Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Don Hensley
Marvin Milewits
Wenlin Zhang
Rosharon, Texas, USA
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Bill Jones,
Bic Nguyen, Chris Spring, Henry Stevenson and Tony
Veneruso, Schlumberger Perforating & Testing Center,
Rosharon, Texas, USA; and Ting Lau, Schlumberger
Sugar Land Product Center, Sugar Land, Texas.
ARC5 (Array Resistivity Compensated), IRIS (Intelligent
Remote Implementation System), MSRT (MultiSensor
Recorder/Transmitter), RAB (Resistivity-at-the-Bit) and
UNIGAGE are marks of Schlumberger.
42
Oilfield Review
Electron flow
Load
Electrolyte
Autumn 1998
e-
Cathode
Anode
Separator
43
Chemistry
Alkaline
Lithium copper oxide
Lithium copper oxyphosphate
22 to 176 F [30 to 80 C]
22 to 257 F [30 to 125 C]
122 to 347 F [50 to 175 C]
The early SSDP battery pack. In this one-piece, all-metal, welded housing, individual
cells were locked in place with epoxy resin. This design was costly and made the packs
a disposal problem.
3.6
[LiSOCI2]
3.4
3.2
3.0
[LiSO2]
2.8
2.6
[LiMnO2]
2.0
[MgMnO2]
1.8
1.6
[LiFeS2]
[ZnAg2O]
1.4
[ZnHg0]
1.2
[Alkaline-MnO2]
1.0
[Zn-air]
[CdHgO]
0.8
[Zn-carbon]
0.6
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Discharged capacity, %
44
Optimal battery designs address electrochemistry, tool power needs, packaging and
diverse considerations such as cost, shelf
life, shipping regulations, remaining life
and disposal. These factors were not always
considered prior to the 1980s when batteries were a last-minute tool addendum, usually obtained from outside vendors.
In 1984, a Flopetrol-Johnston group in
Melun, France, requested that engineering
counterparts in the USA develop another
source for the SSDP pressure-recording tool
battery. Prior to that time, there were three
SSDP batteries, each with different
chemistries and temperature ranges (above
left). Because each cell chemistry had limited operating temperatures, field engineers
had to plan each job carefully. One unusual
prejob procedure required lithium copper
oxyphosphate packs to be short circuited
intentionally to warm them up above 122F
[50C]. Wireline operators then had to lower
the tool into the hole quickly before the batteries cooled down. Operations in cold
weather were problematic.
The original SSDP battery was a one-piece
pack, consisting of a welded metal tube that
contained the cells and had two solid end
pieces for connectors (left). Individual electrochemical cells, typically AA size, were held in
place by epoxy. These packs were difficult to
dispose of and expensive.
Batteries for reliable oilfield service
require cell components, processes and
packaging to be addressed in a systematic
fashion. Beginning with basic electrochemical technology, a second SSDP battery with one chemistry for the entire range
of operating temperatures was developed.
To ensure safe and cost-effective battery
operation, both packaging and cell electrochemistry were reevaluated.
In the search for a new battery supply, electrochemistry was scrutinized first. Downhole
tools are relatively small, but increasingly
need more operating power. High-voltage
chemistries require fewer cells to meet
these power requirements, fit the space available inside tools more easily and reduce cost
(left). Lithium thionyl chloride [LiSOCl2]
appeared to be best for oilfield service in part
because only one battery type was needed for
most temperatures, simplifying field inventory.
1. Gabano JP (ed): Lithium Batteries. London, England:
Academic Press, 1983.
