Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
PIE Y TOBILLO
MADRID 2010
Principios biomecnicos
La historia mecnica de un paso
Direccin
Dres. Ernesto Maceira Surez y Manuel Monteagudo de la Rosa
Fecha
25, 26 y 27 Febrero 2010
Sede
Hospital Quirn Madrid. C/Diego de Velzquez, 1
28223 Pozuelo de Alarcn (Madrid)
21.30 hs
19.15 - 19.30 hs J. Codina: Ciruga de los dedos menores. Pequeos grandes problemas.
21.00 hs
Dalmau:
Lesiones
osteocondrales
del
09.00 - 09.30 hs M. Florez: Rehabilitacin en pie y tobillo. Recuperando la funcin o ganando tiempo?
tirar parriba.
12.00 - 12.30 hs M. Monteagudo: Seora, esto no es lo que parece y se lo puedo explicar. Cmo sobrevivir a un juicio,
o mejor evitarlo.
PRLOGO
Estas pginas son una amalgama de artculos, algunos publicados previamente y otros redactados ex profeso, para evitaros tener que tomar apuntes durante las presentaciones de mecnica. Esperamos sea el
germen de un libro como Dios manda, pero de momento, como podris comprobar, no puede considerarse
ms que un libro de apuntes. Los textos no guardan continuidad entre s; cada uno es de su padre y de su
madre, y las redundancias son frecuentes, quizs para hacer que una mentira repetida muchas veces llegue
a convertirse en verdad. O quizs no. Eso depende de vosotros. No pretendemos en absoluto decir cmo
son las cosas, sino describir una forma de observarlas y entenderlas. Con toda seguridad diremos cosas
que no son ciertas, pero sois vosotros quienes debis encontrar una explicacin mejor que lo demuestre.
James Watson y Francis Crick propusieron un modelo de estructura de ADN que coincidi con el que ms
tarde se pudo observar y comprobar. Cuando lo hicieron, no se poda tener la certeza de que fuera as.
Muchos otros modelos coexistieron con el suyo y compitieron con l en estar en posesin de la verdad.
Evidentemente los otros tenan que ser falsos, pero al menos servan para preguntarse constantemente el
por qu de las cosas. Si no te lo preguntas, nunca lo sabrs. Watson y Crick tenan razn, y los dems no.
Pero fue la curiosidad de todos la que llev a conocer la verdad. Intentamos explicar cmo funciona un
pi, con acento, mal escrito; pero se mecere el acento. En mayor o menor medida todos nosotros hemos
dedicado nuestra vida al pie, y nos gustara contribuir a su conocimiento. Incluso aunque sean otros los
que den con el modelo que de verdad explique cmo funciona. Es casi imposible abrir un candado, sin
destruirlo, a menos que sepamos cmo funciona. Todava ms difcil sera arreglarlo. Si queremos arreglar
pies, tenemos que saber cmo funcionan. Y si no me dis una explicacin mejor, me quedo con la que os
vamos a contar en estas lneas.
Como cirujanos, se nos bombardea constantemente con nuevos implantes que ofrecen soluciones para
distintas patologas. Quizs nos centremos demasiado en cmo hay que usarlos y cul es mejor, pero
deberamos hacerlo en para qu sirven. Qu efecto mecnico buscamos. Una deformidad en hallux valgus
con adduccin del primer metatarsiano, quizs la ms frecuente en nuestra prctica, no se va a resolver
simplemente por hacer un corte en un hueso, y fijarlo, o no, con un tornillo. Lo que hay que saber es si en
ese caso se debe actuar o no sobre el lugar de la deformidad aparente, y qu efecto mecnico buscamos.
Si decidimos que en ese caso hay que actuar sobre el primer metatarsiano, qu es lo que tenemos
que hacer? Simplemente desplazarlo lateralmente? No habr que descenderlo tambin? Y si tengo que
conseguir ambos efectos a la vez, cul sera la mejor forma de hacerlo? Como te d la gana. En eso no
vamos a entrar en este escrito. Pretendemos orientaros sobre qu efectos mecnicos se deben conseguir,
y en qu medida, si es posible.
En la Historia Qumica de una Vela, Faraday nos demuestra cmo se puede hacer Ciencia de forma muy
barata y seria, haciendo adems que reulte interesante a la gente sin conocimientos en qumica y fsica.
Es un libro altamente recomendable y fcil de encontrar. Con la Historia Mecnica de un Paso slo
queremos decir cmo creemos que funciona un pie al caminar. Si encontris algo mejor, compradlo. Este
curso slo pretende estimular vuestra curiosidad por entender la historia mecnica de un paso en lo que
se refiere al pie y tobillo.
monteaceira
NDICE
Pgina
......................................................................................
41
......................................................................................................................
65
.................................................................
..............................................................................................................
95
119
167
..........................................................................
195
...............................................................................................................
219
.....................................................................................
271
re s pue s ta a la ca rga
mid s ta nce
10-30%
obje tivos :
progre s in s obre e l pie
e s ta ciona rio,
e s ta bilida d de l mie mbro
y de l s e gme nto HAT
s e gundo rocke r: tobillo
fle x
60
rodilla
df
10
0
-20
fp
% ciclo
tobillo
te rmina l s wing
87-100%
obje tivos :
comple ta r e l a va nce
de l mie mbro,
pre pa ra r e l mie mbro
pa ra e l a poyo
tibia ve rtica l
ba la nce o fina l
ba la nce o
mid s wing
73-87%
obje tivos :
a va nce de l mie mbro,
de s pe je de l pie
initia l s wing
60-73%
obje tivos :
de s pe je de l pie
(foot cle a ra nce ),
a va nce de l mie mbro
de s de s u pos icin
de a rra s tre
ba la nce o inicia l
pre -s wing
50-60%
obje tivo: pre pa ra r e l
mie mbro pa ra e l
ba la nce o
pre ba la nce o
de s pe gue de l pie
te rmina l s ta nce
30-50%
obje tivo: progre s in
de l cue rpo por de la nte
de l mie mbro de a poyo
a poyo fina l
e le va cin de l ta ln
ta re a B: a poyo monopoda l
e l mie mbro de a poyo e s re s pons a ble por comple to
de ma nte ne r la progre s in a la ve z que proporciona
e s ta bilida d e n los pla nos s a gita l y corona l
ca de ra
20
0
e xt
% ciclo
El Ciclo de la Ma rcha
initia l conta ct
0-2%
obje tivo: coloca r
e l mie mbro pa ra
inicia r e l a poyo
con e l rodillo de l
ta ln (he e l rocke r)
prime r rocke r: ta ln
ta re a A: a ce pta cin de la ca rga
(la m s de ma nda nte de todo e l ciclo)
doble a poyo inicia l
te rmina con e l de s pe gue de l pie contra la te ra l
fle x
30
0
-10
e xt
% ciclo
verifica con el taln y el resto del pie desciende suave y progresivamente hasta adoptar una
contra el suelo.
