ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 13e

CHAPTER 3:
Ecosystems: What Are
They and How Do
They Work?

Core Case Study:

Tropical Rainforests Are Disappearing (1)
Found near the equator
2% land surface
~50% worlds known terrestrial plant and
animal species
50% destroyed or disturbed by humans
Cutting trees
Growing crops
Grazing cattle
Building settlements

Core Case Study:

Tropical Rainforests Are Disappearing (2)
Consequences of disappearing tropical
rainforests
1. Decreased biodiversity as species become
extinct
2. Accelerated global warming: fewer trees to
remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
3. Changes regional weather patterns: can lead
to increase in tropical grasslands

Fig. 3-1, p. 39

3-1 What Keeps Us and Other

Organisms Alive?
Concept 3-1A The four major components
of the earths life-support system are the
atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water),
the geosphere (rock, soil, sediment), and
the biosphere (living things).
Concept 3-1B Life is sustained by the flow
of energy from the sun through the
biosphere, the cycling of nutrients within
the biosphere, and gravity.

Earth Has Four Major LifeSupport Components

Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Geosphere
Biosphere

Fig. 3-2, p. 41

Vegetation
and animals

Atmosphere
Biosphere
Soil
Rock
Lithosphere

Crust
Mantle

Biosphere
(living organisms)
Core

Mantle

Atmosphere
(air)
Crust
(soil and rock)

Geosphere
(crust, mantle, core)

Hydrosphere
(water)
Fig. 3-2, p. 41

Three Factors Sustain Life on

Earth
One-way flow of high-quality energy
from the sun
Cycling of matter or nutrients through
parts of the biosphere
Gravity

Solar Energy Reaching the

Earth
Electromagnetic waves
Visible light
UV radiation
Heat

Natural greenhouse effect

Energy in = energy out
Human-enhanced global warming

Fig. 3-3, p. 41

Solar
radiation

Reflected by
atmosphere

UV radiation

Most
absorbed
by ozone

Radiated by
atmosphere
as heat

Lower Stratosphere
(ozone layer)
Visible
light

Troposphere
Heat

Absorbed
by the earth

Heat radiated
by the earth
Greenhouse
effect

Fig. 3-3, p. 41

3-2 What Are the Major

Components of an Ecosystem?
Concept 3-2 Some organisms
produce the nutrients they need,
others get the nutrients they need by
consuming other organisms, and
some recycle nutrients back to
producers by decomposing the
wastes and remains of organisms.

Ecology
How organisms interact with biotic
and abiotic environment
Focuses on specific levels of matter:
Organisms
Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere

Fig. 3-4, p. 42

Biosphere

Parts of the earth's air,water, and soil

where life is found

Ecosystem

A community of different species

interacting with one another and with
their nonliving environment of matter
and energy

Community

Populations of different species

living in a particular place, and
potentially interacting with each
other

Population

A group of individuals of the same

species living in a particular place

Organism

An individual living being

Cell

The fundamental structural and

functional unit of life

Molecule

Chemical combination of two or

more atoms of the same or different
elements

Atom

Smallest unit of a chemical element

that exhibits its chemical properties

Water

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Fig. 3-4, p. 42

Biosphere

Parts of the earth's air,water, and soil

where life is found

Ecosystem

A community of different species

interacting with one another and with
their nonliving environment of matter
and energy

Community

Populations of different species

living in a particular place, and
potentially interacting with each
other

Population

A group of individuals of the same

species living in a particular place

Organism

An individual living being

Cell

The fundamental structural and

functional unit of life

Molecule

Chemical combination of two or

more atoms of the same or different
elements

Atom

Smallest unit of a chemical element

that exhibits its chemical properties

Stepped Art
Fig. 3-4, p. 42

Living and Nonliving

Components (1)
Abiotic
Water
Air
Nutrients
Solar energy
Rocks
Heat

Living and Nonliving

Components (2)
Biotic
Plants
Animals
Microbes
Dead organisms
Waste products of dead organisms