Oilfield Review
Lithium thionyl chloride chemistry was discovered almost by accident. In 1969, JeanPaul Gabano, a French chemist, was
developing a rechargeable lithium battery
comprised of a lithium cell containing
thionyl chloride electrolyte with dissolved
chlorine acting as the cathode. The cell
demonstrated high-current rechargeable performance and, surprisingly, continued to
produce current even after the chlorine
depleted. An evaluation determined that
thionyl chloride could also serve as the cathode and the LiSOCl2 battery was born.1
Theoretically, lithium thionyl chloride batteries should not exist. Normally, when an
anode touches a cathode, oxidation and
reduction begin immediately and continue in
an abrupt short-circuit reaction. During cell
manufacture, however, when liquid thionyl
chloride is poured into the lithium metal cell,
there are no violent reactions because of the
instantaneous formation of a LiCl layer on the
freshly wetted lithium metal surface. This passivation layer seals the surface from further
direct contact with the liquid cathode and
prevents dangerous reactions.
This chemistry, with one of the highest
energy densities of practical cells, has some
limitations and intrinsic safety issues.
Lithium metal mixed with water is
flammable and explosive, the liquid electrolyte is corrosive and toxic, and high-rate
electrode structures are susceptible to
explosions when shorted. Low-rate electrodes have the same hazards at high temperatures. Explosions can also result from
forced over-discharge and cell charging.
This chemistry also exhibits a voltage delay,
or passivation, with load onset, which is a
function of storage time and temperature.
As a result, lithium batteries must be predischargeddepassivatedbefore use.
Lithium thionyl chloride chemistry was not
widely used at first and had been available
commercially for fewer than 10 years when
this chemical reevaluation began. There
were initial concerns and problems related
to premature market introduction, including
leaks and failures in airline emergency lighting, an early use of these batteries. In
response, strict shipping regulations were
put into effect. Batteries with liquid cathodes
and more than 0.5, but less than 12, grams
of lithium had to pass specific tests and be
placed in special containers before being
shipped on cargo aircraft. By 1984, five vendors were making this type of cell and most
of the associated problems were understood
and had been addressed.
Autumn 1998
Battery Terminology1
45
The next concern in developing a new battery source was packaging. The previous
method of enclosing cells in a metallic tube
was costly and did not enhance safety.
Instead, a new design concept separated the
battery into two parts (right). Rather than dispose of the entire depleted battery pack, only
the section containing cells is removed. The
remaining housing, consisting of the metal
tube and end pieces, is reused. Because cells
can leak, the reusable battery package is gastight to protect tools against corrosive leakage from the encapsulated cells. Pressure
relief valves are built into the end-caps to
allow controlled venting.
The result of this new chemistry and packaging was a 50% reduction in SSDP battery
cost. This backup source soon became the
primary source and the first stage of newgeneration battery developments was complete. Currently, the hazards and limitations
of lithium-based batteries cannot be eliminated completely, but must be understood
and addressed by battery developers, tool
designers and end-users. Schlumberger considers battery safety issues to be of paramount
importance and addresses them in detail during the evaluation and design process.
A new pack design. A novel approach replaced expensive one-piece, metal batteries by
building packs in sections. A removable cell holder is disposable, but the housing can be
reused. The end-caps have integral valves to relieve internal pressure in the event of an
accidental cell leak.
Idealized lithium cell. Major components of a nonrechargable, or primary, lithium thionyl chloride battery are the anode, cathode, electrolytic salt and a
separator. For this chemistry, the cathode and electrolyte are the same. Electrons from the lithium anode
flow toward the positive terminal by way of the external circuit, or load. Lithium ions diffuse through the
catholytecombined cathode and electrolyte
toward the positive terminal. Thionyl chloride at the
positive terminal meets returning electrons, which are
reduced to form chloride ions, sulfur and sulfur dioxide. Chloride ions combine with lithium ions to form
lithium chloride, a solid that is deposited on the carbon electrode reaction site.
