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MTH 102A
Linear Algebra and Ordinary Dierential Equations

2015-16-II Semester
Arbind Kumar Lal
Indian Institute of Te hnology Kanpur
January 17, 2016
Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
over a eld
is a ve tor spa e if
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
is dened in
over a eld
for all x, y
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
s.t.
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
is ommutative, asso iative.
s.t.
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
s.t.
2) Ea h x
has an inverse (additive) w.r.t
+.
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
s.t.
2) Ea h x
3) Additive Identity element 0 exists in
for
+.
+.
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
s.t.
=x
holds for all x
F.
V,
for
+.
+.
where 1 is the multipli ative identity of
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
holds for all x
F.
5)
s.t.
()x = ( x)
V.
and
V,
for
+.
+.
( + )x = x + x
hold for all
, F
and
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
V,
holds for all x
F.
5)
()x = ( x)
and
(x + y) = x + y
for
+.
+.
( + )x = x + x
V.
6)
s.t.
holds for all
hold for all
, F
and for all x, y
V.
and
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
V,
holds for all x
F.
5)
()x = ( x)
and
R3
(x + y) = x + y
for
( + )x = x + x
holds for all
is a ve tor spa e (VS) over
+.
+.
V.
6)
s.t.
R.
Here
hold for all
, F
and for all x, y
V.
and
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
V,
holds for all x
F.
5)
()x = ( x)
and
R3
(x + y) = x + y
for
( + )x = x + x
holds for all
+.
+.
V.
6)
s.t.
R.
hold for all
, F
and for all x, y
V.
Here
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) + (y1 , y2 , y3 ) := (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 ).
and
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
V,
holds for all x
F.
5)
()x = ( x)
for
( + )x = x + x
and
(x + y) = x + y
holds for all
Mm,n := {Amn : aij C}
+.
+.
V.
6)
s.t.
is a VS over
C.
hold for all
and for all x, y

Here
[A + B]ij := aij + bij .
, F
V.
and
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
V,
holds for all x
F.
5)
()x = ( x)
from
for
( + )x = x + x
and
(x + y) = x + y
RS := {fun tions
holds for all

to
+.
+.
V.
6)
s.t.
R}
hold for all
, F
and for all x, y
is a VS over
R.
Here
V.
and
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
V,
holds for all x
F.
5)
()x = ( x)
from
for
( + )x = x + x
and
(x + y) = x + y
RS := {fun tions
holds for all

to
R}
+.
hold for all
, F
and for all x, y
is a VS over
(f + g )(s) := f (s) + g (s)
+.
V.
6)
s.t.
R.
Here
for all
s S.
V.
and
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
()x = ( x)
and
(x + y) = x + y
Fix a positive integer
n.
for
( + )x = x + x
holds for all
Then,
+.
+.
V.
6)
V,
holds for all x
F.
5)
s.t.
Cn
hold for all
, F
and for all x, y
V.
C.
and
P. Ve tor spa e
A non-empty set
+y
and
1)
is dened in
over a eld
is dened in
for all x, y
for all x
V, F
2) Ea h x

4) 1x
=x
()x = ( x)
and
(x + y) = x + y
Fix a positive integer
n.
for
( + )x = x + x
holds for all
Then,
also a ve tor spa e (VS) over

+.
+.
V.
6)
V,
holds for all x
F.
5)
s.t.
Cn
R.
hold for all
, F
and for all x, y
and
V.
C.
It is
P. Ve tor spa e: examples
The set of all real sequen es (being
RN )
is a VS over
R.
RN )
The set of all bounded real sequen es is a VS over
is a VS over
R.
R.
RN )
The set of all onvergent real sequen es is a VS over
R.
is a VS over
R.
R.
RN )
{(an ) | an R, an 0}
is a VS over
R.
R.
is a VS over
R.
R.
RN )
{(an ) | an R, an 0}
is a VS over
R.
R.
is a VS over
R.
R.
Change 0 to 1???
RN )
{(an ) | an R, an 0}
is a VS over
R.
R.
is a VS over
R.
R.
Change 0 to 1??? No.
C((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
is ontinuous} is a VS over
R.
C((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
C 2 ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
R.
R.
C((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
R.
C 2 ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
C ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
innitely dierentiable} is a VS.
R.
C((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
R.
C 2 ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
C ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
{f : (a, b) R | f + 3f + 5f = 0}
is a VS over
R.
R.
C((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
R.
C 2 ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
C ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
{f : (a, b) R | f + 3f + 5f = 0}
R[x]= {p(x) | p(x)
is a VS over
is a real polynomial in
x}
R.
is a VS over
R.
R.
C((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
R.
C 2 ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
C ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
{f : (a, b) R | f + 3f + 5f = 0}
R[x]= {p(x) | p(x)
R[x; 5]= {p(x) R[x] |
is a VS over
degree of
x}
p(x) 5}
R.
is a VS over
is a VS over
R.
R.
R.
C((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
R.
C 2 ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
C ((a, b), R) := {f : (a, b) R | f
{f : (a, b) R | f + 3f + 5f = 0}
R[x]= {p(x) | p(x)
R[x; 5]= {p(x) R[x] |
The set
{0}
is a VS over
degree of
x}
p(x) 5}
is a VS over
is a VS over
is the smallest VS over any eld.
R.
R.
R.
R.
{Ann | aij R, a11 = 0}
is a VS over
R.
{Ann | aij R, a11 = 0}