Fig. 3-5, p. 43

Oxygen (O2)

Precipitation

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Producer
Secondary
consumer
(fox)
Primary
consumer
(rabbit)

Producers
Water

Decomposers
Soluble mineral
nutrients
Fig. 3-5, p. 43

Trophic Levels (1)

Producers autotrophs
Photosynthesis

Consumers heterotrophs
Primary - herbivores
Secondary - carnivores
Third-level

Omnivores

Trophic Levels (2)

Decomposers
Release nutrients from the dead bodies
of plants and animals

Detrivores
Feed on the waste or dead bodies of
organisms

Fig. 3-6, p. 44

Detritus feeders

Decomposers

Carpenter
Termite and
Bark beetle ant galleries carpenter
engraving
Dry rot
ant work
Long-horned
fungus
beetle holes
Wood
reduced Mushroom
to powder

Time
progression

Powder broken down by

decomposers into plant
nutrients in soil
Fig. 3-6, p. 44

Production and Consumption of

Energy
Photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide + water + solar
energy glucose + oxygen
Aerobic respiration
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide
+ water + energy

Energy Flow and Nutrient

Recycling
Ecosystems sustained through:
One-way energy flow from the sun
Nutrient recycling

Fig. 3-7, p. 45

Heat

Abiotic chemicals
(carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen,
minerals)

Heat

Heat

Producers
(plants)

Decomposers
(bacteria, fungi)

Heat

Solar
energy

Consumers
(herbivores,
carnivores)

Heat
Fig. 3-7, p. 45

Science Focus: Invisible

Organisms (1)
Microorganisms/Microbes
Bacteria
Protozoa
Fungi
Phytoplankton

Science Focus: Invisible

Organisms (2)
Microbes can cause disease
Malaria
Athletes foot

Microbes are also beneficial

Intestinal flora
Purify water
Phytoplankton remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere

3-3 What Happens to Energy in

an Ecosystem?
Concept 3-3 As energy flows through
ecosystems in food chains and webs,
the amount of chemical energy
available to organisms at each
succeeding feeding level decreases.

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Trophic levels
Food chain
Sequence of organisms, each of which
serves as a source of food for the next

Food web
Network of interconnected food chains
More complex than a food chain

Fig. 3-8, p. 46

First Trophic
Level

Second Trophic
Level

Third Trophic
Level

Fourth Trophic
Level

Producers
(plants)

Primary
consumers
(herbivores)

Secondary
consumers
(carnivores)

Tertiary
consumers
(top carnivores)

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

Solar
energy
Heat
Heat

Heat

Decomposers and detritus feeders

Fig. 3-8, p. 46

Fig. 3-9, p. 46

Humans
Sperm whale

Blue whale

Elephant
seal

Crabeater
seal

Adelie
penguin

Killer
whale

Leopard
seal

Emperor
penguin
Squid

Petrel
Fish

Carnivorous
plankton

Herbivorous
zooplankton

Krill

Phytoplankton
Fig. 3-9, p. 46

Usable Energy by Trophic Level

Energy flow follows the second law of
thermodynamics energy lost as
heat
Biomass decreases with increasing
trophic level
Ecological efficiency typically 10%
Pyramid of energy flow

Fig. 3-10, p. 47

Usable energy available

at each trophic level
(in kilocalories)
Tertiary
consumers
(human)

10

Secondary
consumers
(perch)

100

Primary
consumers
(zooplankton)

Heat

Heat

Heat

Decomposers

Heat

1,000
Heat
10,000

Producers
(phytoplankton)

Fig. 3-10, p. 47

Usable energy available

at each trophic level
(in kilocalories)

Tertiary
consumers
(human)

10

Secondary
consumers
(perch)

100

Primary
consumers
(zooplankton)

Heat

Heat

Heat

Decomposers

Heat

1,000
Heat
10,000

Producers
(phytoplankton)