46
Can
Separator
Carbon electrode
Anode
Liquid cathode
Electron flow
Load
+
Separator
Glass-to-metal
seal (GMS)
Carbon electrode
Anode
Liquid cathode
Anode reaction:
+
4Li
4Li +4e
Overall reaction:
4Li + 2SOCI2
(solid) (liquid)
Can
Cathode reaction:
S+SO2+4CI
2SOCI2+4e
4LiCl + S + SO2
(solid) (solid) (gas)
Oilfield Review
Hermetically
welded seam
Positive terminal
Cover
Glass-to-metal
seal (GMS)
Top insulator
Separator
Anode
Cathode
Can
Current
collector
Insulating sleeve
Spot-welded
negative terminal
Bottom insulator
Limited anode-cathode surface. Bobbin-type cylindrical cells are designed for low power
and moderate to low current discharge rates. The solid internal components form concentric
shells. The anode is lithium foil and nonwoven glass paper is used as a separator. A porous
carbon plug forms the interior ring. This plug has a steel screen in the center to collect current and is connected to the positive terminal. Liquid thionyl chloride with dissolved electrolytic salt fills the void spaces. [Adapted from Linden, reference 2.]
Autumn 1998
47
Troubleshooting Batteries
Short circuits
Causes:
Externalconductivity across terminals is too
high; can occur accidentally during pack fabrication or battery operation.
Internalaccidental anode and cathode contact;
can occur during high shock and vibration.
Mechanisms:
Heat and gas are produced in an accelerated
chemical reaction. Solid discharge products form
on the carbon electrode, block surface reaction
sites and gradually decrease current output. An
explosion may occur if cell temperature rises
above 80C.
Cures:
Design low-rate cells with optimum electrode
surface area.
Confirm safety at ambient and higher temperatures with low resistance, short circuit and
mechanical tests.
Use correct safety fuse at pack level.
Temperature buildup
Causes:
Environmentalincrease in external temperature.
Internaldischarge current is too high and poor
heat dissipation.
Mechanisms:
At temperatures above 356F [180C], a lithium
anode melts. A short circuit can develop depending
on cell orientation and mechanical shock environment. At temperatures below 180C, hydrostatic
bursting and leaking welds occur due to thionyl
chlorides [SOCl2] high thermal expansion coefficient. If external temperature is low, because it is an
exothermic process, high battery temperature can
result from a discharge current that is too high.
Cures:
Use lithium alloy anode to increase melting
temperature.
Leave sufficient void volume when filling cell
with SOCl2.
Assure that battery is right size for tool load.
Design pack to have good thermal conductivity.
Cell charging
Causes:
Battery with single string of cells has an external
charging current.
A charging current flows into a battery when the
positive and negative terminals of an external
power source are connected to the corresponding
battery terminals.
A battery with multiple strings has a charging
condition when one or more strings with a higher
voltage imparts a charging current into a string
with lower voltage.
Mechanisms:
Charging current forces lithium ions to flow backwards towards anode.
Ions plate back onto lithium anode to form fine
dendrites, or metal fingers.
High surface area lithium dendrites are unstable
in SOCl2.
48
Cures:
Use a series diode in each battery string.
If required, use series diode even in a singlebattery string to avoid inadvertent charging by
an external power source.
Forced overdischarge
Causes:
Occurs when using two or more cells in a pack.
Less likely to occur if cells have uniform capacity.
Environmental factors like shocks may cause cells
to deplete differentially.
Most likely to occur near the end of battery life.
May take a long time, since driving currents are
small.
Usually does not occur during short periods of
tool operation because cells are relatively fresh.
Mechanisms:
An active cell depletes available lithium and turns
from power source to a sink.
When an external current flows through the cell,
the terminals reverse polarity.
Lithium ions flow back toward anode and
form dendrites.
Dendrites tend to form more along wet-dry
electrolyte interfaces.
Surface dendrites form slowly with low
driving currents.
Cures:
Do not deplete batteries to 0 volts.
Design tool to stop high load at a 2-volt per cell
pack equivalent. For example, 4 volt end-of-life for
a two cell-pack.
Treat packs with an open circuit voltage (OCV)
of less than 3.6-volt per cell pack equivalence
with caution.
