S1 2013 284821 Complete

THE DETERMINATION OF NUSSELT CORRELATION OF A
LAMINAR FLOW IN A TRIANGULAR ARRAY AS A PRELIMINARY

STUDY OF THE SOLUTION REACTOR CORE DESIGN WITH
NATURAL CIRCULATION COOLING SYSTEM
TITLE
Undergraduate Thesis
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Nuclear Engineering
submitted by
AJI SAKA
09/284821/TK/35510
presented to
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING PHYSICS
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITAS GADJAH MADA
YOGYAKARTA
2013
ANTI-PLAGIARISM STATEMENT
I, whom mentioned as follows:
Name
Aji Saka
NIM
09/284821/TK/35510
Title of Thesis
The Determination of Nusselt Correlation of a Laminar Flow

in a Triangular Array as a Preliminary Study of the Solution
Reactor Core Design with Natural Circulation Cooling
System
certify that the thesis titled as mentioned above is my own original work in
accordance with the academic norms, and no portion of my thesis has been
copyrighted previously unless properly referenced.
If there is a breach, I will take full responsibility for any legal action that might be
caused.
Yogyakarta, October 3, 2013,

Who certifies the statement,
Aji Saka
NIM. 09/284821/TK/35510
ii
APPROVAL FORM
UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
by
Aji Saka
09/284821/TK/35510
defended in front of the Board of Examiners
on October 3, 2013
Board of Examiners
Chairman,
Secretary,
Ir. Kutut Suryopratomo, M.T, M.Sc.

NIP. 196706201993031003
Dr. Ir. Andang Widi Harto, M. T.

NIP. 196603041994031003
Chief Examiner,
Co-Examiner,
Dr.-Ing. Singgih Hawibowo

NIP. 196107061989031001
Ir. Ester Wijayanti, M.T.

NIP. 196505141991032001
Approved and certified to fulfill the requirements for graduation

on October 3, 2013
Chairman of Department of Physics Engineering
Faculty of Engineering UGM
Prof. Ir. Sunarno, M. Eng., Ph. D.

NIP. 195511241983031001
iii
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE

UNIVERSITAS GADJAH MADA
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS ENGINEERING
FINAL PROJECT
Name
: Aji Saka
NIM
: 09/284821/TK/35510
Title of Thesis
: The Determination of Nusselt Correlation of a Laminar Flow

in a Triangular Array as a Preliminary Study of the Solution
Reactor Core Design with Natural Circulation Cooling
System
Supervisor
: Ir. Kutut Suryopratomo, M.T, M.Sc.
Co-Supervisor
: Dr. Ir. Andang Widi Harto, M. T.
Problem
: The demand of medical isotope 99mTc has been rising. Good

technologies for Medical Isotope Production System (MIPS)
are thence necessary. Aqueous Homogenous Reactor (AHR)
or solution reactor is the most feasible technology to be the
MIPS in the foreseeable future. A probable design of solution
reactor with natural circulation cooling system has been
considered. Heat transfer analysis is one of the most
important aspects in the design consideration. Determination
of Nusselt correlation from the liquid fuel to the coolant pipes
is one of the parts in heat transfer analyses.
Supervisor,
Co-Supervisor,
Ir. Kutut Suryopratomo, M.T, M.Sc.

NIP. 196706201993031003
Dr. Ir. Andang Widi Harto, M. T.

NIP. 196603041994031003
Chairman of Department of Physics Engineering

Faculty of Engineering UGM
PROJECT FORM
Prof. Ir. Sunarno, M. Eng., Ph. D.
NIP. 195511241983031001
iv
DEDICATION
To my beloved parents, my mother Komariyah and my father Soetojib, for
their supports and affectionate care showed to me. To my brothers, sister and
family for their motivation and encouragements given to me. To the universe, as
me a little part of it, for everything lies wherein I can find the comprehension and
the purposes of the life.
How can you do your best

if you are lack of joy?...
QUOTE
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, praises and thanks to the Allah S.W.T., the Almighty, for
the showers of blessings throughout my research work to complete the study
successfully. This thesis was produced with the assistance and guidance of the
following people to whom I would like to express my sincere gratitude.
1.
My research advisors, Ir. Kutut Suryopratomo, M.T, M.Sc. and Dr. Ir.
Andang Widi Harto, M. T., for giving me the opportunity to do research and
providing invaluable guidance throughout this research,
2.
My examiners, Dr.-Ing. Singgih Hawbowo and Ir. Ester Wijayanti, M. T.,

for giving me deeper lessons and understandings from the questions posed
and the exact answers told during the viva voce,
3.
The Chairman of Department of Physics Engineering, UGM, Prof. Ir.

Sunarno, M. Eng., Ph. D.,
4.
The Head of Academic Affairs of Department of Physics Engineering,

UGM, Ferdiansjah, S. T., M. Eng. Sc., for the advices given to me in writing
in English,
5.
All lecturers at Department of Physics Engineering, UGM, for all

knowledge shared,
6.
All staffs of Department of Physics Engineering, UGM, for the kindness,
7.
My beloved friend Atinna, for all precious experiences we have, and also for
the supports given to me,
8.
Ichan and Hepiska, for their special supports that this writing could be
accomplished ASAP,
9.
My dear friends Indra, Helmi, Nina and Farkhad, for their detail attention
about the writing of this research,
10.
Ani and ratri, for their time getting my mind off by their funny silliness,
11.
A group of the men from Earth, for their togetherness in discussing

something more about reality,
12.
All students of Department of Physics Engineering, UGM, batch of 2009,

for all unforgettable togetherness,
vii
viii
Finally, my thanks go to all the people who have supported me to complete

the final project directly or indirectly.
Yogyakarta, October 3, 2013,
Writer
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE................................................................................................................... i
ANTI-PLAGIARISM STATEMENT ..................................................................ii
APPROVAL FORM ...........................................................................................iii
PROJECT FORM ............................................................................................... iv
DEDICATION..................................................................................................... v
QUOTE .............................................................................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................. vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... ix
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................. xii
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... xiii
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................... xv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... xvii
INTISARI ....................................................................................................... xviii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1
I.1 Background ................................................................................................ 1
I.2 Problem Formulation .................................................................................. 2
I.3 Objectives .................................................................................................. 3
I.4 Advantages ................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEWS ............................................................ 5
II.1 Equivalent Annulus Model ........................................................................ 5
II.2 Verification in Computational Fluid Dynamics [11]..................................... 7
II.2.1 Examining the Computer Programming of the Code .......................... 8
II.2.2 Examining Iterative Convergence. ..................................................... 8
II.2.3 Examining Solution Consistency ........................................................ 9
II.2.4 Examining Spatial (Grid) Convergence [13] ....................................... 10
II.2.5 Examining Temporal Convergence .................................................. 14
ix
II.2.6 Comparing CFD Results to Highly Accurate Solutions .................... 14

CHAPTER III THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................ 15
III.1 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow ........................................................ 15
III.1.1 The Continuity Equation ................................................................. 15
III.1.2 The Navier-Stokes Equation ........................................................... 16
III.1.3 Heat Transfer Analysis and Energy Equation .................................. 17
CHAPTER IV MATERIALS AND METHOD .................................................. 22
IV.1 Materials ............................................................................................... 22
IV.2 Method .................................................................................................. 22
CHAPTER V RESULT AND ANALYSIS ........................................................ 24
V.1 Analytical Solution of Equivalent Annulus Model................................... 24
V.1.1 Velocity Distribution ....................................................................... 24
V.1.2 Temperature Distribution ................................................................. 25
V.1.3 Nusselt Equation .............................................................................. 27
V.2 Numerical Simulation Results ................................................................. 35
V.2.1 Equivalent Annulus Model .............................................................. 35
V.2.2 Characteristic Domain ..................................................................... 39
CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................... 47
VI.1 Conclusion............................................................................................. 47
VI.2 Recommendation ................................................................................... 47
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 49
APPENDIX
THE
DERIVATION
OF
NUSSELT
EQUATION
OF
EQUIVALENT ANNULUS .............................................................................. 51

The Velocity Distribution .............................................................................. 51
The Temperature Distribution ........................................................................ 52
The Axial Gradient of Temperature ............................................................... 53
xi
Bulk Temperature .......................................................................................... 54

The Nusselt Equation ..................................................................................... 61
Special case: Stagnant Fluid .......................................................................... 61
APPENDIX II FLUENT SOLUTION PARAMETERS ..................................... 63
The Equivalent Annulus ................................................................................ 63
The Characteristic Domain ............................................................................ 63
APPENDIX III RESIDUALS ............................................................................ 65
The Equivalent Annulus ................................................................................ 65
The Characteristic Domain ............................................................................ 66
LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.1. Material properties. ........................................................................... 36
Table 5.2. Mesh dimension of the equivalent annulus model. ............................. 36
Table 5.3. The results of the simulations and grid convergence analysis of the
equivalent annulus model. .................................................................................. 38
Table 5.4. Mesh dimension and the Nusselt number solutions of P/D = 2. ......... 40
Table 5.5. Mesh dimension and the Nusselt number solutions of P/D = 2.5. ....... 40
Table 5.6. Mesh dimension and the Nusselt number solutions of P/D = 3. .......... 40
Table 5.7. Mesh dimension and the Nusselt number solutions of P/D = 4. .......... 41
Table 5.8. The result of grid convergence analysis for P/D = 2, 2.5, 3 & 4. ........ 44
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1. Subchannel and characteristic domains for
square and triangular
arrays [10]. ............................................................................................................. 5