{A Mnn (R) | A
is a VS over
R.
is upper triangular} is a VS over
R.
{Ann | aij R, a11 = 0}
is a VS over
R.
{A Mnn (R) | A
{A Mnn (R) | A
is symmetri } is a VS over
R.
R.
{Ann | aij R, a11 = 0}
is a VS over
R.
{A Mnn (R) | A
{A Mnn (R) | A
skew symmetri ones?
R.
R.
What about the
{Ann | aij R, a11 = 0}
is a VS over
R.
{A Mnn (R) | A
{A Mnn (R) | A
skew symmetri ones? How about
At = 2A???
R.
R.
What about the
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
and they have the same ve tor addition and s alar multipli ation.
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
W 4 V.
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
and
W V.
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
and
W V.
Then
W4V
if and only if
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
`for all x, y
{0}
and
and
W V.
we have
W4V
x + y W
are subspa es of any VS
Then
V,
if and only if
for all
F'. !!
alled the trivial subspa es.
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
`for all x, y
{0}
and
The VS
V
R
and
W V.
we have
W4V
x + y W
over
Then
V,
if and only if
for all
F'. !!
does not have a nontrivial subspa e.
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
`for all x, y
{0}
and
The VS
V
R
and
W V.
we have
Take a subspa e
W4V
x + y W
over
Then
V,
if and only if
for all
F'. !!
W 6= {0}.
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
`for all x, y
{0}
and
The VS
V
R
and
W V.
we have
Take a subspa e
W4V
x + y W
over
Then
V,
if and only if
for all
F'. !!
W 6= {0}.
Then, there exists
aW
s.t.
a 6= 0.
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
`for all x, y
{0}
and
The VS
and
W V.
we have
over
for ea h
Then
W4V
x + y W
Take a subspa e
a W
V,
if and only if
for all
F'. !!
W 6= {0}.
R.
Then, there exists
aW
s.t.
a 6= 0.
So
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
`for all x, y
{0}
and
The VS
and
W V.
we have
over
for ea h
Then
W4V
x + y W
Take a subspa e
a W
V,
if and only if
for all
F'. !!
W 6= {0}.
R.
a W s.t. a 6= 0. So
W = R. Take t real. Then t = t/a times a.
Then, there exists
So
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
`for all x, y
{0}
and
The VS
and
W V.
we have
over
for ea h
Then
W4V
x + y W
Take a subspa e
a W
V,
if and only if
for all
F'. !!
W 6= {0}.
R.
Then, there exists
So
W = R.
R over Q has many nontrivial
Q[ 2] = {a + b 2 : a, b Q}
The VS
aW
s.t.
a 6= 0.
So
subspa es. Two of them are
Let
and
be VSs over
F.
We all
a subspa e of
if
WV
Notation:
Th
Let
W 4 V.
be a VS over
`for all x, y
{0}
and
The VS
and
W V.
we have
over
for ea h
Then
W4V
x + y W
Take a subspa e
a W
V,
if and only if
for all
F'. !!
W 6= {0}.
R.
Then, there exists
So
W = R.
aW
s.t.
a 6= 0.
So
R over Q has many nontrivial subspa es. Two of them are
Q[ 2] = {a + b 2 : a, b Q} and Q[ 3] = {a + b 3 : a, b Q}.
The VS
P. Subspa es
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
the range/ olumn spa e of
A.
is a subspa e of
Rm ,
alled
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
A.
is a subspa e of
Our notation: ol(A).
Rm ,
alled
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
A.
Note that ol(A) is basi ally
is a subspa e of
Rm ,
alled
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
A.
is a subspa e of
Rm ,
alled
Note that ol(A) is basi ally the set of all ve tors obtained by
A.
Let y_1, y_2 belong to col(A). Then, there exists vectors x_1 and
x_2 such that y_1 = A x_1 and y_2 = A x_2.
Hence, y_1 + y_2 = A(x_1 + x_2). Thus, y_1 +y_2 belong to
col(A).
adding and subtra ting real multiples of olumn ve tors of
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
is a subspa e of
Rm ,
alled
{xt A : x Rm }
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
The set
A.
A.
is a subspa e of
Rm ,
alled
{xt A : x Rm }
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
alled
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
The set
A.
A.
is a subspa e of
Rm ,
alled
{xt A : x Rm }
is a subspa e of
Our notation: row(A).
Rn ,
alled
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
Rm ,
alled
{xt A : x Rm }
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
alled
The set
A.
is a subspa e of
{x Rn : Ax = 0}
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
Rm ,
alled
{xt A : x Rm }
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
alled
The set
alled the null spa e of
A.
is a subspa e of
{x Rn : Ax = 0}
A.
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
Rm ,
alled
{xt A : x Rm }
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
alled
The set
A.
is a subspa e of
{x Rn : Ax = 0}
A.
is a subspa e of
Our notation: null(A).
Rn ,
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
The set
alled
{xt A : x Rm }
is a subspa e of
{x Rn : Ax = 0}
A.
Rn ,
alled
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
ol(A), row(A), null(A), null(A
t ) are the four fundamental subspa es
related to a real/ omplex matrix
Rm ,
A.
is a subspa e of
A.
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
{xt A : x Rm }
The set
R2 ,
6= 0.
is a subspa e of
{x Rn : Ax = 0}
A.
Rn ,
alled
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
Let a
alled
Rm ,
A.
is a subspa e of
A.
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
{xt A : x Rm }
The set
R2 ,
6= 0.
is a subspa e of
{x Rn : Ax = 0}
A.
Rn ,
alled
Then,
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
Let a
alled
Rm ,
A.
is a subspa e of
A.
{x R2 |at x = 0}
is a nontrivial subspa e of
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
{xt A : x Rm }
The set
R2 ,
6= 0.
is a subspa e of
{x Rn : Ax = 0}
A.
Rn ,
alled
Then,
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
Let a
alled
Rm ,
A.
is a subspa e of
A.
{x R2 |at x = 0}
. Geometri ally, it represents a straight line passing through the
origin.
P. Subspa es
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
{Ax : x Rn }
Fix a real
Amn .
the row spa e of
Fix a real
Amn .
The set
A.
{xt A : x Rm }
The set
R2 ,
6= 0.
is a subspa e of
{x Rn : Ax = 0}
A.
Rn ,
alled
Then,
is a subspa e of
Rn ,
Let a
alled
Rm ,
A.
is a subspa e of
A.
{x R2 |at x = 0}
. Geometri ally, it represents a straight line passing through the
R2 .
If a=[1,2]^t then the nontrivial subspace is {s [-2,1]^t : s a real number}
A line passing through origin and [-2,1].
origin. In fa t, these are the only nontrivial subspa es of
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .
We all
k
P
i =1
i xi
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .
ombination (lin. omb) of x1 ,
We all
k
P
i =1
, xk .
i xi
a linear
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .

is a subspa e of
V,
We all
k
P
i xi a linear
Pk
set {
i =1 i xi | i F}
i =1
, xk .
The
alled (linear) span of
{x1 , , xk }.
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .

is a subspa e of
Let ei
V,
We all
i xi a linear
Pk
set {
i =1 i xi | i F}
i =1
, xk .
The
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)t Rn
k
P
{x1 , , xk }.
with 1 at the
i -th
pla e.
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .

is a subspa e of
Let ei
V,
We all
R3 ,
3e1
i xi a linear
Pk
set {
i =1 i xi | i F}
i =1
, xk .
The
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)t Rn
For e1 , e2
k
P
{x1 , , xk }.
with 1 at the
+ 4e2 = [3, 4, 0]t .
i -th
pla e. Then,
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .

is a subspa e of
Let ei
V,
We all
R3 ,
3e1
, xk .
The
{x1 , , xk }.
with 1 at the
+ 4e2 = [3, 4, 0]t .
[2, 4, 8]t = 3[1, 1, 3]t [1, 1, 1]t .
i xi a linear
Pk
set {
i =1 i xi | i F}
i =1
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)t Rn
For e1 , e2
k
P
i -th
pla e. Then,
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .

is a subspa e of
Let ei
V,
We all
R3 ,
3e1
, xk .
{x1 , , xk }.
with 1 at the
i -th
pla e. Then,
+ 4e2 = [3, 4, 0]t .
t and [1, 1, 1]t .
The
[2, 4, 8]t = 3[1, 1, 3]t [1, 1, 1]t .

of [1, 1, 3]
i xi a linear
Pk
set {
i =1 i xi | i F}
i =1
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)t Rn
For e1 , e2
k
P
t is a linear ombination
So, [2, 4, 8]
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .

is a subspa e of
Let ei
V,
We all
R3 ,
3e1
, xk .
The
{x1 , , xk }.
with 1 at the
i -th
pla e. Then,
+ 4e2 = [3, 4, 0]t .
[2, 4, 8]t = 3[1, 1, 3]t [1, 1, 1]t .

t and [1, 1, 1]t .
[2, 4, 8]t = 32 [5, 1, 9]t
11
2
So, [2, 4, 8]
of [1, 1, 3]
i xi a linear
Pk
set {
i =1 i xi | i F}
i =1
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)t Rn
For e1 , e2
k
P
[1, 1, 1]t .
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .

is a subspa e of
Let ei
V,
We all
R3 ,
3e1
i xi a linear
Pk
set {
i =1 i xi | i F}
i =1
, xk .
The
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)t Rn
For e1 , e2
k
P
{x1 , , xk }.
with 1 at the
i -th
pla e. Then,
+ 4e2 = [3, 4, 0]t .
[2, 4, 8]t = 3[1, 1, 3]t [1, 1, 1]t .