Figura 2. Primer rocker (del taln). A) Fotografa a baja velocidad de obturacin, mostrando el descenso del pie desde el
contacto inicial con el avance simultneo de la pierna en un sujeto sano. B) El EDL, junto con el peroneo anterior, modula al TA
y EHL durante el balanceo final y el contacto inicial. C) Paciente
con paresia aislada del EDL. Sus peroneos laterales funcionaban
perfectamente, pero en el esquema de funcionamiento fsico
no se activan durante el balanceo, por lo que son ineficaces para
corregir esa inversin persistente.
Figura 3. Equino moderado en un paciente con secuelas postpolio. Afectacin del tibial anterior. Ausencia del primer rocker.
Preposicionamiento incorrecto para el contacto inicial.
inactivo.
indiscutible4.
o no:
5. conservacin de la energa.
varo. Si por el contrario el taln queda excesivamente alejado hacia afuera con respecto a la
proyeccin de la pierna, el momento externo
laterales.
10
cacin es impresionante.
40
flexin
20
0
extensin
marcha. Dado que la progresin se produce sobre el plano sagital, es en este plano donde se
-20
% del ciclo
Figura 11a
Cinemtica de la articulacin de la cadera en el plano sagital.
11
75
45
flexin
-1
% del ciclo
Figura 11b
15
-15
% del ciclo
Figura 12
Cinemtica de la articulacin de la rodilla en el plano sagital.
balanceo es activa.
12
estn activos.
60
20
-20
20
40
60
80
100
Figura 13.
ipsilateral por acortar su longitud efectiva. Entendemos por aclaramiento del miembro (clearance),
13
balanceo.
mientras que nuestros registros muestran de forma consistente (coincidiendo, por ejemplo, con
-1
20
40
60
80
100
Figura 14
14
http://www.esmac.org/
en http://www.isbweb.org.
BIBLIOGRAFA
1. Viladot Voegeli, A. Estudio de la marcha humana. En: Lecciones Bsicas de Biomecnica del Aparato Locomotor. SpringerVerlag Ibrica, Barcelona, 2001.
2. Perry, J. Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathological Function.
Slack. Thorofare, New Jersey, 1992.
3. Whittle, MW. Gait Analysis. Butterworth-Heinemann. 2nd
edition, 1998.
4. Gage, JR. Gait Analysis in Cerebral Palsy. (McKeith Press)
Oxford Blackwell Sci. Pub. Cambridge University Press. New
York, 1991.
5. Winter, DA. The Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human
Gait: Normal, Elderly and Pathological. Waterloo Biomechanics,
2nd edition. Waterloo, Ontario, 1991.
6. Vera, P. e.a. Biomecnica de la Marcha Humana Normal y
Patolgica. Publicaciones del Instituto de Biomecnica de Valencia, 1999.
15
7. Siebel, A. e.a. Gait Analysis Course (ESMAC). Stiftung Orthopaedische Klinik. Univ. Heidelberg, 1999.
8. Linskell, JR. Gibb, S. e.a. The Dundee Gait Lab: Gait Analysis
Course (ESMAC). Tayside Orthopaedic Rehabilitation Technology
Centre. Ninewells Hospital. Dundee, Scotland, 2000.
9. Balius, X. Turr, C. e.a. Marcha humana vs. marcha atltica.
Rev. Med. Cir. Pie, 1995; IX (1): 27-36.
10. Sarrafian, SK. Anatomy of the Foot and Ankle: Descriptive,
Topographic, Functional. JB Lippincott Company, 2nd edition.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1993.
11. Medved, V. Measurement of Human Locomotion. CRC Press.
Boca Ratn, Florida, 2001.
12. Winter, DA. Patla, AE. Signal Processing and Linear Systems
for the Movement Sciences. Waterloo Biomechanics. Waterloo,
Ontario, 1997.
13. Robertson, GE. Introduction to Biomechanics for Human Motion Analysis. Waterloo Biomechanics. Waterloo, Ontario, 1997.
16
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lectual.
identificarlas como de un ser que caminaba regularmente de forma bipodal, son: la transmisin lateral
28
qu lo tenemos?
en el tercer rocker.
29
tiene el tirante, segn ste est ms o menos separado del pex de la cercha. Con el ngulo abierto,
intelectual.
la perpendicular a sta.
30
fascia plantar.
palanca hacia arriba, hacia el pex, estaremos tensando el tirante, con lo que los extremos de las vigas
laciones.
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41
El cardn 1
triplanar.
mueve dentro de una cmara (mortaja tibioperonea) formada por los malolos tibial y peroneo,
La anatoma y la cinemtica.
mm de la rodilla1.
42
asociada (figura1).
Figura 1. El tobillo es una articulacin troclear con alta congruencia. La trclea astragalina, con forma de cono truncado,
permite la ejecucin de movimientos combinados de dorsiflexin
del tobillo y abduccin del pie, y de flexin plantar del tobillo y
adduccin del pie.
relacin de cobertura de sus dos tercios posteriores respecto del malolo tibial, disposicin
marcha.
43
superficies
articulares
circunferencialmente,
44
encima del borde superior de las superficies articulares. El ligamento tibioperoneo anterior es
ancho y muy resistente. Sus fibras se extienden
oblicuamente hacia abajo y hacia afuera desde
el borde anterior de la superficie tibial y de la
porcin cercana de su cara anterior, hasta llegar
al malolo peroneo. El ligamento anterior de la
sindesmosis presenta un fascculo anteroinferior
que con frecuencia se hipertrofia como consecuencia de entorsis nicas o de repeticin. La
sinovitis y fibrosis secundaria pueden producir
dolor y un cuadro clnico conocido como sndrome de rozamiento anterolateral del tobillo
45
externo.
ball-and-socket.
intensiva.