Figure 2.2. Nusselt number for fully developed laminar flow parallel to an array
of circular tubes [9]. ............................................................................................... 6
Figure 5.1. Nusselt number for the equivalent annulus model of fully developed
laminar flow parallel to a triangular array of circular tubes. ................................ 28
Figure 5.2. The absolute values of temperature distribution with several values of
numbers of P/D = 1.4 and Tb Tw = 3 K. ....................................................... 30
Figure 5.3. Comparison between previous and present Nu equation of the annulus
model. ................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 5.4. Mesh geometry of the equivalent annulus model. ............................. 36
Figure 5.5. The velocity magnitude distribution in radial direction of the
equivalent annulus model. .................................................................................. 37
Figure 5.6. The static temperature distribution in radial direction of the equivalent
annulus model. ................................................................................................... 38
Figure 5.7. Mesh geometry of the medium grid of P/D = 2. ................................ 41
Figure 5.8. Mesh geometry of the medium grid of P/D = 2.5. ............................. 41
Figure 5.9. Mesh geometry of the medium grid of P/D = 3. ................................ 42
Figure 5.10. Mesh geometry of the medium grid of P/D = 4. .............................. 42
Figure 5.11. The contour of velocity magnitude of the finest grid solution of
P/D = 3. ............................................................................................................. 42
Figure 5.12. The contour of static temperature of the finest grid solution of
P/D = 3. ............................................................................................................. 43
Figure 5.13. The cross-sectional area of characteristic domain of an array. ......... 44
Figure III.1. The residual of the coarse grid of the equivalent annulus. ............... 65
Figure III.2. The residual of the medium grid of the equivalent annulus. ............ 65
Figure III.3. The residual of the finest grid of the equivalent annulus. ................ 66
Figure III.4. The residual of the coarse grid of the characteristic domain with
P/D = 2. ............................................................................................................. 66
xiii
xiv
Figure III.5. The residual of the medium grid of the characteristic domain with
P/D = 2. ............................................................................................................. 67
Figure III.6. The residual of the finest grid of the characteristic domain with
P/D = 2. ............................................................................................................. 67
P/D = 2.5. .......................................................................................................... 68
P/D = 2.5. .......................................................................................................... 68
Figure III.9. The residual of the finest grid of the characteristic domain with P/D
= 2.5. ................................................................................................................. 69
P/D = 3. ............................................................................................................. 69
P/D = 3. ............................................................................................................. 70
P/D = 3. ............................................................................................................. 70
P/D = 4. ............................................................................................................. 71
P/D = 4. ............................................................................................................. 71
P/D = 4. ............................................................................................................. 72
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Symbols
Cross sectional area or flow area
Order of convergence
Constant
Heat capacity of constant pressure (J/kg.K)
Hydraulic diameter (m)
Safety factor in grid convergence analysis
Potential body force (m/s2)
Grid convergence index
Grashof number
Solution of interest in grid convergence analysis
Higher order term
Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K)
Grid refinement ratio
Conductivity (W/m.K)
Mass (kg)
Nusselt number
Number of sides of a single channel in array
Pitch length (m)
Peclet number
Prandtl number
Pressure (Pa)
Heat flux through the wall (W/m2)
Internal heat generation (W/m3)
Radius of a pipe (m)
Reynold number
Radius of the wall in array (m)
Radius of the zero-flux line in equivalent annulus (m)
xv
xvi
The same as
The same as
Dimensionless variable, the ratio of heat generation rates to the heat flux
rate
Grid spacing
The finest grid spacing
Less fine grid spacing
Temperature (K)
Bulk temperature (K)
Wall temperature
Time (s)
Velocity (m/s)
Wetted-perimeter (m)
Ratio of
99m
Tc
Technetium-99m
Spatial relative error in grid convergence analysis
Dynamic viscosity (kg/m.s)
Density (kg/m3)
Shear stress (Pa)
Dissipation energy term (W/m3)
Abbreviations
AHR
Aqueous Homogenous Reactor
CFD
Computation Fluid Dynamic
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

MIPS Medical Isotope Production System
ODE
Ordinary Differential Equation
PDE
Partial Differential Equation

by
Aji Saka
09/284821/TK/35510
Submitted to the Department of Physics Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Universitas Gadjah Mada on October 3, 2013
in partial fulfillment of the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Nuclear Engineering
ABSTRACT
Under the circumstantial demand of 99mTc, solution reactor also known as
AHR is so far to be the most feasible candidate to replace the previous
technologies as a Medical Isotope Production System (MIPS). The probable
design of solution reactor core with natural circulation cooling system has been
considered, that is the core with many coolant tubes of an array. This research
aims to provide the Nusselt correlation from the fuel to the outer surface of
coolant tube in a triangular array as a preliminary study of the core design. The
method of the research is to gain the analytical solution using equivalent annulus
model and to do numerical simulations of the characteristic domain to gain the
estimated real Nusselt number. The results are compared and discussed to see the
suitability of the equivalent annulus model to the real case. A new dimensionless
variable, denoted as Sa number, appears to represent the ratio of the heat
generation rate in the system to the rate of heat flux flowing through the boundary
of the system. The numerical simulations of the characteristic domain with Sa
equals 1, represents the steady state condition, and P/D value equals 2, 2.5, 3 and
4 have been conducted with the Nusselt numbers 17.4, 21.8, 26.4 and 37.0
respectively. The relative errors of the equivalent annulus model solutions to those
Nu numbers are 0.861, 0.208, 0.535 and 0.173 % respectively, suggesting the
suitability of the model for P/D equals two and more. New method of equivalent
annulus model has been suggested with smaller relative errors, which are 0.0308,
0.112, 0.432 and 0.0598 % respectively.
Keywords: Nusselt number, heat generation, equivalent annulus, triangular array
Supervisor
Co-supervisor

: Dr. Ir. Andang Widi Harto, M.T.
xvii
PENENTUAN KORELASI NUSSELT ALIRAN LAMINAR PADA

SUSUNAN SEGITIGA SEBAGAI STUDI AWAL DESAIN TERAS
REAKTOR CAIR DENGAN SISTEM PENDINGIN SIRKULASI ALAM
oleh
Aji Saka
09/284821/TK/35510
Diajukan kepada Jurusan Teknik Fisika Fakultas Teknik
Universitas Gadjah Mada pada tanggal 3 Oktober 2013
untuk memenuhi sebagian persyaratan untuk memperoleh derajat
sarjana S-1 Program Studi Teknik Nuklir
INTISARI
Dengan permintaan radioisotope 99mTc yang semakin meningkat, reaktor
cair yang juga dikenal sebagai reaktor homogen sejauh ini menjadi teknologi yang
paling layak sebagai Sistem Produksi Isotop Medis (SPIM). Desain yang
memungkinkan dari teras reaktor cair dengan sistem pendingin sirkulasi alam
telah dipertimbangkan, ialah teras dengan banyak pipa pendingin dalam susunan
segitiga. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menyediakan korelasi Nusselt dari bahan
bakar ke permukaan luar pipa pendingin sebagai studi awal dari desain teras ini.
Metode penelitiannya ialah memperoleh solusi analitis dari model anulus ekivalen
dan melakukan simulasi numeris dari domain karakteristik untuk memperoleh
nilai Nusselt sebenarnya. Hasil tersebut dibandingkan untuk melihat kecocokan
model anulus ekivalen terhadap kasus sebenarnya. Variabel tak berdimensi baru,
dinotasikan sebagai bilangan Sa, muncul merepresentasikan rasio laju
pembangkitan panas terhadap laju fluks kalor yang mengalir melalui batas sistem.
Simulasi numeris dengan Sa sama dengan satu, yang merepresentasikan keadaan
tunak, dan P/D sama dengan 2, 2,5, 3, dan 4 telah dilakukan dengan hasil bilangan
Nusselt 17,4, 21,8, 26,4 dan 37,0 beruturut-turut. Kesalahan relatif model anulus
ekivalen terhadap nilai Nu tersebut ialah masing-masing sebesar 0,861, 0,208,
0,535 dan 0,173, mengindikasikan bahwa model anulus ekivalen cocok digunakan
sebagai korelasi Nusselt untuk P/D sama dengan dua dan lebih. Modifikasi model
anulus ekivalen telah diajukan dengan kesalahan relatif yang lebih kecil sebesar
0,0308, 0,112, 0,432 and 0,0598 %.
Kata kunci: Bilangan Nusselt, panas pembangkitan, anulus ekivalen, susunan
segitiga
Pembimbing Utrama
Pembimbing Pendamping : Dr. Ir. Andang Widi Harto, M.T.
xviii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I.1 Background
Technetium-99m (99mTc) is the most commonly used radioisotope in nuclear
medicine. It is estimated that about 25 million diagnostic investigations are
performed annually using this isotope
[1]
. The medical use of
99m
Tc has grown
significantly in the past several decades, and moderate overall growth of 3-5% per
year is expected to continue, with particular growth in countries expanding
healthcare programmes [2]. The availability of the short lived 99mTc (a half-life of 6
hours) as the daughter product of the longer lived Mo-99 (a half-life of 66 hours)
is one of the major factors which have promoted the universal use of this
radioisotope
[3]
. However, approximately 95% of global Mo-99 supply is still
produced within a small fleet of research reactors and radiochemical processing

facilities [4].
Noticing those conditions, it is necessary that there be some alternative
technologies of producing Mo-99 which are better than previous technologies.
Aqueous Homogenous Reactor (AHR), also known as solution reactor, is seemly
one of the most feasible candidates. The use of solution reactors for the
production of medical isotopes is potentially advantageous because of their low
cost, small critical mass, inherent passive safety, and simplified fuel handling,
processing and purification characteristics
[5]
. The feasibility of this reactor as a
Medical Isotope Production System (MIPS) led to an assigned agreement between

B&W Technical Services Group and radiopharmaceutical and medical device
supplier Covidien to develop this technology in January 2009
[6]
, giving the
technology becomes more foreseeable.

The workable AHR in the foreseeable future for MIPS will not end the
developing of itself. As noted from IAEA Conference on The Safety of Nuclear
Power: Strategy for the Future, the use of passive safety features is a desirable
method of achieving simplification and increasing the reliability of the
performance of essential safety functions, and should be used wherever
appropriate [7]. Solution reactor is not the exception, since there is still a possible
way to enhance its passive safety features. A probable design of solution reactor
core with the cooling system by means of natural circulation has been considered,
the design is whereby the core consists of many vertical tubes of coolant in array,
such as a triangular array [8].
Some parameters are important in considering the related design of AHR
with natural circulation cooling system. One of those is the heat transfer
coefficient, both from the fuel to the outer surface coolants tube and from the
inner surface coolants tube to the coolant. Thus, it is essential that the Nusselt
correlation related to those convection heat transfers be known. This research will
take the case of convection heat transfer from the fuel to the outer surface tube of
the coolant, with some assumptions will be taken for simplicity as this research
will provide a preliminary study of the core design.
I.2 Problem Formulation
There are two schemes of the fuel condition with the aforementioned core
design [8]. First, the fuel is considered as in a static condition in the core, in which
the heat transfer occurs from the fuel to the tubes by means of natural convection.
Second, the fuel is flowing parallel to the coolant tubes, which means that the heat
transfer occurs from the fuel to the tubes by means of forced convection. Forced
convection is easier to analyze so that the later scheme is preferably chosen as an
interest for preliminary study.
There have been known the Nusselt correlations of both turbulent and
laminar flow for forced convection in a triangular array of circular tubes
[9]
However, those correlations were derived in the inexistence of internal heat

generation case, whereas in this case, the flowing fluid is the fuel which clearly
generates energy. The existence of heat generation in the flow is expectedly
changed the value of heat transfer coefficient, hence The Nusselt number. This
means that the internal heat generation makes itself as an additional independent
variable of the Nusselt number, supposedly in the term of dimensionless number.
For this reason, the new Nusselt correlation is needed to fit the condition.
As a preliminary study, the following assumptions are taken for simplicity