t and [1, 1, 1]t .
So, [2, 4, 8]
of [1, 1, 3]
[2, 4, 8]t = 32 [5, 1, 9]t
11
2
t is also a linear
So, [2, 4, 8]
t and [1, 1, 1]t .
ombination of [5, 1, 9]
[1, 1, 1]t .
P. Subspa es
Let xi
V, i F, i = 1, , k .

is a subspa e of
Let ei
V,
We all
R3 ,
3e1
i xi a linear
Pk
set {
i =1 i xi | i F}
i =1
, xk .
The
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)t Rn
For e1 , e2
k
P
{x1 , , xk }.
with 1 at the
i -th
pla e. Then,
+ 4e2 = [3, 4, 0]t .
[2, 4, 8]t = 3[1, 1, 3]t [1, 1, 1]t .

t and [1, 1, 1]t .
So, [2, 4, 8]
of [1, 1, 3]
[2, 4, 8]t = 32 [5, 1, 9]t
11
2
t is also a linear
So, [2, 4, 8]
t and [1, 1, 1]t .
ombination of [5, 1, 9]
t , [1, 0, 1]t
[1, 1, 1]t .
R3 , the linear span equals

{(x, y , z) R3 : x = z}. a[1,-1,1]+b[1,0,1]=[a+b, -a, a+b]. So, x=z
is indeed true.
For [1, 1, 1]
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
The (linear) span of
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
Notation: ls(S) or LS(S).
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.
Notation: ls(S) or LS(S). This is a subspa e of
V.
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
= {0}.
V.
Convention:
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
Let
V.
= {0}.
S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn .
Then, ls(S)
= Rn .
Convention:
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
Let
V.
Convention:
= {0}.
S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn .
Let xj
= e1 ej Rn ,
for 2
Then, ls(S)
j n.
= Rn .
Dene
S = {x2 , . . . , xn }.
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
Let
Convention:
= {0}.
S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn .
Let xj
ls(S)
V.
= e1 ej Rn ,
= {(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
for 2
)t
Then, ls(S)
j n.
= Rn .
Dene
S = {x2 , . . . , xn }.
: y1 + y2 + + yn = 0}.
Then,
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
Let
Convention:
= {0}.
S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn .
Let xj
Let
ls(S)
V.
= e1 ej Rn ,
= {(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
S = {x n : n
for 2
)t
Then, ls(S)
j n.
Dene
S = {x2 , . . . , xn }.
: y1 + y2 + + yn = 0}.
a non-negative integer}.
= Rn .
Then,
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
Let
Convention:
= {0}.
S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn .
Let xj
Let
ls(S)
V.
= e1 ej Rn ,
= {(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
S = {x n : n
for 2
)t
Then, ls(S)
j n.
= Rn .
Dene
S = {x2 , . . . , xn }.
: y1 + y2 + + yn = 0}.
a non-negative integer}. Then ls(S)
= R[x].
Then,
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
Let
Convention:
= {0}.
S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn .
Let xj
Let
ls(S)
V.
= e1 ej Rn ,
= {(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
S = {x n : n
for 2
)t
Then, ls(S)
j n.
= Rn .
Dene
S = {x2 , . . . , xn }.
: y1 + y2 + + yn = 0}.
{x R2 | x1 x2 = 0}
is NOT a subspa e of
R2 .
= R[x].
Then,
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
Let
Convention:
= {0}.
S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn .
Let xj
Let
ls(S)
V.
= e1 ej Rn ,
= {(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
S = {x n : n
for 2
)t
Then, ls(S)
j n.
= Rn .
Dene
S = {x2 , . . . , xn }.
: y1 + y2 + + yn = 0}.
{x R2 | x1 x2 = 0}
axes.
R2 .
Then,
= R[x].
Important: Union of
P. Linear Span
Let
S V.
equals
m
P
i =1
i xi | i F, xi S}.

ls()
Let
Convention:
= {0}.
S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } Rn .
Let xj
Let
ls(S)
V.
= e1 ej Rn ,
= {(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
S = {x n : n
for 2
)t
Then, ls(S)
j n.
= Rn .
Dene
S = {x2 , . . . , xn }.
: y1 + y2 + + yn = 0}.
{x R2 | x1 x2 = 0}
R2 .
Then,
= R[x].
Important: Union of
axes. So, union of subspa es NEED NOT be a subspa e.
[1,0], [0,1] are elements of X-axis union Y-axis. But, their sum equals
[1,1] which does not satisfy "product of components is 0".
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1
and y
= [1 2
].
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1 2 1]
( " #
1
ls(x, y) =
2
1
and y
"
= [1 2 3].
#
)
+ b 2 : a, b R
Then,
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1 2 1]
( " #
1
ls(x, y) =
2
1
and y
"
= [1 2 3].
#
)
+ b 2 : a, b R
3
a+b
2a 2b
: a, b R
a + 3b
("
Then,
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1 2 1]
( " #
1
ls(x, y) =
2
1
and y
"
= [1 2 3].
#
)
Then,
+ b 2 : a, b R
3
a+b
2a 2b
: a, b R
a + 3b
("
x
y
z
(" #
: 4x y 2z = 0
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1 2 1]
( " #
1
ls(x, y) =
2
1
=
4(a
and y
"
= [1 2 3].
#
)
Then,
+ b 2 : a, b R
3
a+b
2a 2b
: a, b R
a + 3b
("
+ b) (2a 2b) 2(a + 3b) = 0.
x
y
z
(" #
: 4x y 2z = 0
as
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1 2 1]
( " #
1
ls(x, y) =
2
1
=
4(a
and y
"
= [1 2 3].
#
)
Then,
+ b 2 : a, b R
3
a+b
2a 2b
: a, b R
a + 3b
("
x
y
z
(" #
: 4x y 2z = 0
+ b) (2a 2b) 2(a + 3b) = 0.
Note that we have obtained onditions on
x, y
and
as
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1 2 1]
( " #
and y
"
ls(x, y) =
2
1
=
4(a
= [1 2 3].
#
)
Then,
+ b 2 : a, b R
3
a+b
2a 2b
: a, b R
a + 3b
("
x
y
z
(" #
: 4x y 2z = 0
+ b) (2a 2b) 2(a + 3b) = 0.

su h that the system
x, y
a + b = x, 2a 2b = y
and
and
a + 3b = z
as
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1 2 1]
( " #
and y
"
ls(x, y) =
2
1
=
4(a
= [1 2 3].
#
)
Then,
+ b 2 : a, b R
3
a+b
2a 2b
: a, b R
a + 3b
("
x
y
z
(" #
: 4x y 2z = 0
as
+ b) (2a 2b) 2(a + 3b) = 0.

a + b = x, 2a 2b = y
solution for all hoi es of
x, y
and
b.
and
and
a + 3b = z
has a
P. Linear Span
Let x
= [1 2 1]
( " #
and y
"
ls(x, y) =
2
1
=
4(a
= [1 2 3].
#
)
Then,
+ b 2 : a, b R
3
a+b
2a 2b
: a, b R
a + 3b
("
x
y
z
(" #
: 4x y 2z = 0
as
+ b) (2a 2b) 2(a + 3b) = 0.