Cell leaks
Causes:
Each cell is a miniature pressure vessel with four
weld rings on cylindrical top and bottom lids,
which can become problem areas.
High internal pressure, even on good welds, produces leaks.
Nominal internal pressure on defective welds can
produce leaks.
Mechanisms:
Escaping SOCl2 liquid combines with moisture to
form hydrochloric acid and sulfur dioxide gas.
Hydrochloric acid corrodes container exterior,
forming pits and further damaging the tool housing and electronics, and the battery. Batteries may
also build up internal pressure during thermal
cycling.
Cures:
Fabricate welds with good penetration into the
can material.
Do not overfill cells with thionyl chloride.
Operate batteries within their temperature rating.
Do not subject batteries to repeated thermal cycles.
Oilfield Review
external current and a parasitic internal current. Capacity losses can be appreciable. At
high temperatures for long periods, self-discharge has a more severe effect. The effect is
decreased without sacrificing power output
by minimizing the lithium surface area that is
open to electrolyte fluid.
Carbon pore blockingDuring lithium battery discharge, solids form inside and outside
of the carbon electrode. Solids precipitate in
carbon electrode pores and block access to
unused reaction sites, resulting in less capacity and lower voltage. This carbon passivation
occurs late in battery life. Unlike anode passivation, when solid products form on the
anode surface, it is not reversible. Carbon
plugging is more severe for high discharge
rates at low to moderate temperatures.
During discharge, chloride ions, a cathode reaction product, form inside the carbon electrode. Lithium ions, an anode
reaction product, dissolve from the lithium
anode, diffuse toward the carbon cathode
and combine with chloride ions to form
solid lithium chlorine [LiCl]. At low discharge rates, LiCl is uniformly distributed in
the carbon electrode. At higher discharge
rates, Li ions cannot diffuse deep into carbon cathodes because of ion-diffusion rate
limits. Precipitation of LiCl occurs primarily
on the outer carbon-electrode surface,
which plugs the pores and results in inefficient use of interior reaction sites. Higher
temperatures and lower currents increase
ion diffusivity and promote recovery of
some carbon volume. Cathode blocking is
more persistent and much harder to remove
than anode passivation.
Failure mechanismsLithium thionyl chloride batteries are ideal for oilfield service;
however, caution must be exercised when
handling or using this chemistry due to high
energy content. Failure modes, which normally cause hot cells or annoying leaks in less
potent batteries may create venting or runaway reactions. The reasons for this difference
are inherent high energy density and hermetic construction of lithium cells. If a short
circuit occurs, it lasts longer, gets hotter and
builds up higher internal pressure, creating a
greater hazard than lower energy systems like
nonhermetic, alkaline cells. There are five
failure modes, which can cause cell or tool
damage from resulting leaks (see
Troubleshooting Batteries, previous page).
Custom Cell Development
Autumn 1998
49
Top
Fuse
Cell
Bore
Metallic tube
Each cell contains
proprietary structures
for extra ruggedness.
Stiffening
elements
A
Bore
Cells
A
Section A-A
Bottom
Batteries for drilling. Because MWD and LWD tools are subjected to extended shocks
and vibration, power sources for these applications rely on rugged cell and battery
packaging to meet performance and reliability requirements.
Cylindrical cells
Annular cells
Annular cell designs. For annular shapes it is easier to maximize battery life and
minimize required volume compared to carousel-style cylindrical cells. Annular cell
packs also have fewer electrical connections and are more robust.
50
Oilfield Review
Design Considerations
Past unrealistic tool designer and field enduser expectations highlight confusion and
misunderstandings that exist about batteries.
Cell specifications have included a wide
range of requirements in unique and sometimes conflicting combinationssmall,
lightweight, waterproof, long-lasting, never
deplete prematurely, work at any temperature
with all tools, easy to install and remove,
reusable and rechargeable in or out of the
tool for an unlimited number of times, measure remaining power capacity, long shelf life
and no shipping or disposal restrictions.