of the problem;
1. The flow has yet to be known whether it is turbulent or laminar, but only
is laminar flow considered.
2. Bubble formation in the core is neglected. Unless this assumption is
taken, the case will be no longer single-phase flow but two-phase flow,
which widens the scope of the problem.
3. The heat generation and the heat flux at the surface of tubes are assumed
to be constant and uniform.
4. The flow has already reached its fully developed flow condition.
5. The array is assumed to have many tubes in it so that single channel
analyses can be applied.
6. The properties of material do not vary with temperature.
7. The radiation transferred is neglected.
The interest of the research will only be in the characteristic domain of the
problem as a consequence of the assumption point 5. The approach of problem
solving is divided by two steps. First, it is to derive and to analyze the analytical
solution by making use of an equivalent annulus model. Second, it is to do
numerical simulations of the characteristic domain of the problem and to confirm
whether the result will fit or not the analytical solution of its equivalent annulus
model.
Despite the triangular array as the case, the solution of equivalent annulus is
modeled for either a square array or a triangular array. Thus, both general solution
of equivalent annulus model and specific solution for the case of reactor core will
be discussed.
I.3 Objectives
The purposes of the research are:
1. To derive and to analyze the analytical solution of Nusselt correlation of
the equivalent annulus model.
2. To get the Nusselt numbers from numerical simulations of the problem

and to assess the suitability of the equivalent annulus model to the
problem.
I.4 Advantages
The advantages that may be obtained from this study are:
1. Providing the Nusselt correlation directly as a reference in the
consideration of the core design addressed in this research or for further
researches as the continuance of this research.
2. Providing the Nusselt correlation as a reference generally for any
possible needs.
3. Providing the proper mesh configuration as a reference for any similar
numerical problem to this research.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEWS
II.1 Equivalent Annulus Model
Equivalent annulus model is used to reduce the number of dimensionality of
the problem in fluid analysis. This model can be applied into a problem with an
array of circular tubes which consists of many similar regions or subchannels that
construct the array. The regions are called the characteristic domains (Figure 2.1).
The model is applied somehow that the flow area of the equivalent annulus model
is the same as that of single channel of an array being modeled (either rectangle or
hexagon). Consequently their hydraulic diameters are the same.
Figure 2.1. Subchannel and characteristic domains for

square and triangular arrays [10].
It can be seen that the dependency in
direction (in cylindrical coordinate)
of any variables in the characteristic domain no longer exists in the equivalent

annulus model. Therefore, in the case fully developed flow, the problem only has
one dimensionality (the flow is only depend on radial dimension) and one
directionality (the fluid flows only in axial direction), thus it makes the problem
can be solved analytically much more conveniently.
There has been a proof that for laminar flow parallel to a triangular array of
circular tubes, its Nusselt correlation gives the same number as that of its
equivalent annulus model from certain to higher value of Pitch-to-Diameter ratio,
as shown in Figure 2.2. It can be explained that for high value of P/D, the edge of
the hexagonal region in the array is far enough from the wall tube so that the
region near the tube wall or even most of the region has the velocity and
temperature distribution that are similar to those of the equivalent annulus model.
Otherwise, for small value of P/D, the side of the hexagonal region affects the
variable distribution of interests as dominant as the tube wall, making the
equivalent annulus model is no longer valid. The suitability of Nusselt number of
equivalent annulus model in a laminar case gives a suggestion that it may still
hold true for improved laminar case, in this research is by including internal heat
generation.
Figure 2.2. Nusselt number for fully developed laminar flow parallel
to an array of circular tubes [9].
II.2 Verification in Computational Fluid Dynamics [11]

The significant increase of the use of Computational Fluid Dynamics in
engineering applications leads to a need to establish the credibility of the
numerical results. The credibility of numerical results can be achieved with
verification
and
validation.
Verification
assessment
determines
if
the
programming and computational implementation of the conceptual model is

correct. From American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Committee on
Standards in Computation Fluid Dynamics definition (AIAA G-077-1998): The
process of determining that a model implementation accurately represents the
developer's conceptual description of the model and the solution to the model.
Verification assessment examines 1) if the computational models are the correct
implementation of the conceptual models, and 2) if the resulting code can be
properly used for an analysis. On the other hand, Validation assessment
determines if the computational simulation agrees with physical reality. It
examines the science in the models through comparison to experimental results.
There are two aspects in verification; they are the verification of a code and
the verification of a calculation. The objective of verifying a code is error
evaluation, which is, finding and removing errors in the code. The objective of
verifying a calculation is error estimation, which is determining the accuracy of a
calculation.
Verification of a code involves error evaluation, which is, looking for bugs,
incorrect implementations of conceptual models, errors in inputs, and other errors
in the code and usage. This is typically done by the developers prior to release of
the code. First, consistency checks are performed which examine basic
relationships expected in the solutions (i.e. mass conservation). Then the code is
used to simulate a suite of ``highly accurate'' verification cases. These cases
should be analytic or numeric solution to ordinary and partial differential
equations. Verification should not be performed with experimental data. A grid
refinement study should be conducted to bring out potential errors. All the options
of the code should be examined. This becomes more complicated as the number
of options available within a CFD code increase. Identifying and quantifying each
type of error is important because errors can interact and cancel each other leading to erroneous conclusions in the validation process. One potentially useful
method of verification is comparing the results of two codes. However,
verification is not a democratic activity and one should watch for comparing with
an inaccurate code. The comparison is strengthened when the two codes use
differing numerical methods.
Verification of a calculation involves error estimation, which is determining
the accuracy of a single calculation and putting an error band on the final value.
The approach involves performing a grid convergence analysis and determines the
observed order of convergence, error bands, and grid convergence indices (GCI).
The process for Verification Assessment of a CFD code and / or simulation
can be summarized as:
1. Examine the Computer Programming of the Code.
2. Examine Iterative Convergence.
3. Examine Consistency.
4. Examine Spatial (Grid) Convergence.
5. Examine Temporal Convergence.
6. Compare CFD Results to Highly Accurate Solutions.
II.2.1 Examining the Computer Programming of the Code
One of the most basic tasks of verification assessment is the review of the
computer programming or coding to check for and identify computer
programming errors or "bugs". This is done by visually checking the coding and
by computationally running subprograms using a test code. This is aided by
complete and clear documentation, both internal and external. This step is to
directly detect computer programming errors.
II.2.2 Examining Iterative Convergence.
Generally, CFD methods involve some iterative scheme to arrive at the
simulation results. Here it is assumed that the iteration is with respect to time or a
pseudo-temporal quantity and some type of time step is taken at each iteration. A
steady-state flow simulation involves starting with a uniform or fabricated flow
field and iterating in time until the steady-state flow field is obtained. This is
termed iterative convergence, but requires some criteria for determining
convergence. Criteria include [12]:
1. Residuals. The residuals of the equations are the change in the equations over
an iteration. These are usually scaled or normalized. One usually looks for the
residuals to reach a certain level and then level-off as an indication of iterative
convergence. For a time-marching, steady-state strategy, this involves
examining whether the residual has been reduced a certain number (usually 34) of orders of magnitude.
2. Results. The CFD simulation has the objective of determining some quantity
such as lift, drag, recovery, etc... One can track the values of such engineering
quantities with respect to iteration and define iterative convergence when
these quantities converge. The convergence criteria is usually defined by
acceptable error in these values. It is often the case that certain quantities may
reach convergence at a different rate than other quantities. One can check that
a monitored flow value (such as thrust, drag, or boundary layer profile) has
remained unchanged with respect to the number of iterations.
3. Time-Accurate Simulations. For a time-marching, time-accurate strategy, this
involves examining whether the final time has been reached with proper
convergence at each time step.
4. Space-Marching Simulation. For a space-marching strategy, this involves
examining whether the end of the marching segment has been reached with
proper convergence at each marching step.
II.2.3 Examining Solution Consistency
One can evaluate convergence by checking for consistency in the flow field.
The conservation relations require a balance of fluxes through a control surface.
For a closed duct, the flow through the duct should be conserved. Low-speed flow
over a closed body should have zero drag. Other such consistency relations can be
defined for specific flow fields. These provide verification of the code since the
consistency relations are usually a statement of some analytic result.
10
II.2.4 Examining Spatial (Grid) Convergence [13]

The examination of the spatial convergence of a simulation is a straightforward method for determining the ordered discretization error in a CFD
simulation. The method involves performing the simulation on two or more
successively finer grids. The term grid convergence study is equivalent to the
commonly used term grid refinement study.
As the grid is refined (grid cells become smaller and the number of cells in
the flow domain increase) and the time step is refined (reduced) the spatial and
temporal discretization errors, respectively, should asymptotically approaches
zero, excluding computer round-off error.
The easiest approach for generating the series of grids is to generate a grid
with what one would consider fine grid spacing, perhaps reaching the upper limit
of one's tolerance for generating a grid or waiting for the computation on that grid
to converge. Then coarser grids can be obtained by removing every other grid line
in each coordinate direction. This can be continued to create additional levels of
coarser grids
Converged solution on the coarser grid can be used directly as the initial
solution on the finer grid. This option was originally used to speed up
convergence of solutions; however, can be used effectively for a grid convergence
study.
It is not necessary to halve the number of grid points in each coordinate
direction to obtain the coarser grid. Non-integer grid refinement or coarsening can
be used. This may be desired since halfing a grid may put the solution out of the
asymptotic range. Non-integer grid refinement or coarsening will require the
generation of a new grid. It is important to maintain the same grid generation
parameters as the original grid. One approach is to select several grid spacings as
reference grid spacings. One should be the grid spacing normal to the walls.
Others may be spacings at flow boundaries, at junctures in the geometry, or at
zonal interfaces. Upon picking the ratio as which the grid is to be refined or
coarsened, this same ratio is applied to these spacings. The numbers of grid points
are then adjusted according to grid quality parameters, such as grid spacing ratio
11
limits. The surface and volume grids are then generated using the same methods
as the original grid. The grid refinement ratio should be a minimum of
to
allow the discretization error to be differentiated from other error sources

(iterative convergence errors, computer round-off, etc...).
The order of grid convergence involves the behavior of the solution error
defined as the difference between the discrete solution and the exact solution:
( )
where
is a constant,
(2.1)
is some measure of grid spacing, and
convergence. A second-order solution would have
is the order of
A CFD code uses a numerical algorithm that will provide a theoretical order
of convergence; however, the boundary conditions, numerical models, and grid
will reduce this order so that the observed order of convergence will likely be
lower.
The evaluation of
can be obtained from three solutions using a constant
grid refinement ratio ,

(
(2.2)
The order of accuracy is determined by the order of the leading term of the
truncation error and is represented with respect to the scale of the discretization, .
The local order of accuracy is the order for the stencil representing the
discretization of the equation at one location in the grid. The global order of
accuracy considers the propagation and accumulation of errors outside the stencil.
This propagation causes the global order of accuracy to be, in general, one degree
less than the local order of accuracy. The order of accuracy of the boundary
conditions can be one order of accuracy lower than the interior order of accuracy
without degrading the overall global accuracy.
Richardson extrapolation is a method for obtaining a higher-order estimate
of the continuum value (value at zero grid spacing) from a series of lower-order
discrete values.
A simulation will yield a quantity
by the series expansion.
that can be expressed in a general form
12
(2.3)
where
is the grid spacing and the function
grid spacing. The quantity
and
are independent of the
is considered "second-order" if
. The
is the continuum value at zero grid spacing.