Solving
Ax = b
the olumns of
x, y
a + b = x, 2a 2b = y
solution for all hoi es of
and
and
and
a + 3b = z
has a
b.
is equivalent to asking is b a linear ombination of
A". Does b belong to col(A)?
P. Subspa es
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
U + W := {u + w |
U, w W}
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
U + W := {u + w |
alled the sum of
and
W.
U, w W}
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
alled the sum of
it is alled the dire t sum of
U + W := {u + w |
and
W.
and
W.
When
U, w W}
U W = {0},
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
alled the sum of
U + W := {u + w |
and
W.
and
W.
When
Notation:
U, w W}
U W = {0},
U W.
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
alled the sum of
x -axis + y -axis
in
U + W := {u + w |
R2 ,
and
W.
- Dire t Sum
and
W.
When
Notation:
U, w W}
U W = {0},
U W.
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
U + W := {u + w |
alled the sum of
and
W.
x -axis + y -axis
in
R2 ,
- Dire t Sum
x -axis + y -axis
in
R3 ,
- Dire t Sum
and
W.
When
Notation:
U, w W}
U W = {0},
U W.
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
alled the sum of
x -axis + y -axis
in
R2 ,
x -axis + y -axis
in
R3 ,
x -axis + yz -plane
U + W := {u + w |
in
and
W.
- Dire t Sum
- Dire t Sum
3
- Dire t Sum
and
W.
When
Notation:
U, w W}
U W = {0},
U W.
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
alled the sum of
x -axis + y -axis
in
R2 ,
x -axis + y -axis
in
R3 ,
x -axis + yz -plane
xy -plane
and
W.
and
- Dire t Sum
3
xz -plane
in
- Dire t Sum
R3 .
W.
Not dire t sum
When
Notation:
- Dire t Sum
in
U + W := {u + w |
U, w W}
U W = {0},
U W.
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
is a subspa e of
V,
then,
alled the sum of
x -axis + y -axis
in
R2 ,
x -axis + y -axis
in
R3 ,
x -axis + yz -plane
xy -plane
Th
Let
and
W.
and
xz -plane
in
- Dire t Sum
R3 .
W.
Not dire t sum
When
Notation:
- Dire t Sum
3
- Dire t Sum
in
U, W 4 V.
U + W := {u + w |
U, w W}
U W = {0},
U W.
P. Subspa es
If
U, W
are subspa es of
V,
is a subspa e of
then,
alled the sum of
x -axis + y -axis
in
R2 ,
x -axis + y -axis
in
R3 ,
x -axis + yz -plane
xy -plane
Th
Let
xz -plane
in
ontains both
and
and
W.
and
W.
When
Notation:
U, w W}
U W = {0},
U W.
- Dire t Sum
3
Then,
- Dire t Sum
in
U, W 4 V.
U + W := {u + w |
- Dire t Sum
R3 .
Not dire t sum
U+W
W. !!
is the smallest subspa e of
whi h
P. Subspa es
If
U4W
and
W 4 V,
P. Subspa es
If
U4W
and
W 4 V,
then
U 4 V.
P. Subspa es
If
Let
U4W
and
W 4 V,
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
then
U 4 V.
be a nonempty lass.
P. Subspa es
If
Let
U4W
and
W 4 V,
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
then
U 4 V.
be a nonempty lass. Then
Ut
t
is a subspa e. !!
P. Subspa es
If
Let
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
Let
U, W 4 V.
U4W
and
W 4 V,
then
U 4 V.
Then
W U. !!
UW4V
Ut
t
is a subspa e. !!
if and only if either
UW
or
P. Subspa es
If
Let
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
Let
U, W 4 V.
Let
U4W
and
W 4 V,
U 4 V.
Then
W U. !!
V, W
then
UW4V
be VSs over
F.
Ut
t
is a subspa e. !!
UW
or
P. Subspa es
If
Let
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
Let
U, W 4 V.
Let
U4W
and
W 4 V,
U 4 V.
Then
W U. !!
V, W
then
UW4V
be VSs over
F.
Then
Ut
t
is a subspa e. !!
VW
is a VS over
UW
with
or
P. Subspa es
If
Let
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
Let
U, W 4 V.
Let
U4W
and
W 4 V,
U 4 V.
Then
W U. !!
V, W
then
UW4V
be VSs over
F.
Then
is a subspa e. !!
VW
is a VS over
(v1 , w1 ) + (v2 , w2 ) := (v1 + v2 , w1 + w2 )
Ut
UW
with
or
P. Subspa es
If
Let
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
Let
U, W 4 V.
Let
U4W
and
W 4 V,
U 4 V.
Then
W U. !!
V, W
then
UW4V
be VSs over
F.
Then
is a subspa e. !!
VW
is a VS over
(v1 , w1 ) + (v2 , w2 ) := (v1 + v2 , w1 + w2 )
Ut
and
UW
or
with
(v, w) = (v, w).
P. Subspa es
If
Let
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
Let
U, W 4 V.
Let
U4W
and
W 4 V,
U 4 V.
Then
W U. !!
V, W
then
UW4V
be VSs over
F.
Then
V W.
is a subspa e. !!
VW
is a VS over
(v1 , w1 ) + (v2 , w2 ) := (v1 + v2 , w1 + w2 )

Notation:
Ut
Called dire t produ t of
and
UW
or
with
(v, w) = (v, w).
and
W.
P. Subspa es
If
Let
{Ut |Ut 4 V}
Let
U, W 4 V.
Let
U4W
and
W 4 V,
U 4 V.
Then
W U. !!
V, W
then
UW4V
be VSs over
F.
Then
V W.
is a subspa e. !!
VW
is a VS over
(v1 , w1 ) + (v2 , w2 ) := (v1 + v2 , w1 + w2 )

Notation:
Ut
Called dire t produ t of
and
UW
or
with
(v, w) = (v, w).
and
W.
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R),
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =

x1
x3
x2
0

: xi R ,
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =

x1
x3
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
0
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =
Are
W, U

subspa es of
x1
x3
V?
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
0
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =
Are
W, U

subspa es of
x1
x3
V?
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
Yes.
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =
Are
Is
W, U

subspa es of
V = W + U?
x1
x3
V?
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
Yes.
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =
Are
Is
W, U

subspa es of
V = W + U?
Yes.
x1
x3
V?
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
Yes.
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =
W, U
Are
Is
V = W + U?
Is
V = W U?

subspa es of
Yes.
x1
x3
V?
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
Yes.
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =
W, U

Are
subspa es of
Is
V = W + U?
Yes.
Is
V = W U?
No.
x1
x3
V?
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
Yes.
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =
W, U

Are
subspa es of
Is
V = W + U?
Yes.
Is
V = W U?
No.
What is the subspa e
x1
x3
V?
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
Yes.
W U?
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Put
V = M2 (R), W =
W, U

Are
Is
V = W + U?
Yes.
Is
V = W U?
No.
subspa es of
What is the subspa e
x1
x3
V?
x2
0

y1
: xi R , U =
0
Yes.
W U?