46
articulacin de bisagra.
mediante
especimenes
cintica cerrada).
estereofotogrametra
47
del astrgalo.
articulacin tibioperoneoastragalina.
48
articulacin triplanar.
transverso.
49
50
tobillos sanos.
una artrodesis35.
tiempo.
51
y/o artrosis.
52
BIBLIOGRAFA
1. Shepherd DE, Seedhom BB. Thickness of human articular cartilage in joints of the lower limb. Ann Rheum Dis 1999. 58(1). 27-34.
3. Hicks JH. The mechanic of the foot: the joints. Anat 1953;
87: 345.
20. McCullough CJ, Burge P. Rotational stability of the load bearing ankle. J Bone Joint Surg 1980; 62(4): 460-464.
4. Barnett CH, Napier JR. The axis of rotation at the ankle joint
in man: its influence upon the form of the talus and the mobility
of the fibula. Anat 1952; 86: 1.
5. Nuez-Samper M, Llanos Alczar LF, Viladot R. Tcnicas quirrgicas en ciruga del pie. Barcelona: Masson; 2003.
33. Procter P, Paul JP. Ankle joint biomechanics. Journal Biomech 1982. 15(9): 627-634.
53
54
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59
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65
El cardn 2.
neoescafoideo medial
(ligamentum neglectum)
66
su eje longitudinal.
67
sobre la subastragalina.
externa en la transicin del segundo al tercer rocker, supone que la columna interna ser sometida
radios menores.
68
prender su funcionamiento.
69
mayor cansancio.
de la marcha.
70
71
72
Con
73
bulum pedis.
dolorosos en el tobillo.
74
radiculopatas de L5.
75
Proy. AP en carga
colapso
CM
EC
TN
CM
EC
TN
no
89.2
96.8
30.1
84.9
87.1
44.1
mod.
8.6
3.2
53.8
11.8
11.8
39.8
grave
2.2
16.1
3.2
1.1
16.1
76
arteria deltoidea.
77
78
79
y la presencia de lneas de Harris entre los pacientes con la EMW. No hemos hecho TAC de la fosa
Pero no todos los pacientes haban padecido entornos inhspitos en su infancia. Algunos, incluso
80
cavo
la lnea de Meary-Tomeno.
respecto al calcneo.
plano,
sistemticamente
aparecen
81
femorotibial.
pacitados por el dolor en el navicular o sus articulaciones vecinas, con sensacin de crujidos al
82
83
ms fcil.
Artrodesis tarsianas.
La fusin de alguna de las interlneas del CAPA repercute inevitablemente en el resto. Las artrodesis
84
respectivamente).
NOTAS
85
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NOTAS
87
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NOTAS
89
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93
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Anatoma
La carretilla
Existen
muchas
caractersticas
95
anatmicas,
Los gemelos son dos msculos voluminosos, aplanados, de forma oval, que nacen aisladamente
rrilla3.
carrera.
intercondlea.
96
intratendinoso.
97
rotura espontnea6.
extiende desde el calcneo para acabar formando una red fibrosa compleja en los ligamentos
98
en el siguiente paso).
Biomecnica y patomecnica
99
sustitucin extensora.
Gastrocnemios
la carrera18.
100
Tendn Aquiles
excesiva del tendn de Aquiles por acortamiento de los gastrocnemios, o del propio tendn, o
Figura 1. Las queratosis tpicas del segundo rocker son circunscritas y plantares respecto de las cabezas de los metatarsianos. En
estos pacientes es importante estudiar un posible acortamiento
gemelar como causa o agravamiento de su metatarsalgia.
101
en una transmisin incorrecta de un estmulo sensitivo perifrico26. Cuando las fibras de colgno se
continuacin:
102
propio tendn.
103
Calcneo
104
dcada de la vida.
(figura 3).
cneo (calcaneoplastia ver captulo Intervenciones quirrgicas sobre el sistema ACP) disminuira
el ndice corporal del calcneo y servira as para
mejorar el dolor retrocalcneo. La osteotoma
de Zadek (ver captulo Intervenciones quirrgicas
sobre el sistema ACP) mejora adems el ngulo de
105
proximal.
plantar) que sirven para disipar el estrs de la carga55. En los ltimos aos, los estudios en pacientes
106
BIBLIOGRAFA
1. Arandes R, Viladot A. Biomecnica del calcneo. Med Quir 1954; 21: 25.
107
33. Mahler F, Fritschy D. Partial and complete ruptures of the Achilles tendon and local corticosteroid injections. British J Sports Med 1992; 26: 7-14.
47. Ingliss AE, Sculco TP. Surgical repair of ruptures of the tendo Achillis. Clin Orthop 1981; 156:
160-169.
108
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NOTAS
109
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Figura 1. Retraso en la osificacin del escafoides. Sus vecinos estn avanzados en el proceso de osificacin, pero la mayor parte
del escafoides todava es cartlago. En este caso la divergencia
talo-calcnea es adecuada, incluso aumentada, y la frmula metatarsiana index plus minus. Es una situacin de naviculare pedis
retardatum que podr conducir a una enfermedad de Khler.
nes normales.
La articulacin de Lisfranc.
La clave de la bveda plantar es el escafoides. Es
el hueso que ms tarda en osificar de todo el pie;
interlnea de Lisfranc.
120
Figura 2. El arco transverso a nivel del mediopi se hace patente precozmente. En la imagen la naturaleza del esqueleto es
condral, pero no hay cavitacin articular. De la coleccin del
Departamento de Anatoma 1, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Mardid.
3. Ligamentos interseos.
Hay tres juegos de ligamentos interseos, que
corresponden a las tres articulaciones cneometatarsianas. En el cuarto espacio interseo
1. Ligamentos dorsales.
unen al cuboides.
2. Ligamentos plantares.
M4.
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Debemos tener siempre presente que con independencia de estas formaciones ligamentarias,
sobre todo las plantares e interseas, el principal
elemento anticolapso con que cuenta el mediopi
es la aponeurosis plantar, verdadero tirante de la
cerha que conforma la bveda plantar, que por ser
la estructura ms alejada del punto de colapso,
es la que dispone de mayor brazo de palanca para
resistirlo. La seccin aislada de la aponeurosis,
es mucho ms nociva para la integridad de la
bveda plantar que la seccin de cualquier otra
estructura.