If one assumes a second-order solution and has computed
spacing
and
with
on two grids of
being the finer (smaller) spacing, then one can write two
equations for the above expansion, neglect third-order and higher terms, and solve
for
to estimate the continuum value:

(2.4)
where the grid refinement ratio is:

(2.5)
The Richardson extrapolation can be generalized for a -th order methods

and -value of grid ratio (which does not have to be an integer) as:
(2.6)
In theory, the above equations for the Richardson extrapolation will provide
a fourth-order estimate of
, if
and
were computed using exactly
second-order methods. Otherwise, it will be a third-order estimate. In general, we

will consider
to be
order accurate. Richardson extrapolation can be
applied for the solution at each grid point, or to solution functionals, such as
pressure recovery or drag.
Roache suggests a Grid Convergence Index (GCI) to provide a consistent
manner in reporting the results of grid convergence studies and perhaps provide
an error band on the grid convergence of the solution. The GCI can be computed
using two levels of grid; however, three levels are recommended in order to
accurately estimate the order of convergence and to check that the solutions are
within the asymptotic range of convergence.
A consistent numerical analysis will provide a result which approaches the
actual result as the grid resolution approaches zero. Thus, the discretized
equations will approach the solution of the actual equations. One significant issue
13
in numerical computations is what level of grid resolution is appropriate. This is a

function of the flow conditions, type of analysis, geometry, and other variables.
One is often left to start with a grid resolution and then conduct a series of grid
refinements to assess the effect of grid resolution. This is known as a grid
refinement study.
One must recognize the distinction between a numerical result which
approaches an asymptotic numerical value and one which approaches the true
solution. It is hoped that as the grid is refined and resolution improves that the
computed solution will not change much and approach an asymptotic value (i.e.
the true numerical solution). There still may be error between this asymptotic
value and the true physical solution to the equations.
Roache has provided a methodology for the uniform reporting of grid
refinement studies. "The basic idea is to approximately relate the results from any
grid refinement test to the expected results from a grid doubling using a secondorder method. The GCI is based upon a grid refinement error estimator derived
from the theory of generalized Richardson Extrapolation. It is recommended for
use whether or not Richardson Extrapolation is actually used to improve the
accuracy, and in some cases even if the conditions for the theory do not strictly
hold." The object is to provide a measure of uncertainty of the grid convergence.
The GCI is a measure of the percentage the computed value is away from
the value of the asymptotic numerical value. It indicates an error band on how far
the solution is from the asymptotic value. It indicates how much the solution
would change with a further refinement of the grid. A small value of GCI
indicates that the computation is within the asymptotic range.
The GCI on the fine grid is defined as:
| |
(2.7)
where
is a factor of safety and,

|
|
(2.8)
14
The refinement may be spatial or in time. The factor of safety is

recommended to be
for comparisons of two grids and
for
comparisons over three or more grids. The higher factor of safety is recommended
for reporting purposes and is quite conservative of the actual errors.
It is important that each grid level yield solutions that are in the asymptotic
range of convergence for the computed solution. This can be checked by
observing two GCI values as computed over three grids:
(2.9)
II.2.5 Examining Temporal Convergence

Time-accurate simulations involve taking discrete time steps. One must
examine the sensitivity of the simulation results to the magnitude of the time step.
The effects and possible errors are usually related to the time filtering of various
time scales existing in the unsteady flow field.
II.2.6 Comparing CFD Results to Highly Accurate Solutions
The veracity of a code can be examined by comparing the CFD simulation
results to highly accurate solution to the models used within the CFD code. This
can include analytical solutions, benchmark numerical solutions to ordinary
differential equations (ODEs), and benchmark numerical solutions to partial
differential equations (PDEs).
CHAPTER III
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
III.1 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow
Most engineering problems, including those associated with fluid flow, can
be analyzed using one of three basic approaches: differential, experimental and
control volume. In differential approaches, the problem is formulated accurately
using differential quantities and able to be solved for all details of the flow
everywhere in the flow domain. Unfortunately, most the solutions of the resulting
differential equations are difficult to solve, usually requiring the use of numerical
methods with extensive computer codes.
The basic governing differential equations of fluid motion are the continuity
equation (conservation of mass) and the NavierStokes (Newtons second law).
By solving those equations, then the distribution of velocity and pressure of the
problem can be known at any point of the region of the problem. Additionally, the
differential equation of energy conservation is essentially needed when involving
heat transfer analysis.
III.1.1 The Continuity Equation
If
, and
are denoted as the three components of the velocity vector
, the mass equation can be written as:

,
,
(
]
]
]
After simplification it can be written in vector-algebra notation:
15
(3.1)
16
( )
(3.2)
When the density does not change appreciably in the domain of interest, and
when small density changes do not affect appreciably the behavior of the system,
we can assume that the density is constant.
For such an incompressible fluid the continuity equation (3.2) simplifies to:
(3.3)
In cylindrical coordinate:
(
( )
(3.4)
III.1.2 The Navier-Stokes Equation

The momentum equation expresses mathematically the fact that the rate of
change of momentum in the control volume equals the momentum flow rate into
the control volume minus the momentum flow rate out of the control volume plus
the net external force on the control volume. Both body forces and surface are to
be included.
The forces that must be accounted for include, in addition to gravitational,
electrical, or magnetic forces, three surface forces on each face: one normal and
two tangential. The normal forces are caused by the pressure and internal
frictional effects that act elongate the fluid element. The shear (tangential) forces
are due to internal friction, which attempts to rotate the fluid element.
In general, eventually the differential equation of conservation momentum
can be written as:
(3.5)
It is easily seen that it is a restatement of Newtons law of motion, whereby

the left hand side is the mass times the acceleration, and the right hand is the sum
of the forces acting on that mass. The desirable output from solving momentum
equation is the velocity field so that the density, forces and the internal stress
forces must be stated in the terms of velocity field. In other words, a consecutive
relation for is needed for mathematic closure. In the end, for dense gases and
17
fluid that follow the Newtonian laws of viscosity, the momentum equation can be
written in vector form as:
( )
This expression is the Navier-Stokes equation
[9]
(3.6)
. For an incompressible
fluid with a constant viscosity, the equation becomes:
(3.7)
or
(3.8)
The expressions of latest equation in cylindrical coordinate of each direction

component are:
(
)
(3.9)
*
(3.10)
+
(
*
(3.11)
III.1.3 Heat Transfer Analysis and Energy Equation

The objectives of heat transfer analysis for single-phase flows are generally:
(1) determination of the temperature field in a coolant channel so as to ensure that
the operating temperatures are within the specified limits; and (2) determination of
the parameters governing the heat-transport rate at the channel walls. These
parameters can then be used to choose materials and flow conditions that
maximize heat transport in the process equipment.
18
Attainment of the first objective leads directly to the second one, as

knowledge of the temperature field in the coolant leads to determination of the
.
heat flux,
/ , at the solid wall via Fourier's law for heat transfer. At any
surface this law states that:
(3.12)
= thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/moK), and = unit vector
where
perpendicular to the surface, so that
= temperature gradient in the direction
of heat transfer (oK/m). However, in engineering analyses, where only the second
objective is desired, the heat flux is related to the bulk or mean temperature of the
flow ( ), via Newtons law for heat transfer:
where
= wall temperature (oK), and
(3.13)
= the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 oK).
Equation (3.13) is applied in the engineering analysis when it is possible to

determine
for the flow conditions based on prior engineering experience. Often
the heat transfer coefficient is a semiempirical function of the coolant properties

and velocity as well as the flow channel geometry. There is only a scarcity of the
problems whereby the heat transfer coefficient is determined analytically.
Related to heat transfer analyses, surely the equation of energy conservation
is needed. The energy equation expresses the fact that the rate of change of total
internal energy in an infinitesimal volume must be equal to the rate at which
internal energy is brought into the volume by the mass inflow, minus that
removed by mass outflow, plus the heat transported diffusively or generated,
minus the work performed by the medium in the volume and the work needed to
put the flow through the volume. In vector form the general energy equation is
written as:
( )
(3.14)
where:
= the rate of enthalpy change in the system
(3.15)
19
=the net rate of conduction heat flux applied in the system

= the net rate of radiation heat flux conducted in the system
= the internal heat generation in the system
= the energy term due to thermal expansion of the fluid in the
system
= the dissipation function, the viscous work done in the system
When the velocity ( ), pressure
( ), and heat generation rate,
are known a priori, the equation (3.12) is used to specify the temperature field
( ). The equation of state consecutive relations for
),
) and
Not to mention are the initial values of
(
(
), and
( ) - as well as the
)are needed for the solution.

( ) and
( ) as well as the
appropriate number of boundary conditions.

In general, the equation is first simplified to a form that is an acceptable
approximation of the situation at hand. The common approximations are twofold:
1. The pressure term is negligible (in effect considering the phase
incompressible).
2. The material properties are temperature- and pressure-independent.
The above two approximations are acceptable in forced convection flow
analysis but should not be applied indiscriminately in natural-flow and mixedflow analyses. When natural flow is important, the Boussinesq approximation is
applied where the material properties are assumed to be temperature-independent
with the exception of the density in the gravity or buoyancy term in the
momentum equation, which is assumed to vary linearly with temperature.
It is possible to ignore radiation heat transfer within the single-phase liquids
and high-density gases so that the heat flux is due to molecular conduction alone.
Thus for incompressible fluids and purely conductive heat flux, also with other
constant properties, the energy equation in cylindrical coordinate is written as:
20
*
(3.16)
(
*,(
* -
*
(3.17)
* +
If the dissipation energy ( ) is also negligible, which is generally true unless the
velocity gradients are very large, the terms inside the bracket [ ] are neglected.
For engineering analyses, the difference between the wall temperature and
the bulk flow temperature is obtained by defining the heat transfer coefficient ( )
through the nondimensional Nusselt number:
(
(3.18)
where:
(3.19)
and
= an appropriate length or lateral dimension. For external flows the length
dimension is usually used, whereas a lateral dimension is used for internal flows.
Besides the variables in equation (3.18), Nusselt number actually also depends on
so-called the Brinkmann number, which represents the ratio of heat production by
viscous dissipation to heat transfer by conduction. However, dissipation energy
term can always be ignored [9], so as not to be included in the above-mentioned
equation.
The form of the Nu relation depends on the flow regime (laminar versus
turbulent, external versus internal) and the coolant (metallic versus nonmetallic).
At high values of Re, the heat transfer is aided by the presence of turbulent eddies,
resulting in an increased heat transfer rate over the case of purely laminar flow.
For metallic liquids, the molecular thermal conductivity is so high that the relative
effect of turbulence is not as significant as in the case of nonmetallic flows.
In a case of fully developed flow, it is characterized by not only the
independent velocity of radial position and the constant axial velocity as:
21
(3.20)
but also the independent temperature lateral profile of axial position,

mathematically written as:
(
(3.21)
In a case of circular tube it can be written as:

. /
where
(3.22)
is the bulk or mean temperature of the flow, defined as:
(3.23)
CHAPTER IV
MATERIALS AND METHOD
IV.1 Materials
This study includes simulation-basic experiment. Materials used are listed as
follows:
1. Computer
The computer used has specifications:
Processor
Intel(R)
Core(TM)
i3-
2350M CPU @ 2.30GHz

RAM
: 4.00GB
System type
: 64-BIT operating system
2. Simulation program
FLUENT is a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package to
simulate fluid flow problems. It uses the finite-volume method to solve the
governing equations for a fluid. It provides the capability to use different physical
models such as incompressible or compressible, inviscid or viscous, laminar or
turbulent, etc. Geometry and grid generation is done using GAMBIT which is the
preprocessor bundled with FLUENT.
IV.2 Method
The method or flow process in this research is generally divided by two big
step processes; analytic and numeric. For analytical approach, it is being used the
model of equivalent annulus. For numerical approach, the interest is the
characteristic domain of the problem.
A. Analytical Approach
1. Using the model of equivalent annulus with the condition of fully
developed flow, the differential equations of momentum and energy will
be solved to obtain the Nu correlation.
22
23
2. The solution will be a function of two variable; Pitch-to Diameter ratio

and additional dimensionless number correlated to the internal heat
generation. The general solution will be discussed.
3. At special case of zero internal heat generation, comparison with
previous result will conducted. If there is discrepancy between the
results, numerical simulation will be conducted with precisely
verification result, the uncertainty must be less than the discrepancy, to
confirm the correct one. If it turns out the present solution does not fit
the numerical result, the present mathematical model will be modified to
fit the numerical result. The result will be discussed.
4. Determining and analyzing the special case which represents the
problem of AHR as the background of this research.
B. Numerical Approach
1. Here will be conducted numerical simulations of the characteristic
domain of the triangular array as the core design of AHR.
2. As the Nu correlation is a function of Pitch-to-Diameter ratio,
simulations will be conducted at several points of P/D.
3. The result of each simulation is afforded to have as good as possible
verification result within the equipment capability and time given. Since
the objective is dimensionless Nu number, the material used in the
simulations is air due to its relatively smaller Reynold number compared
to others with the same velocity. Small Reynold number is needed to get
the fully developed flow condition faster.
4. The result of simulations will be compared to that of analytical solution
and be discussed.
No validation step conducted in this research. However, the results of
simulations with good result of verification results are credible then can be used
properly, since the case is laminar in which there is no equation model used such
as in the case of turbulent flow.
24
CHAPTER V
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
V.1 Analytical Solution of Equivalent Annulus Model
Equivalent annulus model is applied by making use the same value of its
flow area as that of the characteristic domain associated with the whole circular
tube area: either square area or hexagonal area. By denoting
is either the number
of sides of a square or a hexagon, the geometry relation of the characteristic

domain with its equivalent annulus model can be derived as follows:
(
(5.1)
(5.2)
For triangular array, the relation becomes:

(
(5.3)
In the case of square array, the relation becomes:

(5.4)
V.1.1 Velocity Distribution
Velocity distribution can be solved by applying both the continuity equation

and the Navier-Stokes equation. Nevertheless, since the flow problem has only
one directionality because of fully developed flow problem, the continuity
becomes meaningless. However, the momentum equation itself suffices to solve
the velocity distribution. Applying the equations (3.9) - (3.11) into the case, the
momentum equation becomes:
(
(5.5)
As it can be seen, the left hand side of the equation is the term of pressure
drop, which is caused by viscous work of the fluid and the gravitational body
force.
25
Since the axial velocity depends on the radial direction only, the partial
differential notation on the equation can be changed into total differential
notation. The equation is solved by integrating and applying the boundary
conditions, those are zero velocity at the wall (
the edge of the region of interest (
notation
and
) and maximum velocity at
). The solution is, by changing the
, therefore:
[
](
(5.6)
The term of pressure drop and body force in the equation above can be
eliminated by firstly to derive the average velocity:
](
(5.7)
Dividing the equation (5.6) by (5.7) obtains the new expression of velocity as:
(
(5.8)
where:
[
(5.9)
The solution of velocity distribution is needed in order to get the bulk

temperature as it associated with flow rate.
V.1.2 Temperature Distribution
The differential energy equation for the case of fully developed laminar
flow in a circular tube with constant heat flux at the wall with a satisfying result is
stated as [9]:
(
(5.10)
The equation (3.16) of energy conservation which comes to this

simplification is by applying both equations (3.20) and (3.21) as a fully developed
flow condition, and neglecting the dissipation energy. The axial conduction term
is zero for fully developed flow and constant heat flux
[10]
. The change from
partial differential into ordinary differential equation is also derived as a
26
consequence of fully developed flow condition and constant heat flux at the wall,
as explained bellow from equation (3.22):
. /(
. /
(5.11)
Differentiating the equation above into axial direction:

. /(
. /
. /
(5.12)
which it means that:

( )
( )
(5.13)
The differential equation above is supposedly applied to the case of

annulus, yet in this case, the internal heat generation additionally must be
included. The equation becomes:
(
(5.14)
The boundary conditions that needed to solve the equation are
as the wall temperature at certain axial position and the zero temperature gradient
at the edge of the annulus region,
). The solution is:
)
(5.15)
where:
(
)
(5.16)
(
(
)
)
(5.17)
In the equation (5.17), the wall heat flux is taken as positive value as it is
flowing from the system into the outside or surrounding. As it can be seen, there
is such a condition that the axial gradient of temperature to be zero.
27
So as to do with the velocity distribution, the temperature distribution is

needed to obtain the value of bulk temperature.
V.1.3 Nusselt Equation
The main interest in heat transfer is actually the heat transfer coefficient
rather than the Nusselt number, yet Nusselt number is preferably reported due to
its independency of the properties of material in the problem. In other words,
Nusselt number is universally applied to the case with the same condition and
geometry cases, regardless the type of material. Therefore, here will be derived
what needed to obtain the heat transfer coefficient, and then stated in the Nusselt
equation.
The heat transfer coefficient which is defined as the difference value
between wall temperature and bulk temperature, so as it desired, the bulk
temperature has to be known firstly. As previously the temperature and velocity
distributions have been stated, indeed for this reason, the bulk temperature is able
to be solved, giving the solution as:
(
))
(5.18)
Where:
(
(
)
(
(5.19)
)
)
+
)
)
(5.20)
By applying the equations above, the heat transfer coefficient of the

equivalent annulus model can be derived. Stating in the term of the Nusselt
number:
28
|
(
)
(
1(
) (
( )
(5.21)
*
* ( ))
( )
This is the expression of the Nusselt equation of equivalent annulus model,

which is intended to represent the Nusselt correlation of an array. As stated above,
the Nusselt equation is a function of two variables, those are
and the heat
generation in the term of dimensionless number together with the hydraulic

diameter and the heat flux. For convenient, the latter dimensionless variable is
denoted as :
(5.22)
The graph of the equation (5.21) for a triangular array with several different
values of
number is shown in Figure 5.1.
60
50
= 20
= 17.5
Nu
40
= 15
= 10
30
=4
=0
20
= -15
= -30
10
0
1
P/D
Figure 5.1. Nusselt number for the equivalent annulus model of fully developed
laminar flow parallel to a triangular array of circular tubes.
The geometry of the problem is a foregone conclusion to be one of the
variables that affected the Nusselt number, which is represented by what kind of
29
the mathematical expression the Nusselt equation is, and interestingly also in this
case by the first aforesaid variable
. The variable
depends on other two
variables, as in the equation (5.2), which those surely represent the geometry of
the problem; the term Pitch-to-Diameter ratio which represents the size of the
geometry and the variable
which represents the type of the array being modeled.
It is unwise to leap to the conclusion that the solution is applicable to the

true case of an array, since the solution is accounted for the model only. It has to
be assessed previously how close the solution of the model to that of the real case
is so that the model may be able to be used under some allowable error. It is a
priori conclusion that the suitability of the model is better for a triangular array
problem than that of a square array problem since the number of sides belong to a
hexagon is higher than that of a square, which is slightly closer to the shape of a
circle. It is also a priori conclusion that the Nusselt number resulted from the
equivalent annulus model will never be exactly the same as that of the real
problem, because bottom line, their geometry are different at all times.
Nevertheless, there has been a result showed the good suitability of the equivalent
annulus model to the problem of a triangular array without the existence of
internal heat generation, as shown in Figure 2.2. Still, it is only as good as an
indication of the good suitability of the equivalent annulus model to the problem
with the existence of internal heat generation unless the model has been confirmed
formerly. For low value of
in Figure 2.2, the
number of the array tends to
be very small and have large positive gradient. In contrast, the solution for
equivalent annulus model is a different matter, especially for very high
numbers. It fits the real
number starts from
number equals zero. Whereas for other
around two and more for
numbers, there is nothing to say about it
unless confirmations have been conducted. In this research, the confirmation is

conducted via numerical simulations as it is much cheaper than validated via
experiments.
The other variable,
, stems from the existence of internal heat generation.
This unit of heat generation must be together with other units so that they all
together become dimensionless, as so is the dependent variable. Those additional
30
variables are the hydraulic diameter and the heat flux flowing through the
coolants tube. Among those variables, only is the heat flux possible to be in
either positive or negative value. On the equation (5.21), the heat flux is taken to
be positive as it is flowing from the system into the surrounding, and to be
negative otherwise. This additional
number which appears in equation (5.21)
represents the ratio the rate of the heat generated in the system to that of the heat
transferred outside the system. As it seems in Figure 5.1, the higher the
is, the higher the
number
number is, hence the heat transfer coefficient.
5
4
|T|(K)
=5
3
= 16
=8
=0
= -16
= -40
0
0.01
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.014
r(m)
Figure 5.2. The absolute values of temperature distribution with several values of
numbers of P/D = 1.4 and Tb Tw = 3 K.
To illustrate how this
number affects the
number is by looking the
temperature distribution in radial direction at certain axial position. Figure 5.2

represents the absolute values of temperature distribution with several values of
numbers of
and
. Given some high value of
number,
the rate of heat generated in the system exceeds the rate heat brought outside the
system, makes higher change in radial gradient temperature near the wall than the
difference of bulk and wall temperature, then makes the heat transfer coefficient
also higher. Otherwise for low number of
relatively smaller. Moreover, when
, the heat transfer coefficient is
number is negative, which means that the
heat flow at the wall flowing into the system, it even makes a smaller temperature
31
gradient near the wall, hence the heat transfer coefficient is also even smaller. For
very high
number and small
number, it is interesting that this condition
makes the temperature distribution not be monotonic function like others with
smaller value of
number and hence makes the temperature gradient very high at
the wall. This explains why the

range of small value of
number is very high for
within the
in Figure 5.1.
It has yet to be determined the value of
number which gives the situation
of the rate of heat generated is equally transferred outside the system. This
situation must apply in the case of reactor, such as AHR in this research,
otherwise, the mean or bulk temperature of the fuel fluid will continually rise by
time. It is easy mathematically to state that the heat generated is equally
transferred outside the system as follows:
(5.23)
The notation
represents the length of the wetted-perimeter, which happens to be
the coolants tube wall. By rearranging the equation above, it is derived the
number for such a condition:
(5.24)
This dimensionless number can be arranged slightly so that the value of one
represents that the heat generated is equally transferred outside by dividing
four. This modified additional dimensionless variable is denoted as
over
number (as
other dimensionless parameters represent the name of certain people, Sa stands for
Saka as the writer has yet to know what this number called).
(5.25)
The Nusselt equation in equation (5.21) hence becomes:

(
) (
*
(5.26)
( )
Therefore, any value of
* ( )]
( )
number which is more than one, there will be some
heat (precisely enthalpy) stuck in the fluid, causing the bulk temperature of the
32
fluid rises along its axial direction, or in other words, its axial temperature
gradient is positive. However, it does not mean that any value for
number
which is less than one, the axial temperature gradient will be always negative.
Remembering that the
number can have a negative value as well as the heat
flux, when this situation occurs, extra heat is added into the system besides the
internal heat generation, thus it makes the axial temperature gradient positive,
even larger. Rearranging slightly the equation (5.17), it becomes:
(
(5.27)
In some transition phases of the reactor core, the Sa number could be more or less
than one. However, the condition of Sa number to be negative is impossible to
occur. Because negative Sa number implies that the coolant has higher
temperature than that of the fuel. The coolant is always cooler than the fuel at any
condition as its objective to extract the heat from the fuel.
When
number is zero, which means that there is no internal heat
generation, the solution of
equation in this research must fit the pervious
equation. From Figure 2.2 and Figure 5.1, at first glance the solutions match, but
actually there is a little discrepancy when they are looked carefully as shown in
Figure 5.3. The most visible discrepancy is in the range from 2 to 2.6 of Pitch-toDiameter ratio. Despite this, it doesnt straightforwardly mean that the solutions
do not match, because the graph itself could make an error in size while being
printed. There must be a significant number to the
number in the graph to
assess whether the solutions match or not, yet in fact, it is not stated so that the
assessment cant be done. On the other hand, accurate verified simulations can be
done to this equivalent annulus model in order to confirm the correct solution of
this model, noticing the case is axisymetric which turns into two-dimensional
case. The verified result of simulation of this model can be trusted because the
case is laminar in which there is no equation model used such as in the case of
turbulent flow.
33
Figure 5.3. Comparison between previous and present Nu equation of

the annulus model.
The equation (5.26) is an elaborate equation rather than straightforward like
any other empirical correlations. It shows not only the complexity yet the beauty
of nature is, but also how short math is to describe nature, even so math has been
being the most sophisticated tool ever in science and engineering. Moreover, the
solution actually is only the tip of the iceberg, remembering some assumptions
taken in this problem. Unless those assumptions were taken, the analytical
solution could be much less efficient or impossible to achieve. However, at least
there is some important information which can be obtained from this preliminary
study.
Thus far, it has not been discussed what the representation of Nu number is,
what its value implies. It is obvious that the Nu number represents the ratio of
convective heat transfer to conductive heat transfer, but at which value the Nu
number shows the convective and conductive heat transfers are equal is still
questionable, because the Nu equals one does not always imply such a condition.
In Appendix I equation (I.32), it is shown the formula of the heat transfer rate by
conduction alone with neglecting the axial conduction term. For such a condition
of the flow that has the same formula as the equation (I.32), then it means that the
34
convection make the heat transfer better in radial direction by making the
conductive heat transfer in axial direction vanished. Indeed, for a case with
Length-to-Diameter ratio more than 10, it is safe enough to neglect the axial
conductive heat transfer, so in such case it can be said that the convective and
conductive heat transfer are equal when the flow has the same formula as the
equation (I.32).
To see how the flow condition can fit the equation (I.32) is by looking from
where this equation derived, which is from the equation (I.11). In the equation, it
can be seen that the fulfillment of equation (I.32) can be achieved by two
conditions. The conditions are zero velocity (the way equation (I.32) derived
formerly) and zero axial gradient of temperature. As it has been explained
previously that the zero axial temperature gradient condition is achieved when the
Sa number equals one. Thus in a fully developed flow condition with such Sa
number, it implies that the convective heat transfer does not make the heat transfer
rate better for a case where Length-to-Diameter ratio is more than 10 . Safely in
other words, it makes the heat transfer in radial direction better by making the
conductive heat transfer in axial direction vanished. This conclusion may hold
true for general similar problems, which is fully developed laminar internal flow
with Sa number equals one.
With the discussion above, the Nu number which equals one may seemly be
able to be used as a reference value for further research. As the purpose in the
reactor core is to obtain as effective as possible in heat transfer phenomena, or in
other word to obtain an effective heat flux rate, the higher Nu number may be
desired. But it is not always the case, the heat flux is determined not only by the
heat transfer coefficient but also the difference between the bulk and wall
temperature. As this study shows for the same value of heat generation rate, the
condition with lower Sa number results the Nusselt number or heat transfer
coefficient becomes lower, whereas lower Sa number implies that the heat flux
rate is higher. Hence in the case of this study for the reactor core with all
assumption stated, the condition which Sa number between 0 and 1 is desired,
instead of higher Nu number. However, the value of Sa number other than one
35
means that the reactor core is not in a steady state condition. Thus for any further
research related this reactor core design, the interest of the condition is still the Sa
value which equals one, or precisely the average value of Sa number in the system
equals one. Then for further researches with average Sa number equals one, the
Nusselt number derived in this study can be used as a standard reference, such as
in turbulent flow case, natural convection, developing flow etc, where the Nu
number is expected to be higher than that of fully developed laminar flow case.
High Nu number implies that the heat transfer rate value can be still high even for
small difference value between wall and bulk temperature.
V.2 Numerical Simulation Results
V.2.1 Equivalent Annulus Model
There have been conducted numerical simulations of equivalent annulus
model with three different grids. The simulations conducted was at the value 2.2
of
, as from Figure 5.3 this point is the highest visible discrepancy. However,
the value of
number taken is not zero for the simulations, neither is one. The
reason those values are not taken is that the values of zero and one made the term
heat generation and the axial temperature gradient vanished respectively in the
equation (5.15). Hence, other
value is rather necessary to be chosen for the
simulations.
In the matter of simulation considerations, low value of radial temperature
gradient is desired to obtain higher accurate results, especially the gradient at the
wall. From the Fouriers law, low radial temperature gradient at the wall is
achieved by determining small value of the heat flux. In addition, the smaller
value of wall heat flux is, the smaller the axial temperature gradient is, which also
can make more accurate results. However, too small value of temperature gradient
is not good, resulting very small difference between the initial input temperature
and the bulk temperature at the fully developed condition in the simulations,
which is limited by round-off error of the computer used. On the other hand, to
choose the best
number to demonstrate the numerical simulation is not easy as
well. Taking the case from Figure 5.2, the temperature distribution in radial
36
dimension of
number equals 15 has a near-zero gradient at some range so that it
requires relatively less number grid in radial dimension. However from equation
(5.27) , the higher the
number is, the higher the axial temperature gradient is,
which requires more number of grids in axial direction.

In this simulation, the
number taken was 0.5 just for the demonstration.
Table 5.1, Table 5.2 and Figure 5.4 show the material properties, the mesh
dimension and the mesh geometry respectively. The inlet parameter is determined
with velocity distribution and temperature distribution by applying user defined
functions of the equation (5.8) and (5.15). The boundary at the wall is defined
with constant heat flux equals 2.42 W/m2, which is as many as 100 times of the
conductivity of the material, thus the temperature gradient at the wall is 100.
Table 5.1. Material properties.
Density
Dynamic viscosity
Thermal conductivity
Heat capasity
1.225 kg/m3
1.7894 10-5 kg/m.s
0.0242 W/m.K
1006.43 J/kg.K
Table 5.2. Mesh dimension of the equivalent annulus model.

Finest Medium Coarse
The smallest height (m)
1.25e-4 2.5e-4
5e-4
The number of cells in the x direction
200
100
50
The number of cells in y direction
400
200
100
The total number of cells
80000
20000
5000
Figure 5.4. Mesh geometry of the equivalent annulus model.
37
Before the grid convergence analysis can be done to obtain the grid
independent results of
numbers, the results of each grid scenarios must reach
the iterative convergence so that the error from iterative processes no longer affect
the results of grid convergence analysis. Iterative convergence achieved when the
residuals no longer change into smaller value as the calculation resumes, only
does very small fluctuation exist. All the graph of residuals can be seen in
Appendix III. When iterative convergence is achieved, the rest of the error is due
to the round-off error and discretization error. The discretization error is evaluated
using grid convergence analyses. One of the parts in verification is to check the
consistency in the results of simulation. Figure 5.5 shows the velocity magnitude
distribution of the result of the coarse grid. The velocity profile doesnt change
along axial direction, which is consistent with the condition of fully developed
flow. Figure 5.5 also shows that the simulation has been conducted correctly. In
addition, Figure 5.6 shows the static temperature distribution. It can be seen that
the temperature profile also doesnt change along axial direction. In spite of the
constant profile, the temperature magnitude becomes lower as the axial position
increases. This is due to the
number taken is less than one. However, the axial
temperature gradient is very small so that it is not clearly seen in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.5. The velocity magnitude distribution in radial direction of the

equivalent annulus model.
38
Figure 5.6. The static temperature distribution in radial direction of the equivalent
annulus model.
Table 5.3. The results of the simulations and grid convergence analysis of
the equivalent annulus model.
Nu
Relative error (%)
Analytic
18.072
0
Coarse mesh
18.120
0.263
Medium mesh
18.096
0.128
Finest mesh
18.084
0.0629
)
Extrapolation (
18.073
2.9510-3
Maximum (
)
18.087
0.0778
18.059
0.0719
Minimum (
)
1.058
The order of convergence ( )
( ) 0.0748
( )
0.156
Asymptote test
1.001
Table 5.3 shows the results of simulations with three different numbers of
grids and the grid convergence analyses. The extrapolation result as the grid
independent result shows very high agreement with the analytical result, with the
error of third order in per cent. The uncertainty of the result is also very good
(GCI12), which is below 0.1 percent and the asymptote test result that very close to
one. Given this simulation result, this proofs that although some terms which are
39
neglected in the first step to simplify the solution does not change significantly the
true solution of the problem. Also, the Figure 5.3 that lifts the lid on the
discrepancy between the previous and the present results is overcome by this
simulation result, wh it does not refute the present solution.
V.2.2 Characteristic Domain
The numerical simulations of the characteristic domain have been conducted
to obtain the ture value of Nusselt number of the problem, by which in this
problem the
number equals one. The simulations are conducted at several
values of Pitch-to-Diameter ratio to see the suitability of the equivalent annulus