Stepped Art
Fig. 3-10, p. 47

Two Kinds of Primary

Productivity
Gross primary productivity (GPP)
Net primary productivity (NPP)
Planets NPP limits number of
consumers
Humans use, waste, or destroy 1055% of earths total potential NPP
Human population is less than 1% of
total biomass of earths consumers

Fig. 3-11, p. 48

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Swamps and marshes
Tropical rain forest
Temperate forest
Northern coniferous
forest (taiga)
Savanna
Agricultural land
Woodland and shrubland
Temperate grassland

Tundra (arctic and alpine)

Desert scrub
Extreme desert

Aquatic Ecosystems
Estuaries
Lakes and streams
Continental shelf
Open ocean
800

1,600 2,400 3,200 4,000 4,800 5,600 6,400 7,200 8,000 8,800 9,600
Average net primary productivity (kcal/m2/yr)

Fig. 3-11, p. 48

3-4 What Happens to Matter in

an Ecosystem?
Concept 3-4 Matter, in the form of
nutrients, cycles within and among
ecosystems and in the biosphere, and
human activities are altering these
chemical cycles.

Biogeochemical Cycles
Nutrient cycles
Reservoirs
Connect all organisms through time

Hydrologic Cycle
Water cycle is powered by the sun
1. Evaporation
2. Precipitation
3. Transpiration - evaporates from plant
surfaces

Water vapor in the atmosphere comes

from the oceans 84%
Over land, ~90% of water reaching the
atmosphere comes from transpiration

Fig. 3-12, p. 49

Climate
change
Condensation

Ice and
snow

Condensation

Precipitation
to land

Transpiration
from plants

Evaporation
from land

Evaporation
from ocean

Surface runoff
Runoff
Lakes and
reservoirs
Infiltration
and percolation
into aquifer

Reduced recharge of
aquifers and flooding
from covering land
with crops and
buildings

Increased
flooding
from wetland
destruction

Precipitation
to ocean

Point
source
pollution

Surface
runoff
Groundwater
movement (slow)
Processes

Aquifer
depletion from
overpumping

Ocean

Processes affected by humans

Reservoir
Pathway affected by humans
Natural pathway

Fig. 3-12, p. 49

Science Focus: Waters Unique

Properties (1)
Holds water molecules together
hydrogen bonding
Liquid over a wide temperature range
Changes temperature slowly
Requires large amounts of energy to
evaporate

Science Focus: Waters Unique

Properties (2)
Dissolves a variety of compounds
Filters out UV light from the sun
Adheres to a solid surface allows
capillary action in plants
Expands as it freezes

Carbon Cycle
Based on carbon dioxide (CO2)
CO2 makes up 0.038% of atmosphere
volume
Major cycle processes
Aerobic respiration
Photosynthesis
Fossil fuel combustion and deforestation

Fossil fuels add CO2 to the atmosphere

and contribute to global warming

Fig. 3-13, p. 51

Carbon dioxide
in atmosphere
Respiration
Photosynthesis
Forest fires

Animals
(consumers)

Diffusion

Burning
fossil fuels

Deforestation
Transportation

Carbon dioxide
dissolved in ocean
Marine food webs
Producers, consumers,
decomposers
Carbon
in limestone or
dolomite sediments

Respiration

Plants
(producers)

Carbon
in plants
(producers)

Carbon
in animals
(consumers)
Decomposition

Carbon
in fossil
fuels

Compaction

Processes
Reservoir
Pathway affected by humans
Natural pathway
Fig. 3-13, p. 51

Nitrogen Cycle
Multicellular plants and animals
cannot utilize atmospheric nitrogen
(N2)
Nitrogen fixation
Nitrification
Ammonification
Denitrification