:x R
y2

: yi R .
P. Subspa es
Ex
Let
U, W 4 V.
P. Subspa es
Ex
Let
U, W 4 V.
Then
V=UW
if and only if
P. Subspa es
Ex
Let
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Then
V=UW
and unique w
if and only if for ea h v
s.t. v
= u + w.
V,
there
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
Then
V = U W.
V=UW
and unique w
Then,
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
V,
there
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
Then
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
then,
V=UW
and unique w
Then,
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
So, if v
V,
= u1 + w1
and
there
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
u1
Then
V=UW
and unique w
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
= u1 + w1
u2 = w2 w1 U W
and hen e
u2 = w2 w1 = 0.
So, if v
Then,
then, u1
V,
and
there
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
u1
Then
V=UW
and unique w
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
= u1 + w1
u2 = w2 w1 U W
and hen e
u2 = w2 w1 = 0.
So, if v
Then,
then, u1
V,
Hen e, uniqueness.
and
there
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
u1
Then
V=UW
and unique w
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
So, if v
= u1 + w1
u2 = w2 w1 U W
and hen e
Then,
then, u1
u2 = w2 w1 = 0.
Hen e, uniqueness.
Now, assume that the expression is unique and x
V,
U W.
and
there
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
u1
Then
V=UW
and unique w
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
So, if v
= u1 + w1
u2 = w2 w1 U W
and hen e
Then,
then, u1
u2 = w2 w1 = 0.
= x,
we have two expressions namely,
there
and
Hen e, uniqueness.
V,
U W.
Then, for
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
u1
Then
V=UW
and unique w
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
So, if v
= u1 + w1
u2 = w2 w1 U W
and hen e
Then,
then, u1
u2 = w2 w1 = 0.
= x,
= u2 + w2 ,
we have two expressions namely, x
there
and
Hen e, uniqueness.
V,
U W.
= u1 + w1
and
Then, for
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
u1
Then
V=UW
and unique w
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
So, if v
= u1 + w1
u2 = w2 w1 U W
and hen e
Then,
then, u1
u2 = w2 w1 = 0.
= x,
= u2 + w2 ,

where u1
there
and
Hen e, uniqueness.
V,
=0
and w1
=x
U W.
= u1 + w1
and
Then, for
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
u1
Then
V=UW
and unique w
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
So, if v
= u1 + w1
u2 = w2 w1 U W
and hen e
Then,
then, u1
u2 = w2 w1 = 0.
= x,
= u2 + w2 ,

where u1
there
and
Hen e, uniqueness.
V,
=0
and w1
=x
U W.
= u1 + w1
and u2
=x
Then, for
and
and w2
= 0.
P. Subspa es
Let
Ex
U, W 4 V.
exists unique u
Pr.
Let
V = U W.
= u2 + w2
u1
Then
V=UW
and unique w
U W = {0}.
s.t. v
= u + w.
So, if v
= u1 + w1
u2 = w2 w1 U W
and hen e
Then,
then, u1
u2 = w2 w1 = 0.
= x,
= u2 + w2 ,

where u1
there
and
Hen e, uniqueness.
V,
=0
and w1
=x
U W.
= u1 + w1
and u2
=x
Then, for
and
and w2
= 0.
ontradi tion.
So, we have written the vector x = 0+x with 0 in U and x in W

as well as x=x+0 with x in U and 0 in W.. So, uniqueness is lost.
P. Linear dependen y
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.
If a nonzero lin. omb of xi 's be omes 0,
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.
If a nonzero lin. omb of xi 's be omes 0, then we
say x1 , . . . , xk are linearly dependent (lin.dep).
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.
We say x1 , . . . , xk are linearly independent, if they are not lin.dep.
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.
Thus, need to solve [x1 , . . . , xk ]
.
.
.
= 0, i 's
unknown.
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.
In
, the ve tors x

1
2
, e1 =
.
.
.
= 0, i 's

1
0
and e2
unknown.

0
1
are lin.dep,
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.
In
, the ve tors x
e1 2e2 = 0.

1
2
, e1 =
.
.
.
= 0, i 's

1
0
and e2
unknown.

0
1
are lin.dep, as
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.

v1
"
3
0
, v2 =
"
, v3 =
"
.
.
.
= 0, i 's
4
2
, v4 =
" #
unknown.
2
1
1
are lin.dep in
R3 ,
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.

v1
"
3
0
as 2v1
, v2 =
"
, v3 =
"
+ 2v2 v3 + 0v4 = 0.
.
.
.
= 0, i 's
4
2
, v4 =
" #
unknown.
2
1
1
are lin.dep in
R3 ,
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.

v1
"
3
0
, v2 =
"
, v3 =
"
+ 2v2 v3 + 0v4 = 0.
" #
" #
.
.
.
= 0, i 's
4
2
, v4 =
v1
, v2 =
1
1
are lin.ind in
1
1
as 2v1
" #
unknown.
R3 .
are lin.dep in
R3 ,
Let x1 , . . . , xk
V.

v1
"
3
0
, v2 =
"
, v3 =
"
+ 2v2 v3 + 0v4 = 0.
" #
" #
.
.
.
= 0, i 's
4
2
" #
2
, v4 =
1
1
as 2v1
v1
, v2 =
1
1
are lin.ind in
unknown.
R3 .
How?
are lin.dep in
R3 ,
Answering the previous question:
Answering the previous question: the ve tors will be linearly dependent

(lin.dep) if we an nd


6=
0 s.t.


6=
" #
1
0 s.t.
1
1
"
= 0.


6=
" #
1
0 s.t.
1
1
"
"
= 0.
That is, if
1
1
" #
#
1
0
1
= 0 .


6=
0 s.t.
1
1
Apply
GJE.

0
=
.
" #
"
"
= 0.
That is, if
1
1
" #
#
1
0
1
= 0 .
If there are no free variables, then only solution is


6=
" #
1
0 s.t.
1
1
"
"
= 0.
That is, if
1
1
Apply
GJE.
If there are no free variables, then
0
=
. In that ase we on lude lin.ind.
" #
#
1
0
1
= 0 .
only solution is


6=
" #
1
0 s.t.
"
"
= 0.
That is, if
1
1
Apply
GJE.
0
=
v1
1
1
, v2 =
"
1
1
, v3 =
" #
0
0
0
only solution is
" #
" #
#
1
0
1
= 0 .
are lin.dep. Why?


6=
" #
1
0 s.t.
"
"
= 0.
That is, if
1
1
Apply
GJE.
0
=
v1
, v2 =
v3
only solution is
" #
1
" #
#
1
0
1
= 0 .
"
will be free.
1
1
, v3 =
" #
0
0
0
are lin.dep. Why? As the variable for


6=
" #
1
0 s.t.
"
"
= 0.
That is, if
1
1
Apply
GJE.
0
=
v1
1
1
v3
only solution is
" #
1
" #
#
1
0
1
= 0 .
, v2 =
"
1
1
will be free. Or 0
, v3 =
" #
0
0
are lin.dep. Why? As the variable for
v1 + 0 v2 + v3 = 0
for all
R.
Th
Ve tors v, w, z in
R2
are linearly dependent.
Th
Ve tors v, w, z in
Po.
Solving
R2
v + w + z = 0
means solving
Th
Po.
Ve tors v, w, z in
Solving
R2
v + w + z = 0
means solving
v1
v2
w1
w2
z1
z2
"#

0
0
Th
Po.
Ve tors v, w, z in
Solving
R2
v + w + z = 0
means solving
That is, we have to nd the RREF of
v1
v2
v1
v2
w1
w2
w1
w2
z1
z2
z1
z2
0
0
"#

0
0
Th
Po.
Ve tors v, w, z in
Solving
R2
v + w + z = 0
means solving
v1
v2
v1
v2
w1
w2
w1
w2
z1
z2
z1
z2
0
0
"#

0
0
Apply GJE. As there are only two rows, the number of pivots is at
most 2.
Th
Po.
Ve tors v, w, z in
Solving
R2
v + w + z = 0
means solving
v1
v2
v1
v2
w1
w2
w1
w2
z1
z2
z1
z2
0
0
"#

0
0
most 2. As the number variables is 3, we will have a free variable.
Th
Po.
Ve tors v, w, z in
Solving
R2
v + w + z = 0
means solving
v1
v2
v1
v2
w1
w2
w1
w2
z1
z2
z1
z2
0
0
"#