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M1 (figura 5).
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ligeramente displsico.
Figura 8. Cambios artrsicos por sobrecarga CM2 y 3 en un paciente con protrusin relativa de M1, hallux valgus y retraccin
franca de los gemelos. En ocasiones el stress compresivo axial a
nivel de la interlnea de Lisfranc se manifiesta en forma de pequeas reas de edema intraseo, pero otras veces hay artrosis
francas en la paleta intermedia cuando falla la paleta medial.
con una insuficiendia del primer radio por brevedad de M1. La aparicin de gangliones y cambios
artrsicos en esta localizacin, debe hacernos
pensar en que la sobrecarga de la CM2 se deba
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abajo, donde el controno de la base del meta presenta forma de quilla; se trata de una morfologa
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del radio.
Es un hecho que la prdida de fuerza del tibial anterior se asocia con un aumento de la equinizacin
primer metatarsiano.
Si el paciente con una artrodesis de mediopi
Comportamiento del mediopi en las artrodesis.
su flexibilidad.
NOTAS
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Repartiendo el tajo.
Introduccin.
persistente2.
paso. Algunos trminos empleados estn importados directamente del ingls, y otros traducidos
inflamatorio inicial.
138
3,5-8
. Durante el tiempo
3,5-8
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Figura 3. Tercer rocker. Durante la fase propulsiva slo la eminencia digitoplantar contacta con el suelo. Las queratosis que
se produzcan en esta fase, sern planto-distales a las cabezas
metatarsianas, desde el punto de vista anatmico. Su extensin
hacia la raz de los dedos es su principal caracterstica morfolgica. La longitud de los metatarsianos es un parmetro importante a considerar en estas sobrecargas. Elevar un metatarsiano
afecto por este tipo de sobrecarga, slo empeorar las cosas.
Durante este perodo, slo la eminencia digitoplantar contacta con el suelo. El centro de masas
del cuerpo asciende, para ganar la energa potencial suficiente para realizar la siguiente cada
libre, el siguiente paso, de forma que la marcha
no es ms que una sucesin de cadas libres
controladas por el correspondiente contacto
inicial. Al tercer rocker, o rocker del antepi,
tambin se le conoce como fase propulsiva del
apoyo, porque en esta fase el cuerpo genera
la potencia necesaria para elevar su centro de
Figura 2. Segundo rocker. Durante el segundo rocker, la tibia
gira hacia adelante sobre el taln. El sleo frena el avance de la
tibia en accin excntrica, lo que en combinacin con el avance
del centro de masas corporal, extiende la rodilla durante el
apoyo monopodal. El apoyo es plantgrado: las queratosis que se
produzcan durante este rocker, sern estrictamente plantares
a cada cabeza. En condiciones normales, los extensores largos
de los dedos no se activan durante este rocker, o al menos no lo
hacen en su segunda parte, desde que la tibia supera la vertical.
7,8
de identificar 4.
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La hiperactividad extensora puede producirse durante el balanceo, pero tambin prolongarse a los
los extensores 4.
141
empuje.
producindose queratosis tpicas de segundo rocker (figura 5) (las caractersticas de las queratosis
142
extension couple)
etiologa.
5-8
143
tercer rocker. Las luxaciones MF de tipo propulsivo se producen como consecuencia de la carga
axial que los metatarsianos transmiten al suelo
a travs de las partes blandas planto-distales a
sus cabezas, desde el punto de vista anatmico,
cuando el pie est de puntillas.
Como si el metatarsiano se clavara contra el suelo
Figura 7 a, b. Queratosis propulsivas o de tercer rocker. Su
caracterstica morfolgica fundamental es que tienden a
extenderse hacia la raz del dedo; estas lesiones slo pueden
producirse cuando el pie est de puntillas sobre el suelo. Con
frecuencia aparece una macroqueratosis que engloba a varias
cabezas, sin que pueda determinarse exactamente dnde termina el efecto de una cabeza y empieza el de la siguiente. Esto
se debe a la rotacin externa que el pie tiende a hacer sobre el
suelo en la fase propulsiva. Para tratar a estos pacientes pueden
buscarse muchos efectos mecnicos, pero nunca la elevacin de
los metatarsianos afectados. Cuando en el curso de una lesin
propulsiva se produce la luxacin MF, la queratosis subyacente
empezar a presentar estigmas de queratosis de segundo rocker.
pillando entre medias a las partes blandas plantodistales. Una sobrecarga axial a travs de uno
o varios metatarsianos durante el tercer rocker,
lesionar las partes blandas articulares que se
localizan en su unin a los dedos o su entorno
ms cercano. Cada articulacin MF dispone en su
cara plantar de un aparato conjuntivo especializado, que conocemos como placa plantar en las
articulaciones menores y aparato glenosesamoideo en el primer radio. Desde el punto de vista
dedo menor, destruye todos los mecanismos dependientes de la aponeurosis plantar. Cuando de
forma reiterada se sobrecarga el extermo distal
de la placa y su insercin a la base de la falange,
stas sufrirn progresivamente, desde atenuaciones en su estructura, hasta roturas completas con
solucin de continuidad de la placa o desinsercin
. La consecuencia de esto ser una luxacin,
3,4
ellas, sino el hueso que se les est clavando encima. Si desde una situacin de partida con una
placa plantar normal, la sobrecarga que produce
el metatarsiano llega a romperla o desinsertarla,
de poco servir la reparacin de la placa sin antes
eliminar la causa de la sobrecarga metatarsiana.
Y con frecuencia, si se descarga el metatarsiano,
la placa puede repararse espontneamente.