Tool requirements are dictated by end
users in the field. There are, however, many
specifications that should be defined by tool
designers and battery-specific considerations that should be addressed early in the
development process. Ideally, these issues
should be dealt with before tool electronics
are planned and designed in order to
decrease battery costs and make tools more
battery friendly.
Costs can be reduced by minimizing tool
power and voltage requirements. Lower voltage means fewer cells and less expensive
packs. By making packs with larger annular
cells, fewer cells are needed to increase
capacity, more power and longer life are
available per cell and assembly costs are
less. Future rechargeable cell designs could
also reduce cost.
Batteries can be sized for single jobs, or
packs with larger custom cells can be used
multiple times. Tools should be able to
function through the end of battery life and
then shut down safely. Innovative management and depletion techniques will help
better utilize battery capacity and allow
maximum power to be squeezed out of
each pack. Remaining battery life and
available power can be measured by
devices in the pack or the tool can track
cumulative hours of operation.
Autumn 1998
When a battery is requested, many parameters need to be specified by both battery and
tool developers before cell design and development are initiated (below). The goal is to
establish mutually agreed, achievable objectives based on realistic input and constraints,
so user expectations can be met. Using batteries or cells developed and tested previously
is also an option. Cells from a proven battery
can be adapted to meet new requirements
more or less cells or different packaging.
Battery specifications need to detail deliverables, schedules and testing. To initiate the
design process, a project resum stating the
requirements that batteries must fulfill is prepared (see LWD Battery Project Resum,
next page). This record, which also helps
designers optimize tool electronics to use
batteries efficiently, includes operating temperatures, tool-specific power consumption,
pack and minimum operating voltage, shelf
and operating life at various temperatures,
physical dimensions, mechanical shock,
vibration and safety testing, and transportation certification. The project resum, initially written by tool designers for battery
developers and subsequently modified by
both parties, documents the design process.
After completion of a project resum, engineers design and test prototype batteries. The
next step is pilot testing. Batteries are built and
run on actual jobs in the field under the supervision of tool designers. After a predetermined
number of successful jobs, the batteries and
tools go into the commercialization phase.
Input Responsibility
Specifications
Chemistry
Battery shape
Cell design
Tool load
Battery-tool interface
Use environment
Safety requirement
Battery cost
Shipping and disposal
Battery
developer
X
Tool
designer
End user
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
51
Qualification Testing
Objective
Develop custom lithium battery to power LWD tool. Tool will be subjected to unusual shock and vibration
stimuli at temperatures exceeding 150 C.
Description
The pack will fit inside the LWD tool battery compartment (see dimensions below) and provide N watts
of tool power for Y days at 175 C.
Technical and performance advantages
This battery must provide uninterrupted power for continuous tool operation during drilling. Previous
tools suffered intermittent power outages due to mechanically induced battery short circuits. High power
capacity is required to ensure tool operation during the total life of a drill bit.
General specifications
Description
Target
Current
Verification
Dimensions
Length, in.
24
28
C, L
OD, in.
2.5
2.8
C, L
Connector termination
TBD
L
Power
Open circuit voltage (OCV)
29
Same
L
Minimum voltage
20
Same
L
Nominal current, amps
0.3
TBD
L, F
Independent operation, days
14
TBD
L, F
Temperature range
0 to 175 C
TBD
L, F
Mechanical shock
TBD
TBD
L, F
Price, $USD
<500
TBD
E
Legend
C: Design calculations E: Experience from previous study F: Field testing
L: Laboratory testing
TBD: To be determined
Feasibility status and development plans
In this section, battery users and designers list concerns, specific technical challenges and issues that
affect timely development of the proposed battery. Previous work that may serve as a guide is typically
included in this section.
As projects progress, this section is used to document changes to original specifications or schedules.
Updates are performed at specific milestones during product development reviews as indicated in the
schedule. Changes and input are made as needed and communicated to users or battery designers when
they occur.