model to the real case. The Pitch-to-Diameter ratio values taken for the simulation
are 2, 2.5, 3 and 4. Table 5.4, Table 5.5, Table 5.6 and Table 5.7 show the mesh
dimension and the solution of Nusselt number for each grid with the values of
Pitch-to-Diameter ratio equal 2, 2.5, 3 and 4 respectively. Figure 5.7, Figure 5.8,
Figure 5.9 and Figure 5.10 show the mesh geometries respectively for the medium
grid of
, 2.5, 3 and 4. All the solutions of Nusselt numbers obtained from
the simulations have achieved their iterative convergence so that the gird
convergence analysis can be done to obtain the grid independent results. All the
solutions have the similar profile of velocity and temperature distribution. Figure
5.11 and Figure 5.12 illustrate the contour of the velocity magnitude and static
temperature as the results of the simulations. As stated before, the case associated
with
number equals one makes the axial gradient of temperature to be zero. As
a consequence, the temperature distribution becomes the same as the axial

velocity distribution from the equation (5.15). The results of simulation show the
same, confirming that the simulation has been conducted correctly. Furthermore,
it indicates that regardless the geometry of the problem, the value of
number
equals one will always lead to the zero axial gradient of temperature and the same
profile between the velocity and temperature distributions.
40
Table 5.4. Mesh dimension and the Nusselt number solutions of P/D = 2.
Finest grid Medium grid Coarse grid
The smallest radial size (m)
1.0E-05
1.50E-05
2.25E-05
The number of cells in x dimension
189
126
84
The number of cells in y dimension
54
36
24
The number of cells in z dimension
45
30
20
45927
13608
40320
The Nusselt number
17.417
17.429
17.448
Spatial relative error (%)
0.065652
0.10991
Relative error to equivalent
0 .076078
0.69468
0.58412
annulus model solution (%)
Table 5.5. Mesh dimension and the Nusselt number solutions of P/D = 2.5.
5.0E-05
7.50E-05
1.125E-04
216
144
96
72
48
32
54
36
24
839808
248832
73728
The Nusselt number
21.835
21.878
21.984
0.19194
0.48910
0.045959
0.14571
0.63172
The Nusselt number
Relative error to equivalent annulus
model solution (%)
Finest grid
4.0E-05
207
54
36
402408
26.531
0.15065
Medium grid
6.0E-05
138
36
24
119232
26.571
0.22266
Coarse grid
9.0E-05
92
24
16
35328
26.630
-
0.039600
0.11099
0.33390
41
5.40E-05
8.10E-05
1.22E-04
252
168
112
72
48
32
36
24
16
653184
193536
57344
The Nusselt number
37.091
37.143
37.241
0.14011
0.26384
0.073628
0.21344
0.47602
Figure 5.7. Mesh geometry of the medium grid of P/D = 2.
Figure 5.8. Mesh geometry of the medium grid of P/D = 2.5.
42
Figure 5.11. The contour of velocity magnitude of

the finest grid solution of P/D = 3.
43
Figure 5.12. The contour of static temperature of

the finest grid solution of P/D = 3.
Table 5.8 shows the results of grid convergence analyses. For
, the
result has the smallest uncertainty (about 0.12 %) but the highest difference from
the solution of equivalent annulus model, with relative error about 0.86 %. For
P/D = 2.5, the solution of the equivalent annulus has the relative error to the
estimated real value about 0.17 % and be outside the range the GCI result from
the simulation results. Whereas for the rest P/D values, the equivalent annulus
solutions are within the uncertainty of the simulations results.
The real value of Nusselt number may have lower or higher relative error
than the estimated value. For
it will have the relative error about 0.80 %
if the real value equals to the maximum probable value of Nusselt number, which
still has the highest difference among other
values. As the previous research
has shown, the equivalent annulus model does not fit the real case well for small
values of
. As in the case of
, the value of
equals 2 has the
solution of equivalent annulus model with the error relative to the estimated real
value as it has been mentioned and the lower value of
will lead to the Nusselt
number with higher difference from that of equivalent annulus model.

For the rest of
values, the solutions have the relative error to those of
equivalent annulus model within the range of their uncertainty (GCI 12). This
means that there is a possibility that the Nusselt numbers derived from simulations
are the same as those of equivalent annulus model.
44
Table 5.8. The result of grid convergence analysis for P/D = 2, 2.5, 3 & 4.
P/D
Equivalent annulus model solution (
Grid refinement ratio ( )
The order of grid convergence ( )
)
Richardson extrapolation (
% Relative error.

Asymptote test
The maximum of Nusselt value
(
)
The minimum of Nusselt value
(
)
2
17.550
1.5
1.2725
17.400
2.5
21.845
1.5
2.3116
21.808
3
26.541
1.5
0.96720
26.448
4
37.064
1.5
1.5645
37.033
0.85884 0.16977 0.35446 0.084675

0.12153 0.15450 0.39218
0.20346 0.39367 0.57961
1.0007 1.0019 1.0015
0.19771
0.37232
1.0014
17.421
21.842
26.551
37.106
17.379
21.775
26.341
36.960
It is interesting that all the solutions of the characteristic domain have lower
value than those of their equivalent annulus model, indeed the solutions are never
the same. The higher the
is, the higher the
number is. Thus, higher values
of the equivalent annulus model solution than those of the characteristic domain
seem to indicate that the solutions are actually for higher value of
. The
equivalent annulus model is applied based on making it has the same value of
hydraulic diameter (
) as that of the characteristic domain of the problem. As it
is clear that Pitch-to-Diameter ratio determines the Nusselt number, it comes to

the idea that the equivalent annulus model may be applied better by making use of
the same average length value to the edge, instead of the same hydraulic diameter.
Figure 5.13. The cross-sectional area of characteristic domain of an array.
45
From Figure 5.13 the average length value is:
||
(5.28)
Expressing in ratio with wall radius:
If the variable
(5.29)
in the equation of Nusselt equation is substituted by the
ratio in the equation above, the Nusselt numbers for
, 2.5, 3 and 4
respectively are 17.535, 21.824, 26.514 and 37.022. These values are closer to the
real Nusselt numbers than those of the previous equivalent model, with relative
error 0.8, 0.07, 0.2 and 0.02 % from the previous relative error 0.9, 0.2, 0.4 and
0.08 % respectively. From these results, it suggests that this new method of
equivalent annulus is better than the previous method. To see how much this
method changes the independent variable value of
in the Nusselt equation, it is
by dividing the average length by the outer radius
derived in equation
(5.2).
) |
(5.30)
. /
For a triangular array and a square array the ratios of those values are
0.999068945 and 0.994523594 which lower as much as 0.093105539 % and
0.547640598 % respectively. This means that the distance between the outer and
inner radius in previous equivalent annulus model is higher than the average
distance between edge of the characteristic domain and the wall, which it turns to
higher value of Nusselt number. Using for the outer radius as the new method of
equivalent annulus model may change the result a little for a triangular array case,
but it will have significant different result for the case of a square array. So, taking
the case of a square array will prove better whether this new method of equivalent
annulus model is more suitable or not.
46
The distance from the wall to the edge of the characteristic domain is an
important parameter in modeling into equivalent annulus. In the region near the
wall, the distributions of velocity and temperature are similar to those of its
equivalent annulus model, but in the region near the edge is a different matter.
The non-uniform distribution of velocity and temperature near the edge of the
characteristic domain make the heat transfer coefficient smaller than in the case of
annulus. In other words, for the same value of
number and heat generation
rates, the bulk temperature of the real problem will be smaller than that of the
equivalent annulus model. The closer the distance of the edge to the wall, the
more the non-uniform distribution affects the heat transfer. This explains why for
small value of Pitch-to-Diameter ratio the Nusselt number of the real case is
significantly smaller than the Nusselt solution of the equivalent annulus model.
Otherwise, the higher the P/D is, the more the suitability of the equivalent annulus
model is. Moreover, the Nusselt number of the real problem is always smaller
than that of the equivalent annulus model. This is why even the new method of
equivalent annulus model by making use the same average distance to the edge
still gives higher value of the Nusselt number.
From the comparison between the real Nusselt number and the solution of
the equivalent annulus model which shows that the relative errors the solution of
the equivalent annulus model are less than one per cent and as the higher
value leads to the smaller error, the Nusselt number solution of the model can be
said is suitable enough to represent the real Nusselt number of the problem from
the
equals two and more. In addition, the modified equivalent annulus model
is better to be used.
In a real problem, the array must be finite. In contrast, the case that has been
discussed so far is accounted for the infinite array. Nevertheless, it does not
simply imply the Nu correlation derived is not useful. The correlation can be
reconciled with the real problem of a finite array by including the correction
factor, which may depend on the number of coolant pipes or total hydraulic
diameter. Further research can be conducted to determine the correction factor.
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
VI.1 Conclusion
1. The Nusselt equation of equivalent annulus model has been derived. A new
additional dimensionless variable, denoted as Sa number, shows up as the
ratio of the heat generation rate to the rate of heat transferred through the wall.
The case of steady state condition in a reactor core is represented with Sa = 1.
2. In a fully developed laminar flow with Sa equals one, the radial convective
heat transfer is better than the radial conductive heat transfer by making the
axial conduction vanished. Thus, its Nu values may be able to be used as
reference values for different flows with such Sa value.
3. There is a little discrepancy value between the present solution of Nusselt
number (with P/D = 2.2 and Sa = 0.5) and the previous solution, but the
present solution has been approved by highly accurate verification of
simulation result, in which the relative error is 2.9510-3 % and the uncertainty
(GCI) is 0.01.
4. The simulations of the characteristic domain have been conducted for
and
and
with the Nu number 17.4 0.03, 21.8 0.03, 26.4
0.1, 37.0 0.1 respectively.

5. The equivalent annulus model solution can be used as the Nu correlation from
Pitch-to-Diameter ratio equals two and more with its relative errors to the
estimated exact Nusselt number for
and
are 0.859, 0.170,
0.354 and 0.0848 % respectively.