144
La lesin de las partes blandas, junto con la dorsiflexin pasiva de la MF que supone la posicin
de puntillas, hacen que las luxaciones propulsivas
sean verdaderas luxaciones, con prdida total del
contacto entre los extremos articulares; el dedo
termina por colocarse con su base en el dorso del
Figura 9 a, b, c, d, e. Sndrome del segundo espacio. Se trata
de una forma de metatarsalgia propulsiva, en la que la luxacin
presenta los efectos de una desviacin del dedo en el plano
transversal. Se define por un sntoma, dolor en segundo espacio
(y tambin en la MF2 e incluso MF3), y un signo, la divergencia
de los dedos 2 y 3 por adduccin del segundo. Con frecuencia
la deformidad slo se aprecia en carga; en descarga los dedos
pueden parecer alineados. En la inmensa mayora de estos
pacientes puede objetivarse una protrusin relativa de M2, sea
con respecto a M1 y/o a M3. Adems, con el tiempo la cabeza de
M2 se aproxima a la de M3. Tambin es frecuente la presencia
de un hallux limitus, y entonces suele terminar cruzndose el
segundo dedo sobre el primero (crossover toe deformity). La
divergencia de los dedos puede persistir, o verse durante unos
cuantos meses para despus perderse. Hay una fase inicial de
sinovitis (a), como en cualquier otra forma de lesin propulsiva,
en que la MF2 es especialmente dolorosa. El test de Lachman
es muy doloroso y pronto mostrar una inestabilidad en cajn
dorsal. Finalmente el dedo se luxa en sentido dorsal (b), aunque
otras veces permanece adducto. Muchos pacientes perciben
un gran alivio del dolor, de forma temporal, cuando el dedo se
luxa. El acortamiento de uno o varios radios, segn la geometra
general del pie y el intento de reproducir una frmula ideal,
junto con la medializacin de la cabeza de M2, pueden reducir
y alinear el segundo dedo sin transferir parte blanda alguna, o
al menos aliviar el dolor. Hay que tener especial cuidado en no
confundir esta lesin con una neuropata de Morton del segundo
espacio, entidad que siempre hay que poner en duda. El segundo
nervio digital comn puede protagonizar el cuadro doloroso,
pero a diferencia de la neuropata de Morton del tercer espacio,
aqu ser necesario actuar sobre al menos M2, para no slo descomprimir el nervio sino mejorar la mecnica. Las infiltraciones
de corticoides pueden ayudar a que se produzca la luxacin.
La RNM no parece muy eficaz en detectar o no la compresin
/ engrosamiento del nervio, pero debemos buscar siempre la
presencia de cambios inflamatorios en el segundo espacio y sus
articulaciones (d). Como en cualquier otra luxacin propulsiva,
la carga axial reiterativa a travs del metatarsiano verticalizado
sobre el suelo durante el tercer rocker, lesiona las partes blandas
planto-distales a la cabeza del meta, produciendo queratosis y
lesionando la placa plantar. En la figura 9 e, la imagen se ha
girado para entender en qu posicin est el meta sobre el suelo
extremo distal del meta. Ninguna de las superficies articulares de la MF contacta con el hueso correspondiente, mientras que en las luxaciones por
hiperactividad extensora, la superficie articular
de la base del dedo permanecer en contacto con
el meta. El eje mayor de la falange distal tiende a
quedar en un plano transversal, paralelo al plantar, no erecta. Y el dedo se retrae por la accin
de toda la musculatura y porque tras la luxacin,
en lugar de dorsiflexin pasiva se producir un
empuje posterior del dedo al poner el pie de puntillas. En las fases iniciales de estas luxaciones
de tercer rocker, hay un estado de sinovitis 10. Se
trata de una fase especialmente dolorosa, en que
la articulacin est tensa por el hidrartros, pero
la radiologa no muestra alteraciones y slo puede diagnosticarse con algo tan sencillo como la
palpacin. De mantenerse esta situacin, en poco
tiempo, alrededor de seis meses, la claudicacin
de las partes blandas permitir que el dedo se
subluxe. Clnicamente se podr comprobar entonces una laxitud articular en el plano sagital en
forma de cajn dorsoplantar equivalente al test
de Lachman para la rodilla
. Tambin en esta
11
145
11
4,11
radio siguiente.
146
la superficie cutnea 3.
147
en un paciente concreto.
148
, es importante
1,12
149
metatarsalgia
150
17
151
salgia mecnica.
18
radio.
5-8
. A niveles
. En el HLF, el
17
152
15
15,20
153
15,21
154
22
de acortamiento
(figura 14).
(osteotomas, osteoclasias)
155
resolver una compresin neural. No veo justificacin para tratar una enfermedad de Morton del
tercer espacio con osteotomas de las cabezas de
los metas 3 y 4: indudablemente pueden aliviar el
dolor de la neuropata por atrapamiento, pero a
costa de empeorar la arquitectura del pie, lo que
probablemente producir otros problemas, incluso mayores, a medio plazo. Sin embargo, en el
sndrome del segundo espacio, no hay que olvidar
que aparte del dolor derivado de la compresin
Corolario.
156
el tercer rocker.
NOTAS
157
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167
dems sanos.
Gastrocnemios y soleo
metatarsalgia5.
Morton sugiri que un tendn de Aquiles demasiado tenso podra ser la causa de muchos problemas
tratamientos.
Tcnica Vulpius/Strayer
el alargamiento deseado.
168
miento gemelar10.
mio medial
169
Tendn de Aquiles
Tratamiento ortopdico
170
perodo.
Ciruga abierta
16,17
gico
mantienen
18-23
19,20
simple36.
24
171
Ciruga percutnea
tendn y la piel.
ras
abierta.
43,44
172
Assal y cols56 utilizan un instrumento llamado Achillon (Newdeal, Francia) desarrollado para facilitar
la sutura percutnea del TA, con un diseo que
permite un buen paso de las suturas a travs del
tendn y minimiza la posibilidad de lesionar el ner-
173
tcnicas anestsicas.
52
174
Tratamiento rehabilitador
61
14
62
del TA
65,66
175
evitando la cojera .
57
permi-
un tendn lesionado.
73
57
paratendinitis,
tenosinovitis,
paratendinosis,
176
estudiaron la utilizacin de la
Paoloni y cols
77
78
ndulos fibrticos.
cicatriz no dolorosa.
dad expuesta:
177
segn proceda.
han
crnica.
82
178
y cols
85
86
Figura 5. La bursectoma y calcaneoplastia en la bursitis retrocalcnea que no responde a un tratamiento ortopdico nos permite crear un entorno biomecnico favorable para la remisin
del dolor. La disminucin volumtrica del calcneo y la menor
presin de la bursa, y el resultado clnico dependen en gran
medida de realizar una reseccin adecuada de la tuberosidad
posterosuperior del calcneo.