Schedule
Project launch
Feasibility review
Field prototype available
Field test conclusion
Commercialization
Plan
First quarter 1998
Second quarter 1998
Third quarter 1998
First quarter 1999
Second quarter 1999
Actual
First quarter 1998
Second quarter 1998
Fourth quarter 1998
TBD
TBD
Project team
These groups represent the core team that is responsible for the development of specific batteries.
Typically, each battery developer has three to five projects, as well as field support responsibility for
batteries developed previously.
Battery developer
Assigned engineer
Mechanical engineer
Electrical engineer
Mechanical or electrical technician
Manufacturing engineer
Buyer
52
Tool designer
Project leader
Mechanical engineer
Electrical engineer
The battery qualification program was optimized after years of testing and analysis.
Upon completion of safety, electrical and
mechanical qualification testing at SPT, batteries are manufactured for field tests. Tool,
field and SPT battery engineers work closely
during testing. Any issues that arise from field
tests are addressed quickly to obtain a quality
product that meets or exceeds expectations.
Staffed with a research team, electrical and
mechanical design engineers, and technicians, SPT fully supports battery sustaining
issues anywhere in the world.
A blast-resistant building was built at SPT
specifically to perform qualification tests and
troubleshooting. The Battery Electrical and
Shock Testing (BEST) facility has 10 explosion-resistant bays with ovens, specially
designed shock machines, and a control
room in which tests in each bay are monitored by computers (next page, left). Testing
capability of the BEST facility is being
expanded due to the increased number of
tools and new business opportunities requiring special batteries. Battery manufacturing
and engineering at SPT achieved ISO 9001
certification in August 1996.
Tests are sometimes conducted to determine failure modes and severity, and to
ensure that batteries are not operated near
failure. Cells in various stages of depletion
are placed in a pressure vessel and subjected
to 15,000 psi [103 MPa] at temperatures up
to 302F [150C] to simulate flooding of a
battery housing. Battery packs are also
placed in a tool and heated until they
explode to verify that tools can be recovered
in the event of a downhole failure. Cells with
various types of lithium chemistry are tested
to determine the temperatures that can be
tolerated without affecting battery performance or compromising safety. Cells have
even been crushed hydraulically to simulate
being dropped or physically damaged.
A short circuit can occur accidentally during manufacturing and assembly or in severe
field conditions. Safety is of utmost importance, so tests are performed to determine if
the cells can withstand a direct short without
leaking or venting. New batteries undergo
short-circuit testing at room temperature and
122F [50C] to confirm that cells are safe at
all ambient temperature conditions.
To assess battery autonomy, electrical tests
are performed at the cell and pack levels.
Initial testing is performed on the cells with a
static resistive or constant current load to
determine cell performance at the maximum
rated temperature. Results are analyzed and, if
necessary, the cell is redesigned. Next, a sim-
Oilfield Review
Autumn 1998
53
Service type
Wireline logging
Drilling measurements
Seismic data acquisition
54
Typical
battery
OD, in.
Typical
battery
length, in.
Voltage
potential,
V
Energy
capacity,
A-hr
1 to 1.5
1.5 to 4.5
2
15
25 to 100
15
7
20 to 60
7
12 to 28
28 to 30
34
Oilfield Review
Tool run 1
Position 1
Pack A
(100 hr)
Pack A
(50 hr)
Tool run 2
Pack A
(0 hr)
Position 1
Pack B
(96 hr)
Pack B
(46 hr)
Pack B
(0 hr)
Pack C
(100 hr)
Pack C
(98 hr)
Pack C
(96 hr)
Start
Logging
Finish
Switch
pack
Position 2
Pack B
(100 hr)
Pack B
(98 hr)
Pack B
(96 hr)
Start
Logging
Finish
Position 2
Sequential MWD and LWD battery depletion. The battery pack in first position is removed from the tool at the surface. The pack from
second position, which was operating on standby current and as a backup power source, is moved into first position. A new battery is
placed in second position. This procedure ensures that a fresh battery pack is available if a drill-bit run is longer than anticipated.