0
0
most 2. As the number variables is 3, we will have a free variable.
Hen e we will have a nonzero solution.
We all a set
S V
linearly dependent if ontains a nite lin.dep set.
We all a set
Thus
S V
is lin.ind
and
We all a set
Thus
S V
is lin.ind
and
any set ontaining 0 is lin.dep.
We all a set
Thus
So
S V
is lin.ind
S V
is lin.ind
and
if and only if
We all a set
Thus
So
S V
is lin.ind
S V
is lin.ind
lin.ind.
and
if and only if
ea h nite subset of
is
We all a set
Thus
So
S V
is lin.ind
S V
and
is lin.ind
if and only if
ea h nite subset of
lin.ind.
Take
Amn , m > n.
Then
R = rref(A)
has last row 0.
is
We all a set
Thus
So
S V
is lin.ind
S V
and
is lin.ind
if and only if
ea h nite subset of
is
lin.ind.
Take
of
Amn , m > n.
are lin.dep.
Then
R = rref(A)
has last row 0. That is, rows
We all a set
Thus
So
S V
is lin.ind
S V
and
is lin.ind
if and only if
ea h nite subset of
is
lin.ind.
Take
of
Amn , m > n.
Then
are lin.dep. How?
R = rref(A)
We all a set
Thus
So
S V
is lin.ind
S V
and
is lin.ind
if and only if
ea h nite subset of
is
lin.ind.
Take
of
Amn , m > n.
Then
R = rref(A)
are lin.dep. How? GJE: Let
R = FA.
We all a set
Thus
So
S V
is lin.ind
S V
and
is lin.ind
if and only if
ea h nite subset of
is
lin.ind.
Take
of
Amn , m > n.
Then
R = rref(A)
equals
R = FA.
Then, the
m-th
row of
We all a set
Thus
So
S V
is lin.ind
S V
and
is lin.ind
if and only if
ea h nite subset of
is
lin.ind.
Take
of
Amn , m > n.
Then
R = rref(A)
equals
n
X
i =1
R = FA.
Then, the
m-th
row of
fmi A(i , :) = 0t .
So, we have non-zero scalars f_{mi} such that the linear combination
is the zero vector. Hence, lin. dep.
P. Linear dependen y: ru ial result
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
is linearly dependent.
s.t.
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Po.
Write wi
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
s.t.
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
v1
Po.
Write wi
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
So wi
= A(i , :) ...
vn
and
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
v1
Po.
Write wi
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
w1
.
.
.
wm
a11 v1 + + a1n vn
.
.
.
am1 v1 + + amn vn
So wi
= A(i , :) ...
and
vn
a11
.
.
.
am 1
a1n
amn
.
.
.
v1
... .
vn
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
v1
Po.
Write wi
As
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
w1
.
.
.
wm
m > n,
a11 v1 + + a1n vn
.
.
.
am1 v1 + + amn vn
we see that rows of
So wi
= A(i , :) ...
and
vn
A = (aij )
a11
.
.
.
am 1
a1n
amn
are lin.dep.
.
.
.
v1
... .
vn
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
v1
Po.
Write wi
As
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
w1
.
.
.
wm
m > n,
a11 v1 + + a1n vn
.
.
.
am1 v1 + + amn vn
i ,
not all zero,
i =1
= A(i , :) ...
and
vn
a11
.
.
.
am 1
a1n
amn
A = (aij ) are lin.dep.

m
P
s.t.
i A(i , :) = 0t .
we see that rows of
there exists
So wi
.
.
.
v1
... .
vn
That is,
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
v1
Po.
Write wi
As
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
w1
.
.
.
wm
m > n,
a11 v1 + + a1n vn
.
.
.
am1 v1 + + amn vn
So wi
= A(i , :) ...
vn
a11
.
.
.
am 1
a1n
amn
.
.
.
v1
... .
vn
A = (aij ) are lin.dep. That is,

m
m
P
P
s.t.
i A(i , :) = 0t . Thus
i wi =
we see that rows of
there exists
i ,
not all zero,
i =1
and
i =1
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
v1
Po.
Write wi
As
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
w1
.
.
.
wm
m > n,
m
P
i =1
a11 v1 + + a1n vn
.
.
.
am1 v1 + + amn vn
= A(i , :) ...
i , not all

v1
i A(i , :) ...
vn
zero,
and
vn
a11
.
.
.
am 1
a1n
amn
.
.
.
v1
... .
vn

m
m
P
P
s.t.
i A(i , :) = 0t . Thus
i wi =
we see that rows of
there exists
So wi
i =1
i =1
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Then
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
v1
Po.
Write wi
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
w1
.
.
.
wm
a11 v1 + + a1n vn
.
.
.
am1 v1 + + amn vn
= A(i , :) ...
and
vn
a11
.
.
.
am 1
a1n
amn
.
.
.
v1
... .
vn

m
m
P
P
there exists i , not all zero, s.t.
i A(i , :) = 0t . Thus
i wi =
i =1
i =1

v1
m
v1
m
P
P
.
i A(i , :) .. =
i A(i , :) ...
As
i =1
m > n,
So wi
we see that rows of
vn
i =1
vn
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
s.t.
m = |T | > |S|. Then T is linearly dependent.

Th: More elements than the number of elements with which
spanned.
v1
Po.
Write wi
= ai 1 v1 + ai 2 v2 + + ain vn .
w1
.
.
.
wm
a11 v1 + + a1n vn
.
.
.
am1 v1 + + amn vn
and
vn
a11
.
.
.
am 1
a1n
amn
.
.
.
v1
... .
vn

m
m
P
P
there exists i , not all zero, s.t.
i A(i , :) = 0t . Thus
i wi =
i =1

i =1
v1
v1
m
v1
m
P
P
.
.
t
i A(i , :) .. =
i A(i , :) .. = 0 ... = 0.
As
i =1
m > n,
So wi
= A(i , :) ...
we see that rows of
vn
i =1
vn
vn
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
Cor
Any
n+1
Then
ve tors in
and
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
Rn
is lin.dep.
s.t.
Th
Let
S = {v1 , , vn } V
m = |T | > |S|.
n+1
Cor
Any
Po.
Follows as
Then
ve tors in
T = {w1 , , wm } ls(S)
Rn
Rn = linear
and
is lin.dep.
span (e1 , . . . , en ).
s.t.
Th
Ann
is invertible if and only if olumns of
are linearly independent.
Th
Ann
Po.
It is a restatement of `A is invertible if and only if
Ax = 0
has a
unique solution'.
Ax =0 has a unique solution means that the only solution is

(0,0,0,...,0). So, lin. ind.
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
is invertible if and only if rows of
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Po.
At is invertible'.
A is invertible if and only if det(A) NOT zero if and only if
det(A^t) NOT zero if and only if A^t is invertible.
Follows as `A is invertible if and only if
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
Pm
1
, um V
i ui .
be lin.ind. Choose
1 , . . . , m F.
Put
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
i F,
1 , . . . , m F.
i m
Put
(dierent from
i 's)
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
No.
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
i F,
1 , . . . , m F.
i m
Put
(dierent from
i 's)
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
No. For otherwise,
i F,
1 , . . . , m F.
i m
(i i )ui = 0.
Put
(dierent from
i 's)
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Pm
, um V
be lin.ind. Choose
1 , . . . , m F.
Put
i ui . Can you nd i F, 1 i m (dierent from i 's)