179
calcaneoplastia descrita.
liberado en la ciruga.
180
impactos en la carrera.
181
BIBLIOGRAFA
1. Vulpius O, Stoffel A. Orthopaedische Operationslehre. Stuttgart. Ferdinand Enke. 1920.
18. Carden DG, Noble J, Chalmers J, et al. Rupture of the calcaneal tendon. The early and late management. J Bone Joint Surg
Br 1987; 69: 416-420.
14. Cetti R, Christensen SE, Ejsted R, et al. Operative versus nonoperative treatment of Achilles tendon rupture. A prospective
randomized study and review of the literature. Am J Sports Med
1993; 21: 791-799.
31. Parsons JR, Rosario A, Weiss AB, Alexander H. Achilles tendon repair with an absorbable polymer-carbon fibre composite.
Foot and Ankle Surg 1984; 5: 49-53.
182
33. Ozaki J, Fujiki J, Sugimoto K, et al. Reconstruction of neglected Achilles tendon rupture with Marlex mesh. Clin Orthop
1989; 238: 204-208.
34. Kato YP, Dunn MG, Zawadsky JP, et al. Regeneration of Achilles tendon with a collagen tendon prosthesis. Results of a oneyear implantation study. J Bone Joint Surg 1991; 73-A:561-574.
35. Lieberman JR, Lozman J, Czajka J, Dougherty J. Repair of
Achilles ruptures with Dacron vascular graft. Clin Orthop 1988;
234; 204-208.
36. Jessing P, Hansen E. Surgical treatment of 102 tendo achillis
ruptures suture or tenotoplasty? Acta Chir Scand 1975; 141:
370-373.
37. Haertsch PA. The blood supply to the skin of the leg: a postmortem investigation. British J Plast Surg 1981; 34: 470-477.
54. Chan BP, Chan KM, Maffulli N et al. Effect of basic fibroblast
growth factor. An in vitro study of tendon healing. Clin Orthop
1997; 342: 239-247.
39. Ong BC, Trepman E. Achilles tendon surgery: S-Shaped surgical approach and postoperative positioning to minimize wound
tension and external pressure. Am J Orthop 2001; 30(5) : 433-434.
41. Gillespie HS, George EA. Results of surgical repair of spontaneous rupture of the Achilles tendon. J Trauma 1969: 9: 247-249.
183
65. Sekiya JK, Evensen KE, Jebson PJ, Kuhn JE. The effect of
knee and ankle position of Achilles tendon ruptures in a cadaveric model. Implications for nonoperative management. Am J
Sports Med 1999; 27(5): 632-635.
67. Mortensen NHM, Skov O, Jensen PE. Early motion of the ankle
after operative treatment of a rupture of the Achilles tendon. A
prospective, randomized clinical and radiographic study. J Bone
Joint Surg Am 1999; 81(7): 983-990.
78. Kane TP, Ismail M, Calder JD. Topical glyceryl trinitrate and
noninsertional Achilles tendinopathy: a clinical and cellular
92. Gefen A. Stress analysis of the standing foot following surgical plantar fascia release. J Biomechanics 2002; 35: 629-637.
184
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195
El calentamiento mental 1
quirrgico determinado tambin es importante conocer sus ventajas y sus limitaciones. Es importante
saber cul es el desplazamiento adecuado de una
osteotoma, cmo ejecutar su sntesis, qu posicin
es la idnea para una artrodesis, y saber cmo se
comportarn las articulaciones adyacentes despus
del procedimiento. En ocasiones, cuando realizamos
una intervencin sobre una regin alterada tendremos que actuar sobre articulaciones no lesionadas
pero rgidas, que no permitiran un buen resultado
postoperatorio final (por ejemplo, la supinacin
rgida del antepi cuando realizamos alguna osteotoma o artrodesis en un retropi valgo puede hacer
necesaria una osteotoma de plantarizacin de la
primera cua o de la base del primer metatarsiano).
Artrodesis
Tobillo
196
quirrgico definitivo.
tcnica a realizar.
Figura 2. Es importante la valoracin vascular previa de un paciente candidato a artrodesis o grandes cirugas del tobillo y del
retropi. La combinacin de cirugas previas, cicatrices, adherencias, lesiones vasculares inadvertidas por los traumatismos
o cirugas pasadas, diabetes, y arteriosclerosis puede suponer
acabar en defectos de cobertura cutnea que comprometan el
futuro de la extremidad.
del pie.
197
tibiotalocalcnea.
198
estas actividades.
una artrodesis.
Articulacin subastragalina
199
del antepi.
Artrodesis tibiotalocalcnea
litador y ortsico.
apoyo plantgrado.
estas artrodesis.
y los defectos seos. La tcnica quirrgica del enclavado retrgrado del retropi y tobillo permite
200
amputacin.
201
modelante.
202
posicin conseguir el antepi despus de la artrodesis. Es el antepi flexible para permitir una
posicin plantgrada? Si no lo es, y tenemos una
supinacin residual del antepi con el retropi en
buena posicin, debemos plantearnos una osteotoma de plantarizacin de la columna interna
(cua o base del primer metatarsiano).
Osteotomas
Tobillo
La indicacin para realizar una osteotoma de realineacin del tobillo es una consolidacin viciosa
de una fractura en la tibia o el peron que afecte
a la alineacin de la articulacin tibioperoneotalar y que cause dolor, sin otras causas peritalares
aparentes. Cada vez comprendemos mejor el
papel fundamental del peron en la reduccin
de las fracturas del tobillo, pero en la mayora
de las consolidaciones viciosas en el tobillo el
peron sigue siendo el hueso implicado en la deformidad. En otras ocasiones, fracturas diafisarias
o metafisarias distales de la tibia pueden tambin
ser causa de una deformidad de la mortaja. Es
imprescindible la exploracin visual de la marcha
en la consulta para valorara asimetras y conocer
el origen de la deformidad.
203
y la funcin. Esta eversin predispone a las articulaciones de la columna interna del pie a una
Calcneo
y la funcin del pie. La osteotoma de medializacin o varizante del calcneo (OVC) ha ofrecido
plantgrado.
204
respectivamente.