Autumn 1998
Rechargeables
55
Smaller
400
350
300
Ni-MH
200
100
50
0
20
Ni-Cd
150
Li-Ion
250
PbAcid
Energy densities of
common secondary
batteries. Chemistries
with the highest volumetric and gravmetric energy content make the
smallest and lightest
rechargeable cells,
respectively. However, the energy
densities of most
practical secondary
batteries are far less
than primary electrochemistries like
lithium thionyl
chloride.
40
60
80
100
120
Gravimetric energy density, W-hr/kg
Fuel Cells
140
160
Lighter
56
Fuel cells (FC) also generate power from electrochemical reactions, but unlike batteries,
which have a finite amount of chemicals, fuel
is stored separately from the reaction zone.
Theoretically, a fuel cell will run forever if
fuel and oxidizer are supplied continuously.
Small fuel cells (less than 500 watts) can
replace batteries in some ambient surface
applications. If power is required for long
periods of time, fuel cells have an advantage
over batteries because the fuel source is
expandable and renewable. Fuel cells can
also have a higher energy density than batteries with resident fixed chemical supplies if
designed properly. Tripling battery life
requires a cell that is three times larger, but
only the fuel tank size needs to be tripled for
a fuel cell. Three types of fuel cells are applicable at low or medium temperatures.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel
cells use an ion exchange membrane electrolyte. A polymer film with good acid functionality provides higher proton mobility for
high power density. The typical PEMFC
operating temperature is from 68 to 212F
[20 to 100C]. These fuel cells can be sized
for milliwatt to kilowatt power. In smaller
sizes, the systems are simple with few moving parts, start quickly and can be throttled
up and down rapidly. Presently, high cost
limits wide application.
No fuel cell is right for all applications. For
small 10-W to 1-kW portable applications,
the PEMFC offers the most advantages and a
great deal of flexibility, ranging from passive
systems with no moving parts for lowpower applications to systems with the
complexity and power output of internal
combustion engines.
These systems can use hydrogen or
methanol directly as fuel. For surface applications, an air-breathing system is used
instead of pure oxygen to supply oxidizer. A
direct methanol PEMFC permits the convenient use of a liquid fuel that is easy to transport. Refueling is like filling the gas tank on
a lawn mower. A hydrogen-fueled PEMFC is
Oilfield Review
Load
Electron flow
(H2O)
Water and
waste heat
Cathode
Anode
(H2)
Hydrogen fuel
(O2)
Air supply
Anode reaction:
+
H2
2H +2e
Cathode reaction:
+
O2+4H +4e
2H2O
refueled by pressurized tank. Because hydrogen oxidation electrocatalysts support current densities an order of magnitude greater
than methanol oxidation electrocatalysts and
oxidize hydrogen at a higher cell potential
than methanol can be oxidized, a hydrogenfueled PEMFC operates at higher power density. This leads to smaller systems to meet
given power requirements. Safer gas storage,
such as metal hydride hydrogen devices, are
available. Hydrogen stored as a metal
hydride is not under high pressure. If the tank
ruptures, release is slow and hydrogen dissipates quickly instead of pooling like propane
or butane because it is lighter than air and
has a rapid diffusion rate.
The phosphoric acid fuel cell uses liquid
phosphoric acid in an inorganic matrix as
the electrolyte and must operate at 302 to
428F [150 to 220C] due to the poor acid
ionic conductivity at low temperatures. The
phosphoric acid FC is the most advanced
system for commercial power generation.
High operating temperatures and low power
densitythe major disadvantagemake this
system suitable only for multikilowatt stationary applications, but it is efficient in this
role. Most phosphoric acid FCs operate on
natural gas from pipelines or on-site storage.
Autumn 1998
57