Pm
u=
i ui ? for some alpha_i NOT equal to beta_i
1
1
No. For otherwise,
ontradi tion.
(i i )ui = 0.
Then ui 's are lin.dep., A
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Ex
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
u1 , . . . , uk
Rn
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
i F,
A.
1 , . . . , m F.
i m
are lin.ind if and only if
any invertible matrix
Put
(dierent from
Au1 , . . . , Auk
i 's)
are lin.ind for
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Ex
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
u1 , . . . , uk
Rn
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
Note that for any set
i Aui = 0
i =1
1 , . . . , m F.
i m
k
P
i F,
(dierent from
Au1 , . . . , Auk
A.
i 's
Put
of unknowns, the system
i 's)
are lin.ind for
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Ex
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
u1 , . . . , uk
Rn
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
i Aui = 0
i m
ki 's of unknowns,

P
A
i ui = 0
i =1
Put
(dierent from
Au1 , . . . , Auk
A.
i =1
1 , . . . , m F.
k
P
i F,
the system
i 's)
are lin.ind for
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Ex
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
u1 , . . . , uk
Rn
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
i F,
1 , . . . , m F.
i m
Put
(dierent from
Au1 , . . . , Auk
i 's)
are lin.ind for
A.
the system
ki 's of unknowns,

k
P
P
A
i ui = 0
i ui = 0.
k
P
i =1
i Aui = 0
i =1
i =1
A invertible if and only if the system Ax=0 has x=0 as the only solution
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Ex
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
u1 , . . . , uk
Rn
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
i F,
i Aui = 0
i =1
Ex
Let u, v
Au1 , . . . , Auk
the system
ki 's of unknowns,

k
P
P
A
i ui = 0
i ui = 0.
i =1
Put
(dierent from
A.
i =1
V.
i m
k
P
1 , . . . , m F.
i 's)
are lin.ind for
Th
Ann
Th
Ann
Let u1 ,
s.t.
Ex
Pm
, um V
i ui . Can
Pm
u=
i ui ?
1
1
u1 , . . . , uk
Rn
be lin.ind. Choose
you nd
i F,
1 , . . . , m F.
i m
Put
(dierent from
Au1 , . . . , Auk
i 's)
are lin.ind for
A.
the system
ki 's of unknowns,

k
P
P
A
i ui = 0
i ui = 0.
k
P
i Aui = 0
i =1
Ex
i =1
Let u, v
lin.ind.
V.
i =1
Then u, v are lin.ind if and only if u
[u+v, u-v]=[u,v] [1 1
1 -1]
+ v, u v
are
P. Fundamental results: Linear dependen e and linear span
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
V \ S.
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
V \ S.
Then
S {x}
is lin.dep if and only if
S V be lin.ind, x V \ S . Then S {x} is lin.dep if and only if

x ls(S). IN R^3, let S={[1,1,1]^t}. Then, SU{x} is lin dep if and only
if x = t [1,1,1] for some real t.
If S={[1,1,1]^t, [1,1,-1]^t} then SU{x} is lin.dep
Po. Let S {x} be lin.dep.
Th
Let
if and only if {(x,y,z): x=y}.
Th
Let
Po.
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
Let
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
be lin.dep. Then some
m
P
i =1
S {x}
i si + m+1 x = 0,
Th
Let
Po.
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
Let
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
(the ve tor of
m
P
i =1
i s)
is not 0.
S {x}
i si + m+1 x = 0,
where
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
m
P
S {x}
i si + m+1 x = 0, where
i =1
(the ve tor of i s) is not 0. Note: m+1 annot be 0, otherwise S is
Po.
Let
lin.dep.
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
m
P
S {x}
i =1
m
P
i
lin.dep. So x =
( m+
)si .
1
i =1
Po.
Let
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
m
P
S {x}
i =1
m
P
i
lin.dep. So x =
( m+
)si . So x ls(S).
1
i =1
Po.
Let
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
m
P
S {x}
i =1
m
P
i
lin.dep. So x =
( m+
)si . So x ls(S).
1
i =1
Po.
Let
Conversely, let x
ls(S).
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
S {x}
m
P
i =1
m
P
i
lin.dep. So x =
( m+
)si . So x ls(S).
1
i =1
Po.
Let
Conversely, let x
ls(S).
not all zero.

So x
k
P
i =1
i si ,
for some
i F, si S ,
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
S {x}
m
P
i =1
m
P
i
lin.dep. So x =
( m+
)si . So x ls(S).
1
i =1
Po.
Let
Conversely, let x
ls(S).
not all zero. So x
k
P
i =1
So x
i si = 0.
k
P
i =1
i si ,
for some
i F, si S ,
Th
Let
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
S {x}
V \ S.
Then
S {x}
m
P
i =1
m
P
i
lin.dep. So x =
( m+
)si . So x ls(S).
1
i =1
Po.
Let
Conversely, let x
ls(S).
not all zero. So x
k
P
i =1
So x
i si = 0.
k
P
i si ,
for some
i =1
So
S {x}
i F, si S ,
is lin.dep.
Th
Let
x
Cor
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
Let
S V
V \ S.
be lin.ind, x
V \ S.
Then
S {x}
Th
Let
x
Cor
S V
be lin.ind, x
ls(S).
Let
S V
/ ls(S). !!
V \ S.
be lin.ind, x
S {x}
V \ S . Then S {x}
is lin.ind if and only if
Then
Other form of the above theorem.
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
is invertible.
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
orresp. to the pivotal rows of
and
is invertible. Then rows of
are lin.ind.
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
are lin.ind. Also olumns of
orresp. to the pivotal olumns of
are lin.ind.
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
Po.
are lin.ind.
are lin.ind due to the pivotal 1s.
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
rows of
be
are lin.ind.
are lin.ind due to the pivotal 1s. Let the pivotal
R(1, :), . . . , R(k, :)
these rows.
Po.
and
R1
be the submatrix formed by
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
rows of
be
Po.
are lin.ind.
R(1, :), . . . , R(k, :)
and
R1
A1 be the submatrix of A whi h gives R1 . You have

to pick rows of A that correspond to the rows of R_1. So, you need to
take care of row interchanges.
these rows. Let
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
rows of
be
A1
R1 = rref(A1 ).
are lin.ind.
R(1, :), . . . , R(k, :)
these rows. Let
So
Po.
and
R1
be the submatrix of
whi h gives
R1 .
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
rows of
be
A1
R1 = rref(A1 ).
are lin.ind.
R(1, :), . . . , R(k, :)
these rows. Let
So
Po.
and
R1
be the submatrix of
That is,
A1 = E1 R1 ,
whi h gives
R1 .
for some invertible
E1 .
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
rows of
be
A1
R1 = rref(A1 ).
are lin.ind.
and
R1
be the submatrix of
That is,
Suppose there exists x0
R(1, :), . . . , R(k, :)
these rows. Let
So
Po.
A1 = E1 R1 ,
6= 0
s.t. x0 A1
whi h gives
R1 .
for some invertible
= 0.
E1 .
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
rows of
be
A1
R1 = rref(A1 ).
are lin.ind.
and
R1
be the submatrix of
That is,
R(1, :), . . . , R(k, :)
these rows. Let
So
Po.
A1 = E1 R1 ,
6= 0
s.t. x0 A1
whi h gives
R1 .
for some invertible
= 0.
So x0 E1 R1
E1 .
= 0.
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
rows of
be
A1
R1 = rref(A1 ).
That is,
= y0t 6= 0.
are lin.ind.
and
R1
be the submatrix of