Figura 5. La osteotoma varizante o de medializacin del calcneo permite la traslacin de cargas de la columna interna
a la externa, mejora la progresin de marcha y permite una
recuperacin del tendn tibial posterior.
205
Figura 6. La osteotoma varizante o de medializacin del calcneo puede combinarse con la osteotoma de alargamiento del
calcneo cuando existe una gran deformidad en valgo y un gran
abducto del antepi.
y colgeno con una velocidad mayor que los condroblastos y condrocitos de la rodilla15. La artro-
lquido sinovial16.
206
207
BIBLIOGRAFA
1. Chiodo CP, Acevedo JI, Sammarco VJ, et al. Intramedullary
rod fixation compared with plate-blade-and-screw fixation for
tibiotalocalcaneal arthrodesis: a biomechanical investigation.
J Bone Joint Surg (Am) 2003; 85: 2425-2428.
2. Miller S. Techniques and prevention of complications for intramedullary nailing arthrodesis of the ankle. Tech Ortho 2001;
16: 372-380.
10. Rosenfeld PF, Dick J, Saxby TS. The response of the flexor
digitorum longus and the posterior tibial muscles to tendon
transfer and calcaneal osteotomy for stage II posterior tibial
tendon dysfunction. Foot Ankle Int 2005; 26: 671-674.
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El gran pisador.
ngulo de sustentacin.
Anatoma.
220
de la fractura.
221
editarlas, obtener imgenes y operar matemticamente con ellas 14. Se abre as el campo de la
anatoma cuantitativa.
Embriologa.
; el es-
15
, con el
13
inconveniente de que el registro que nos llega corresponde a unas cuantas proyecciones estticas.
En un presumiblemente breve plazo de tiempo,
estaremos rotando mallas a nuestro antojo en
222
nacidos a trmino, el ncleo unificado de osificacin del calcneo debe estar presente a modo de
elipse. Rara vez puede presentarse un calcneo
bfido asintomtico. Alrededor de los 25-3 meses
de vida del beb, la superficie anterior del calcneo se aplana adaptndose al cuboides; a los 4-6
meses se distinguen los tubrculos plantares, y a
los 6-7 meses su longitud se ve considerablemente
aumentada. El aplanamiento de sus facetas para
el astrgalo y el desarrollo de un sustentaculum
tali reconocible se produce en torno al primer ao
de vida, coincidiendo con el inicio de la marcha
libre. El hueso adquiere su forma definitiva a los
15
(figura 2)
18
223
20
22
224
sistemas pticos
y 8,3 respectivamente
. Con estereofotogrametra,
24
. De estos estudios se
25
225
. El fragmento
27,29
28
mayor energa.
sidad.
escaparse hacia fuera, producindose una fractura del tipo 2 de Duparc: la llamada fractura-
mas importantes.
226
en poco tiempo
30
22,32
227
largo del eje de la pierna, no son coaxiales, merced al mecanismo de desaxacin tibio-calcnea.
35
228
(figura 6).
Figura 6. Osteotoma de Koutsogiannis en un sndrome de inversin deficiente en estado 2 (deformidad flexible). En este caso
se realiz tambin un alargamiento del tendn de Aquiles y una
transferencia del flexor comn de los dedos al tibial posterior.
con el suelo
detrs de l.
39
229
Los efectos de elevacin o descenso de la tubeFigura 8. La osteotoma de Evans alarga la columna externa por
hacerse por delante del tlamo. Esto rota medialmente el mediopi, con lo que el escafoides proporciona mejor cobertura a la
cabeza del astrgalo. Puede sobrecargar la calcneo-cuboidea,
como en este caso, en que hay una subluxacin.
tuberosidad
43
41
(figura 9).
230
tuberosidad).
44
. La
45
231
el tratamiento de las tendinopatas de los peroneos, en las que casi siempre hay un componente
previo de varizacin subtalar (figuras 13-15).
46
. Una
232
en lugar de escayolas.
El abordaje transversal directo de la subastragalina
ofrece una visin muy buena de la articulacin,
pero con frecuencia da lugar a complicaciones
cutneas, neurales y tendinosas: necrosis y dehiscencias de la herida por traccin excesiva, parestesias en el territorio del nervio sural transitorias o
definitivas, tendinopatas de los peroneos.
Estructuras en riesgo.
El nervio sural es la estructura sometida a
mayor riesgo de lesin en este tipo de inter-
reseadas
45,47
Tcnica quirrgica.
233
quinto metatarsiano.
nes peroneos.
Estructuras en riesgo.
234
muy graves.
externa
Fernndez de Valderrama
, debe ir precedida
hasta placas en H.
48
49
del calcneo. Algunos autores incluso recomiendan la fusin de esta articulacin en la misma
. La mayora
50
235
calcneo-cuboidea.
BIBLIOGRAFA
1.- Navarro F.: Parentescos sorprendentes. Calcneo y calzoncillo. En: La Pgina del Idioma Espaol. Acceso en enero de 2005;
www.elcastellano.org
14.- Budantsev AY, Jakovlev YY.: 3D reconstruction of biological objects: the potential of standard computer programs. Eur
Microscopy Analysis 2000; sept 11-13.
4.- Isidro A.: Calcneo y bipedestacin. Rev Med Cir Pie 1993; 7
(1): 91-102.
6.- Toretta P III : Calcaneal fractures: open reduction and internal fixation. En: Fractures. Ed. D A Wiss. Master Techniques
in orthopaedic surgery on CD-ROM Ed. R C Thompson Jr. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2000.
7.- Karakurt L, Yilmaz E, Belhan O, Incesu M, Serin E.: [Pseudarthrosis of a calcaneus fracture: a case report]. (Abstract). Acta
Orthop Traumatol Turc 2004; 38 (4).
236
24.- Cornwall MW, McPoil TG.: Motion of the calcaneus, navicular, and first metatarsal during the stance phase of walking. J
Am Podiatr Med Assoc 2002; 92 (2): 67-76.
40.- Deland JT, Page A, Sung IH, e.a.: Posterior tibial tendon
insufficiency. Results at different stages. HSS Journal 2006, 2
(2): 157-160.
27.- Llanos LF.: Fracturas del calcneo. En: Biomecnica, medicina y ciruga del pie. M Nez-Samper, LF Llanos; p 413-25.
Masson. Barcelona, 1997.
