Physics of Semiconductor

Devices

The Electron
Free Electrons being liberated
from a heated filament was called
Edison effect. Without knowing it,
Edison stumbled upon the DIODE.
However, he didnt find any use to
it so he just focused on the
refinement of his lamp design.
Electron

is the basic unit of electrical charge with a

magnitude of e = -1.602x10-19 coulombs (c)
How many electrons in one coulomb?
Other Electron characteristics:
- mass of 1 electron is 9.109x 10-31 Kg
- radius of 1x10-13 cm

The Electron Energy

= x m*v2

E = f*s

Force

; Joules, mass & velocity

; force , distance

exerted on an electron is called the electric field

intensity E (volt/m)

Electron moves from lower to higher potential at a

distance s

= E*s

; E = f/q , force per unit charge;

force is V (emf electromotive force)

= f*s

; = (E*q)*s

; = V*q

; = e*V

The Electron Volt

1

eV = 1x1.602x 10-19 joule

; the energy in rising to a
potential of 1V is 1 electron volt

How much energy you need to raise an electron through

a potential of 500V?

The

terms volt and electron volt are sometimes

employed in an equivalent sense.
0.1V of thermal energy means the particle
has thermal energy of 0.1eV.

Categories of Solids
z

There are three categories of solids,

based on their conducting properties:
z conductors
z semiconductors
z insulators

Electrical Resistivity
and Conductivity of
Selected Materials
at 293 K

Reviewing the previous table

reveals that:
z

The electrical conductivity at room

temperature is quite different for each of
these three kinds of solids
z Metals and alloys have the highest
conductivities
z followed by semiconductors
z and then by insulators

Semiconductor Conduction
z

The free-electron model does not apply to

semiconductors and insulators, since these
materials simply lack enough free electrons
to conduct in a free-electron mode.
There is a different conduction mechanism
for semiconductors than for normal
conductors.

Resistivity vs. Temperature

(a) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical conductor. Notice the linear
rise in resistivity with increasing temperature at all but very low temperatures.
(b) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical conductor at very low
temperatures. Notice that the curve flattens and approaches a nonzero
resistance as T 0. (c) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical
semiconductor. The resistivity increases dramatically as T 0.

Band Theory of Solids

z

In order to account for decreasing resistivity

with increasing temperature as well as other
properties of semiconductors, a theory
known as the band theory is introduced.

The essential feature of the band theory is

that the allowed energy states for electrons
are nearly continuous over certain ranges,
called energy bands, with forbidden energy
gaps between the bands.

Band Theory and Conductivity

z

Band theory helps us understand what makes a

conductor, insulator, or semiconductor.
1) Good conductors like copper can be understood using the free electron
2) It is also possible to make a conductor using a material with its highest

band filled, in which case no electron in that band can be considered

free.

3) If this filled band overlaps with the next higher band, however (so that

effectively there is no gap between these two bands) then an applied

electric field can make an electron from the filled band jump to the higher
level.

This allows conduction to take place, although

typically with slightly higher resistance than in
normal metals. Such materials are known as
semimetals.

Valence and Conduction Bands

z

The band structures of insulators and

semiconductors resemble each other
qualitatively. Normally there exists in both
insulators and semiconductors a filled
energy band (referred to as the valence
band) separated from the next higher band
(referred to as the conduction band) by an
energy gap.

If this gap is at least several electron volts, the

material is an insulator. It is too difficult for an
applied field to overcome that large an energy
gap, and thermal excitations lack the energy to
promote sufficient numbers of electrons to the
conduction band.

Smaller energy gaps create

semiconductors
z

For energy gaps smaller than about 1

electron volt, it is possible for enough
electrons to be excited thermally into the
conduction band, so that an applied electric
field can produce a modest current.
The result is a semiconductor.

Metals, insulators and semiconductors

z

Empty bands do not contain electrons. Therefore,

they are not expected to contribute to the
electrical conductivity of the material.

zPartially

filled bands do contain electrons as well as

available energy levels at slightly higher
energies. These unoccupied energy levels
enable carriers to gain energy when moving in
an applied electric field.

zElectrons

in a partially filled band therefore do

contribute to the electrical conductivity of the
material.

Metals, insulators and semiconductors

Completely filled bands do contain plenty of
electrons but do not contribute to the
conductivity of the material. This is because
the electrons cannot gain energy since all
energy levels are already filled.
In order to find the filled and empty bands we must
find out how many electrons can be placed in
each band and how many electrons are
available. Each band is formed due to the
splitting of one or more atomic energy levels.