6. The new modified equivalent annulus model has been suggested and given the
smaller relative error which are 0.771, 0.0737, 0.251 and 0.0284 % for
and
respectively.
VI.2 Recommendation
The solution of Nusselt number of the equivalent annulus derived in this
research based on the assumption of constant and uniform wall heat flux and heat
47
48
generation and fully developed flow condition. For further research, the heat flux
and heat generation can be changed as a function of space and explored more in
the case of developing flow, which those conditions are closer to the real problem.
Natural convection and turbulent forced convection of the fuel schemes are
interesting case to analyze for further researches. Because in both flow cases,
there are eddy currents as secondary flows that hypothetically better in
transferring heat so that those conditions are likely to be implemented.
In the matter of simulations, it is necessary to use more advance capability
of the computer used. The simulations of the finest mesh which have been
conducted in this research have taken between a day and a week. Yet, the
simulations could not manage to get the uncertainty further below than 0.1 per
cent.
A new modified equivalent annulus model has been suggested in this
research, which gives the result slightly better. For further research, this modified
equivalent annulus model may be tested better its suitability to the real array.
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Fundamentals, New York: Taylor & Francis, 1990, pp. 97-118, 315-316,
411-428.
[10] N. E. Todreas and M. S. Kazimi, Nuclear System II: Elements of Thermal
49
50
Hydraulic, New York: Taylor & Francis, 1990, pp. 285 - 298.
[11] J. W. Slater, "Verification Assesstment," NASA, Thursday July 2008.
[Online].
Available:
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/wind/valid/tutorial/tutorial.html. [Accessed
31 July 2013].
[12] J. W. Slater, "Examining Iterative Convergence," NASA, 17 July 2008.
[Online].
Available:
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/wind/valid/tutorial/iterconv.html. [Accessed
31 July 2013].
[13] J. W. Slater, "Examining Spatial (Grid) Convergence," NASA, 17 July 2008.
[Online].
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/wind/valid/tutorial/spatconv.html.
[Accessed 31 July 2013].
Available:
APPENDIX I
THE DERIVATION OF NUSSELT EQUATION OF EQUIVALENT
ANNULUS
The Velocity Distribution
Fully developed flow case means that the velocity vector exists in one
dimension only, which is the axial dimension. The momentum equation with this
condition, in cylindrical coordinate, becomes:
(
(I.1)
Integrating the equation to solve the velocity distribution:

[
](
] (
](
(I.2)
The velocity in the equation above is expressed in the term of pressure drop and
body force. It can be changed into the term of average velocity by deriving the
average velocity first as follows:
[
](
)
(
(
[
)
*
)
*
(
51
52
(
[
(
(
[
(
]*
)
)
)
(
]*
)
+
(I.3)
Dividing equation (I.2) with (I.3) yields:

(
(I.4)
where:
*
(I.5)
The Temperature Distribution

The energy equation is applied for constant material properties, steady state
and fully developed flow condition by neglecting the radiation term, dissipation
term and axial conduction term to derive the distribution temperature. The energy
equation becomes:
(
(I.6)
Integrating the equation to solve the temperature distribution:

(
(
(
(
)+
(
(
)+
53
)(
)+
(I.7)
(
(
)
)
(
(
)
)
(I.8)
where:
(
(I.9)
Continuing equation (I.8):

(
(
)+
(
*
(
)+
(
)
(I.10)
The equation above is the temperature distribution which is the same as the
equation (5.15).
The Axial Gradient of Temperature
Applying the Fouriers law of conduction at the wall and equation (I.7):
54
)
(I.11)
)
(
(
(
(
)
*
(
(
*
(
*
*
*
(
*
*
(
(
)
(
(
*
(I.12)
Taking the positive value for the heat flux flowing from the system into the
surrounding, and negative otherwise.
(
(I.13)
Bulk Temperature
The bulk temperature is defined as:
( )
( )
( )
( )
(I.14)
The temperature and velocity distributions have been already known so that the
equation above can be solved.
55
)
(
(
(
)
(
)
)(
( )
( )
(I.15)
where:
( )
)(
(I.16)
)
( )
(I.17)
Solving the equation (I.16):
( )
( )
(
(
)
)
56
( )
(
(
( )
(
(I.18)
where:
(
)
(I.19)
( )
*
*
)
*(
(
(
*(
( )
(
*
*(
*
(
( )
(
[
)
)
(
(
57
( )
)
(I.20)
where:
(
( (
,
(I.21)
(
(
(I.22)
58
,(
)(
)(
(
(
(I.23)
)-
,
(
)(
((
))
*
(I.24)
(
,
)
(I.25)
(
(
)
)
59
hence:
(
( )
(
)(
-(
(
(
-(
,
(
,
,
-
(
*
)
)
)
(
+
)
(
Solving equation (I.17):
( )
((
(I.26)
60
(
(
( )
)+
(I.27)
( )
where:
( )
*
( )
*
(
(I.28)

(
( )
(
(
(
)
)
(
)
*
*
)
*
(
)
)
(
+
)
(I.29)
Therefore the bulk temperature, additionally substituting equation (I.13) into

(I.15), can be expressed as:
61
(
(
*) (
(
(
(
(
(
)
* (
))
)
(
))
(I.30)
The Nusselt Equation

From equation (I.30), the Nusselt equation for such a case can be derived as:
.
(
))
))
/
)
) (
)
*
(I.31)
( )
1(
( )
Here it is the Nu equation: where ( )
* ( ))
and ( )
Special Case: Stagnant Fluid

When the fluid is static or stagnant, it means that the velocity is zero. Thus,
the heat transfer phenomenon happens by means of conduction alone. The heat
62
transfer rate can be derived from equation (I.11) with zero velocity (hence zero
Pclet number) as follows:
|
(I.32)
This solution is accounted for the conduction heat transfer phenomenon

which the heat flowing only in radial direction. In fact, the conduction term in
axial direction actually exists for constant wall heat flux when the fluid is static.
However, when the Length-to-Diameter is more than 10, the axial conduction can
be safely neglected [9].
APPENDIX II
FLUENT SOLUTION PARAMETERS
The Equivalent Annulus
Models
-----Model
Settings
----------------------------------------Space
Axisymmetric
Time
Steady
Viscous
Laminar
Heat Transfer
Enabled
Solidification and Melting
Disabled
Radiation
None
Species Transport
Disabled
Coupled Dispersed Phase
Disabled
Pollutants
Disabled
Pollutants
Disabled
Soot
Disabled
The Characteristic Domain

Models
-----Model
Settings
------------------------------------Space
3D
Time
Steady
Viscous
Laminar
Heat Transfer
Enabled
Solidification and Melting
Disabled
Radiation
None
Species Transport
Disabled
Coupled Dispersed Phase
Disabled
Pollutants
Disabled
Pollutants
Disabled
Soot
Disabled
The rest parameters are the same for both the equivalent annulus and the
characteristic domain.
Equations
Equation
Solved
----------------Flow
yes
Energy
yes
Numerics
63
64
Numeric
Enabled
--------------------------------------Absolute Velocity Formulation
yes
Relaxation
Variable
Relaxation Factor
------------------------------Pressure
0.30000001
Density
1
Body Forces
1
Momentum
0.69999999
Energy
1
Linear Solver
Solver
Termination
Residual Reduction
Variable
Type
Criterion
Tolerance
-------------------------------------------------------Pressure
V-Cycle
0.1
X-Momentum
Flexible
0.1
0.7
Y-Momentum
Flexible
0.1
0.7
Energy
Flexible
0.1
0.7
Pressure-Velocity Coupling
Parameter
Value
-----------------Type
SIMPLE
Discretization Scheme
Variable
Scheme
-----------------------------Pressure
Standard
Momentum
Second Order Upwind
Energy
Second Order Upwind
Solution Limits
Quantity
Limit
----------------------------------------Minimum Absolute Pressure
1
Maximum Absolute Pressure
4.9999999e+10
Minimum Temperature
0
Maximum Temperature
5000
APPENDIX III
RESIDUALS
The Equivalent Annulus
Figure III.1. The residual of the coarse grid of the equivalent annulus.
Figure III.2. The residual of the medium grid of the equivalent annulus.
65
66
Figure III.3. The residual of the finest grid of the equivalent annulus.
The Characteristic Domain
Figure III.4. The residual of the coarse grid of

the characteristic domain with P/D = 2.
67
Figure III.5. The residual of the medium grid of

Figure III.6. The residual of the finest grid of the characteristic domain with P/D
= 2.
The discontinuity in the Figure III.6 is due to the change in parameters.
There was technical mistake in the previous iteration so that fixing the parameter
was needed to be done.
68

the characteristic domain with P/D = 2.5.

69
Figure III.9. The residual of the finest grid of


70


71


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THE DETERMINATION OF NUSSELT CORRELATION OF A

LAMINAR FLOW IN A TRIANGULAR ARRAY AS A PRELIMINARY

The Determination of Nusselt Correlation of a Laminar Flow

Yogyakarta, October 3, 2013,

Ir. Kutut Suryopratomo, M.T, M.Sc.

Dr. Ir. Andang Widi Harto, M. T.

Dr.-Ing. Singgih Hawibowo

Ir. Ester Wijayanti, M.T.

Approved and certified to fulfill the requirements for graduation

Prof. Ir. Sunarno, M. Eng., Ph. D.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE

: The Determination of Nusselt Correlation of a Laminar Flow

: Ir. Kutut Suryopratomo, M.T, M.Sc.

: Dr. Ir. Andang Widi Harto, M. T.

: The demand of medical isotope 99mTc has been rising. Good

Ir. Kutut Suryopratomo, M.T, M.Sc.

Dr. Ir. Andang Widi Harto, M. T.

Chairman of Department of Physics Engineering

How can you do your best

My examiners, Dr.-Ing. Singgih Hawbowo and Ir. Ester Wijayanti, M. T.,

The Chairman of Department of Physics Engineering, UGM, Prof. Ir.

The Head of Academic Affairs of Department of Physics Engineering,

All lecturers at Department of Physics Engineering, UGM, for all

All staffs of Department of Physics Engineering, UGM, for the kindness,

A group of the men from Earth, for their togetherness in discussing

All students of Department of Physics Engineering, UGM, batch of 2009,

Finally, my thanks go to all the people who have supported me to complete

Yogyakarta, October 3, 2013,

II.2.6 Comparing CFD Results to Highly Accurate Solutions .................... 14

EQUIVALENT ANNULUS .............................................................................. 51

Bulk Temperature .......................................................................................... 54

square and triangular

arrays [10]. ............................................................................................................. 5

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Aqueous Homogenous Reactor

Computation Fluid Dynamic

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

Ordinary Differential Equation

Partial Differential Equation

THE DETERMINATION OF NUSSELT CORRELATION OF A

: Ir. Kutut Suryopratomo, M.T, M.Sc.

PENENTUAN KORELASI NUSSELT ALIRAN LAMINAR PADA

. The medical use of

. However, approximately 95% of global Mo-99 supply is still

produced within a small fleet of research reactors and radiochemical processing

. The feasibility of this reactor as a

Medical Isotope Production System (MIPS) led to an assigned agreement between

technology becomes more foreseeable.

However, those correlations were derived in the inexistence of internal heat

As a preliminary study, the following assumptions are taken for simplicity

2. To get the Nusselt numbers from numerical simulations of the problem

Figure 2.1. Subchannel and characteristic domains for

direction (in cylindrical coordinate)

of any variables in the characteristic domain no longer exists in the equivalent

II.2 Verification in Computational Fluid Dynamics [11]

programming and computational implementation of the conceptual model is

II.2.4 Examining Spatial (Grid) Convergence [13]

allow the discretization error to be differentiated from other error sources

is some measure of grid spacing, and

convergence. A second-order solution would have

can be obtained from three solutions using a constant

grid refinement ratio ,

that can be expressed in a general form