NOTAS
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247
El calentamiento mental 2.
rocker.
tipo en muchos casos. Con frecuencia en un mismo radio hay lesiones que comparten estigmas de
248
249
250
ticulares.
uno o ms metas. En este sentido hay que recordar el trabajo de Maestro, describiendo patrones
propulsiva.
puntillas.
Sobre su calco rediseamos dnde debera estar
El sndrome del segundo espacio no es ms que la
uno de ellos.
251
252
mo acortamiento.
de segundo rocker.
indeseados.
una
El
acortamiento
producir
253
254
unas 6 semanas.
255
funcional.
normales stos deben ser paralelos. Es fcil calcular, tambin sobre el calco, qu anchura debe
256
las primarias
rockers.
deformidades mayores.
257
aumentada.
o de la base de M1.
osteotoma.
258
tenodermodesis,
reseccin
osteotoma.
artroplastias
de
Conclusiones.
en lugar de dedos.
nando mal.
tos funcionales.
259
la placa para que sta se repare espontneamente una vez desaparece su verdugo.
260
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Figura 1.
1A.- Primer rocker. La tibia gira sobre el taln. El contacto
inicial debe producirse exclusivamente sobre el calcneo. Est
controlado por los dorsiflexores; la tibia avanza a medida que
desciende el antepi. por lo que la flexin plantar del tobillo es
de baja amplitud.
1B.- Segundo rocker. La tibia gira sobre la trclea del astrgalo. Su paso por la vertical inicia la intensa accin de frenado
del sleo. El apoyo del pie es plantgrado. Un aumento de la
inclinacin de los metatarsianos, anatmica o funcional, puede
sobrecargar el antepi. La elevacin de un meta sobrecargar
al vecino.
1C.- Tercer rocker. La tibia gira sobre la lnea de rotura
metatarso-falngica. Al control del sleo se sumarn los gemelos cuando la rodilla pueda flexionarse, despus de que el
pie contrario haya sobrepasado al de apoyo y no choque con el
suelo. Slo apoya el antepi, y es el perodo en el que se genera
el pico de potencia A2, de aceleracin, accin concntrica de
los flexores plantares, para elevar el cuerpo. La inclinacin de
los metatarsianos ya no depende exclusivamente del pie, y no
es un factor importante de sobrecarga anterior. Sin embargo, la
longitud absoluta (durante la transicin del segundo al tercero)
y relativa (durante todo el rocker) de los metatarsianos, es un
factor muy importante de sobrecarga. La brevedad excesiva de
M1 o su incapacidad de estabilizarse contra el suelo, producir
una metatarsalgia de radios menores.
272
propulsiva.
dgito-plantar.
273
274
y en la transicin al tercero.
de
las
luxaciones
metatarso-
falngicas.
Las luxaciones metatarso-falngicas tambin son
distintas segn el rocker en que se produzcan.
Las propulsivas o del tercer rocker suelen producirse en el plano sagital, aunque tambin pueden
desviarse en el transversal. Por ejemplo, en el
Figura 6. La queratosis plantar a la IF del dedo gordo, denota
algn grado de limitacin a la dorsiflexin de la MF1. En el hallux
rigidus el pie realiza una supinacin durante el tercer rocker.
El fenmeno queda patente en las queratosis de tercer rocker
de los radios laterales. Bajo M2 hay una queratosis de segundo
rocker, producida por la elevacin del primer metatarsiano. La
queratosis que se aprecia en el primer radio, corresponde a la
base de la falange proximal del hallux.
sndrome del segundo espacio, debido a la prominencia relativa de M2 sobre M1 y/o M3, el segundo
dedo se desva en sentido medial, y secundariamente pueden aparecer fenmenos compresivos
(neuropatas, bursitis) por acercamiento de las
cabezas de M2 y M3. En los casos de limitacin
275
de 2 y 3, brevedad de 4 y 5, prominencia de
la luxacin.
Figura 8. El PLL es estabilizador de la primera cneo-metatarsiana, por llevar M1 a flexin plantar y pronacin. Est activo
durante el segundo y tercer rocker. Se apoya en el cuboides para
cambiar de direccin y ascender en su porcin distal. Gracias
a ese desnivel entre el cuboides y la base de M1, el PLL puede
imprimir flexin plantar a M1. Ante una pronacin subtalar se
pierde su brazo de momento estabilizador. (Tras Donatelli 19).
276
277
del trceps.
278
lo aumentan (16).
279
280
flexin plantar.
contrctiles.
281
articulacin interfalngica.
282
283
BIBLIOGRAFA
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3.- Kirtley C: Cinical Gait Analysis. Churchill-Livingstone. Elsevier. 2006.
4.- Glasoe WM, Yack HJ, Saltzman CL: Anatomy and biomechanics of the first ray. Phys Ther 1999; 79 (9): 854-9.
5.- Sarrafian SK; Anatomy of the Foot and Ankle. Descriptive,
Topographical, Functional. 2 ed. JB Lippincott. Philadelphia,
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pain, part I: functional hallux limitus. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc
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11.- Hill RS: Ankle equinus. Prevalence and linkage to common
foot pathology. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 1995; 85 (6): 295-300.
12.- Johnson CH, Christensen JC: Biomechanics of the first
ray. Part V: the effect of equinus deformity. A 3-dimensional
kinematic study on a cadaver model. J Foot Ankle Surg 2005;
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13.- DiGiovanni CW, Kuo R, Tejwani N, Price R, Hansen ST,
Cziernecki J, Sangeorzan BJ: Isolated gastrocnemius tightness.
J Bone Joint Surg 2002; 84A: 962-70.
28.- Kirby KA. Foot and lower extremity biomechanics: a tenyear collection of Precision Intricast newsletters. Payson, AZ:
Precision Intricast, 1997.
15.- Tomaro JE, Burdett RG, Chadran AM: Subtalar joint motion
and the relationship to lower extremity oveurse injuries. J Am
Podiatr Med Assoc 1996; 86 (9): 427-32.
29.- Coughlin MJ, Jones CP, Viladot R, Golano P, Grebing BR, Kennedy MJ, Shurnas PS, Alvarez-Goenaga F: Hallux valgus and first
ray mobility: a cadaveric study. Foot Ankle Int 2004; 25 (8): 537-44.
284
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