that x0 E1
R(1, :), . . . , R(k, :)
these rows. Let
So
Po.
A1 = E1 R1 ,
6= 0
s.t. x0 A1
whi h gives
R1 .
for some invertible
= 0.
So x0 E1 R1
E1 .
= 0.
Note
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Pivotal rows of
rows of
be
A1
R1 = rref(A1 ).
That is,
= y0t 6= 0.
are lin.ind.
and
R1
be the submatrix of

that x0 E1
R(1, :), . . . , R(k, :)
these rows. Let
So
Po.
A1 = E1 R1 ,
6= 0
t
s.t. x0 A1
So y0 R1
= 0,
whi h gives
R1 .
for some invertible
= 0.
So x0 E1 R1
a ontradi tion.
E1 .
= 0.
Note
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Po.
are lin.ind.
Other part: Note that pivotal olumns in
pivotal 1s.
are lin.ind, due to the
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Po.
R(:, j1 ), . . . , R(:, jk )
are lin.ind.
pivotal 1s. Let
be the pivotal olumns of
R.
Th
Let
A = ER ,
where
R = rref A
and
Po.
Sin e
lin.ind.
R(:, j1 ), . . . , R(:, jk )
is invertible,
are lin.ind.
pivotal 1s. Let
be the pivotal olumns of
R.
A(:, j1 ) = ER(:, j1 ), . . . , A(:, jk ) = ER(:, jk )
are
{x_1, ..., x_k} is lin. inp. if and only if for any invertible
matrix A {A x_1, ..., A x_k} is lin. ind.
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
6= 0.
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
, xk1 .
6= 0.
Then, there exists
k>1
s.t. xk is
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Po.
, xk1 .
6= 0.
Then, there exists
k>1
s.t. xk is
Consider {x1 }, {x1 , x2 }, , {x1 , x2 , , xn } one by one.

We start with lin. ind. set and eventually reach lin. dep. So, lin.dep will occur for the first time.
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Po.
Consider
, xk1 .
6= 0.
Then, there exists
{x1 }, {x1 , x2 }, , {x1 , x2 , , xn }
s.t. xk is
one by one. Take the
smallest k > 1 s.t. Sk = {x1 , , xk } is lin.dep.

k smallest implies S_k is lin. dep and S_{k-1} in lin. ind.
k>1
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Po.
Consider
smallest
, xk1 .
6= 0.
Then, there exists
{x1 }, {x1 , x2 }, , {x1 , x2 , , xn }
k>1
s.t.
Sk = {x1 , , xk }
k>1
s.t. xk is
is lin.dep. So
Sk1
is lin.ind.
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Po.
Consider
smallest
, xk1 .
6= 0.
Then, there exists
{x1 }, {x1 , x2 }, , {x1 , x2 , , xn }
k>1
that ase xk
s.t.
Sk = {x1 , , xk }
ls(Sk1 ).
k>1
s.t. xk is
is lin.dep. So
Sk1
is lin.ind. In
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Let
, xk1 .
S = {v1 , . . . , vk } Rn
6= 0.
Then, there exists
be lin.dep, v1
6= 0.
k>1
s.t. xk is
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Let
, xk1 .
S = {v1 , . . . , vk } Rn
6= 0.
Then, there exists
be lin.dep, v1
6= 0.
k>1
s.t. xk is
One may take help of
GJE to nd out the rst vi whi h is a lin. omb of the earlier ones and
to nd a lin.ind subset
T S
s.t. ls T
= ls S .
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Let
, xk1 .
S = {v1 , . . . , vk } Rn
Then, there exists
be lin.dep, v1
6= 0.
k>1
s.t. xk is
" #
1
6= 0.
v1
1
1
, v2
" #
1
0
1
T S s.t.
" #
, v3
ls T
= 1
1
, v4
= ls S .
" #
0
1
2
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Let
, xk1 .
S = {v1 , . . . , vk } Rn
Then, there exists
be lin.dep, v1
6= 0.
k>1
s.t. xk is
" #
1
6= 0.
v1
1
1
, v2
" #
1
0
1
T S s.t.
" #
, v3
ls T
= 1
1
, v4
= ls S .
" #
0
1
2
A=
"
0
1
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Let
, xk1 .
S = {v1 , . . . , vk } Rn
Then, there exists
be lin.dep, v1
6= 0.
k>1
s.t. xk is
" #
1
6= 0.
v1
, v2
rref A
"
ls T
, v3
" #
T S s.t.
" #
= 1
1
, v4
= ls S .
" #
0
1
2
A=
"
0
1
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Let
, xk1 .
S = {v1 , . . . , vk } Rn
Then, there exists
be lin.dep, v1
6= 0.
k>1
s.t. xk is
" #
1
6= 0.
v1
" #
1
, v2
T S s.t.
" #
1
, v3
ls T
= 1
1
, v4
= ls S .
" #
0
1
2
A=
"
0
1
[-1,2,0]= -1 [1,0,0] + 2 [0,1,0].
"
rref A
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Let
, xk1 .
S = {v1 , . . . , vk } Rn
Then, there exists
be lin.dep, v1
6= 0.
k>1
s.t. xk is
" #
1
6= 0.
v1
, v2
rref A
"
ls T
, v3
" #
T S s.t.
" #
= 1
, v4
. So
= ls S .
" #
1
A=
v3 = 2v2 v1 ;
Verify!!
"
0
1
Th
Let x1 ,
, xn
be lin.dep, x1
a lin. omb of x1 ,
Let
, xk1 .
S = {v1 , . . . , vk } Rn
Then, there exists
be lin.dep, v1
6= 0.
k>1
s.t. xk is
" #
1
6= 0.
v1
, v2
rref A
"
ls T
, v3
" #
T S s.t.
" #
= 1
1
. So
, v4
= ls S .
" #
0
1
2
A=
"
0
1
v3 = 2v2 v1 ; T = {v1 , v2 , v4 }.

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MTH 102A

Linear Algebra and Ordinary Dierential Equations

Indian Institute of Te hnology Kanpur

January 17, 2016

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

is ommutative, asso iative.

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

is ommutative, asso iative.

has an inverse (additive) w.r.t

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

is ommutative, asso iative.

has an inverse (additive) w.r.t

3) Additive Identity element 0 exists in

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

is ommutative, asso iative.

has an inverse (additive) w.r.t

3) Additive Identity element 0 exists in

holds for all x

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

where 1 is the multipli ative identity of

is ommutative, asso iative.

has an inverse (additive) w.r.t

3) Additive Identity element 0 exists in

holds for all x

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

where 1 is the multipli ative identity of

hold for all

is ommutative, asso iative.

has an inverse (additive) w.r.t

3) Additive Identity element 0 exists in

holds for all x

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

where 1 is the multipli ative identity of

holds for all

hold for all

and for all x, y

is ommutative, asso iative.

has an inverse (additive) w.r.t

3) Additive Identity element 0 exists in

holds for all x

is a ve tor spa e (VS) over

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

where 1 is the multipli ative identity of

hold for all

and for all x, y

is ommutative, asso iative.

has an inverse (additive) w.r.t

3) Additive Identity element 0 exists in

holds for all x

is a ve tor spa e (VS) over

where 1 is the multipli ative identity of

hold for all

and for all x, y

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) + (y1 , y2 , y3 ) := (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 ).

Arbind K Lal - I I T Kanpur

is ommutative, asso iative.

has an inverse (additive) w.r.t

3) Additive Identity element 0 exists in

holds for all x

Linear Algebra and Ordinary Dierential Equations