from the workpiece, which must be electrically conductive. A
wide variety of operations can be performed by ECM; these operations
include etching, marking, hole making, and milling.
Ultrasonic Ultrasonic machining (USM) employs high-frequency, lowamplitude vibrations to create holes and other cavities. A relatively soft
tool is shaped as desired and vibrated against the workpiece while a
mixture of fine abrasive and water flows between them. The friction of the
abrasive particles gradually cuts the workpiece. Materials such as hardened
steel, carbides, rubies, quartz, diamonds, and glass can easily be machined
by USM.
Electron Beam: In electron-beam machining (EBM),electrons are
accelerated to a velocity nearly three-fourths that of light. The process is
performed in a vacuum chamber to reduce the scattering of electrons by
gas molecules in the atmosphere. The stream of electrons is directed
against a precisely limited area of the workpiece; on impact, the kinetic
energy of the electrons is converted into thermal energy that melts and
vaporizes the material to be removed, forming holes or cuts. EBM
equipment is commonly used by the electronics industry to aid in the
etching of circuits in microprocessors.