Metals, insulators and semiconductors

Therefore, the minimum number of states in a band
equals twice the number of atoms in the
material. The reason for the factor of two is
that every energy level can contain two
electrons with opposite spin.
To further simplify the analysis, we assume that
only the valence electrons (the electrons in
the outer shell) are of interest. The core
electrons are tightly bound to the atom and
are not allowed to freely move in the material.
Four different possible scenarios are shown:

Energy band diagram in the presence of a uniform

electric field. Shown are the upper almost-empty band and
the lower almost-filled band. The tilt of the bands is
caused by an externally applied electric field.

Energy band
A half-filled band occurs in materials consisting
of atoms, which contain only one valence
electron per atom. Most highly conducting
metals including copper, gold and silver
satisfy this condition.
Materials consisting of atoms that contain two
valence electrons can still be highly
conducting if the resulting filled band
overlaps with an empty band. This scenario
is shown in b).

Energy band
No conduction is expected for scenario d) where a
completely filled band is separated from the next
higher empty band by a larger energy gap. Such
materials behave as insulators.
Finally, scenario c) depicts the situation in a semiconductor.
The completely filled band is now close enough to
the next higher empty band that electrons can
make it into the next higher band. This yields an
almost full band below an almost empty band. We will
call the almost full band the valence band since it is
occupied by valence electrons.
The almost empty band will be called the conduction
band, as electrons are free to move in this band and
contribute to the conduction of the material.

Conductivity and semiconductors

The relative ease at which electric current flows
through a material is known as conductivity.
z Conductors (like copper) have very high
conductivity.
z Insulators (like rubber) have very low conductivity.
z

The conductivity of a semiconductor depends

on its conditions.
z For example, at low temperatures and low
voltages a semiconductor acts like an insulator.
z When the temperature and/or the voltage is
increased, the conductivity increases and the
material acts more like a conductor.
z

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Metals as conductors

Metals are good

conductors because a
small percentage of
electrons are free to
separate from atoms
and move
independently.

Nonmetals as conductors

In an insulator, the
electrons are tightly
bonded to atoms and
cannot move.
Since the electrons
cannot move, they
cannot carry current.

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Semiconductors
z The electrons in a

semiconductor are also

bound to atoms, but the
bonds are relatively weak.
The density of free
electrons is what
determines the conductivity
of a semiconductor.

Electrons and holes in semiconductors

As pointed out, semiconductors differ from
metals and insulators by the fact that they
contain an "almost-empty" conduction band
and an "almost-full" valence band. This also
means that we will have to deal with the
transport of carriers in both bands.

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Electrons and holes in semiconductors

z To facilitate the discussion of the transport in

the "almost-full" valence band of a

semiconductor, we will introduce the concept of
holes.
z It is important to understand that one could

deal with only electrons if one is willing to keep

track of all the electrons in the "almost-full"
valence band. After all, electrons are the only
real particles available in a semiconductor.

Electrons and holes in semiconductors

z The concepts of holes is introduced in

semiconductors since it is easier to keep track of the

missing electrons in an "almost-full" band, rather than
keeping track of the actual electrons in that band.
Holes are missing electrons.
zThey

behave as particles with the same properties as

the electrons would have when occupying the same
states except that they carry a positive charge.

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Summary: Metals, Insulators & Semiconductors

Electrons are able to take part in conduction under the acceleration of an

electric field in metals. Conduction in metals only involves electrons.

As temperature of material is raised, thermal energy creates vibration of
atoms. A few electrons may acquire sufficient energy to break their
covalent bonds. The energy to rupture this bond is equal to EG
(eV).
When covalent bond is broken by thermal energy an electron site is left
vacant.
The vacant site is called a hole. Valence Electrons can fill the hole. Hole
conduction is the way semiconductors move electrons.
Insulators have their valence electrons rigidly held in inter atomic bonds
even at high temperatures. Thus needing high EG values.

Hole Conduction

a) Intrinsic semiconductor having complete electron shell

b) Themal energy can create electron hole pairs resulting in
conduction

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Hole - Electron Pairs

Sometimes thermal energy is enough to cause an electron to jump
from the valence band to the conduction band produces a hole
- electron pair. Electrons also fall
fall back out of the
conduction band into the valence band, combining with a hole

pair elimination

hole

pair creation

electron

Thank You

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