Fig. 3-14, p. 52

Processes
Nitrogen
in atmosphere

Reservoir
Pathway affected by humans
Natural pathway

Denitrification
by bacteria

Electrical
storms
Nitrogen oxides
from burning fuel

Nitrates
from fertilizer
runoff and
decomposition

Volcanic
activity

Nitrogen
in animals
(consumers)
Nitrification
by bacteria
Nitrogen
in plants
(producers)

Decomposition

Uptake by plants

Nitrate
in soil
Nitrogen
loss to deep
ocean sediments

Nitrogen
in ocean
sediments

Bacteria
Ammonia
in soil

Fig. 3-14, p. 52

Phosphorus Cycle
Does not cycle through the
atmosphere
Obtained from terrestrial rock
formations
Limiting factor on land and in
freshwater ecosystems
Biologically important for producers
and consumers

Fig. 3-15, p. 53

Processes
Reservoir
Pathway affected by humans
Natural pathway
Phosphates
in sewage
Phosphates
in mining waste

Phosphates
in fertilizer

Plate
tectonics

Runoff

Runoff

Sea
birds
Runoff
Erosion

Animals
(consumers)

Phosphate
dissolved in
water

Plants
(producers)

Phosphate
in rock
(fossil bones,
guano)
Phosphate
in shallow
ocean sediments

Ocean
food chain

Phosphate
in deep
ocean
sediments

Bacteria

Fig. 3-15, p. 53

Sulfur Cycle
Most sulfur stored in rocks and minerals
Enters atmosphere through:
Volcanic eruptions and processes
Anaerobic decomposition in swamps,
bogs, and tidal flats
Sea spray
Dust storms
Forest fires

Fig. 3-16, p. 54

Sulfur dioxide
in atmosphere
Sulfuric acid
and Sulfate
deposited as
acid rain
Smelting

Burning
coal

Refining
fossil fuels
Sulfur
in animals
(consumers)

Dimethyl
sulfide
a bacteria
byproduct

Sulfur
in ocean
sediments

Processes
Reservoir

Sulfur
in plants
(producers)

Mining and
extraction

Decay

Uptake
by plants

Decay

Sulfur
in soil, rock
and fossil fuels

Pathway affected by humans

Natural pathway
Fig. 3-16, p. 54

3-5 How Do Scientists Study

Ecosystems?
Concept 3-5 Scientists use field
research, laboratory research, and
mathematical and other models to
learn about ecosystems.

Field Research
Collecting data in the field by
scientists
Remote sensing devices
Geographic information systems
(GIS)

Laboratory Research
Simplified model ecosystems
Culture tubes
Bottles
Aquariums
Greenhouses
Chambers with controllable abiotic factors

How well do lab experiments correspond

with the greater complexity of real
ecosystems?

Scientific Studies of
Ecosystems
Models
Mathematical
Computer simulations

Models need to be fed real data

collected in the field- baseline data
Models must determine relationships
among key variables

Baseline Data to Measure

Earths Health
Needed to measure changes over
time
Lacking for many ecosystems
Call for massive program to develop
baseline data

Animation: Levels of
organization

Animation: Linked Processes

Animation: Feedback Control of

Temperature

Animation: Diet of a Red Fox

Animation: Prairie Trophic

Levels

Animation: Rainforest Food

Web

Animation: Energy Flow in

Silver Springs

Animation: Biomes Map

Animation: Prairie Food Web

Animation: Gauses Competition

Experiment

Animation: Visible Light

Animation: Energy Flow

Animation: Roles of Organisms in

an Ecosystem

Animation: Matter Recycling

and Energy Flow

Animation: Current and Projected

Population Sizes by Region

Animation: Demographic
Transition Model

Animation: Soil Profile

Animation: Species Diversity By

Latitude

Animation: Area and Distance

Effects

Animation: Linked Processes

Animation: Categories of Food

Webs

Animation: Hydrologic Cycle

Animation: Carbon Cycle

Animation: Nitrogen Cycle

Animation: Phosphorous Cycle

Animation: Sulfur Cycle

Animation: Capture-Recapture
Method

Video: Owl with Mouse

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