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Historyoftheautomobile
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Theearlyhistoryoftheautomobilecanbedividedintoanumberoferas,basedontheprevalentmeansofpropulsion.Laterperiodsweredefinedbytrendsinexteriorstyling,
size,andutilitypreferences.
In1768,thefirststeampoweredautomobilecapableofhumantransportationwasbuiltbyNicolasJosephCugnot.[1]:14
In1807,FranoisIsaacdeRivazdesignedthefirstcarpoweredbyaninternalcombustionenginefueledbyhydrogen.
In1886thefirstpetrolorgasolinepoweredautomobiletheBenzPatentMotorwagenwasinventedbyKarlBenz.[2]Thisisalsoconsideredtobethefirst"production"vehicle
asBenzmadeseveralidenticalcopies.

ThedesignoftheCugnotSteamTrolley(Jonathan
Holguinisburg)(1769)

Attheturnofthe20thcenturyelectricallypoweredautomobilesappearedbutonlyoccupiedanichemarketuntiltheturnofthe21stcentury.

Contents
1 Erasofinvention
1.1 Earlyautomobiles
1.1.1 Steampoweredwheeledvehicles
1.1.1.1 17thand18thcenturies
1.1.1.2 19thcentury
1.1.1.3 20thcentury
1.1.2 Electricautomobiles
1.1.3 Internalcombustionengines
1.2 Veteranera
1.2.1 BrassorEdwardianera
1.3 Vintageera
1.4 Prewarera
1.5 Postwarera
1.6 Modernera
2 Seealso
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3 References
4 Furtherreading
5 Externallinks

Erasofinvention
Earlyautomobiles
Steampoweredwheeledvehicles
17thand18thcenturies

FerdinandVerbiest,amemberofaJesuitmissioninChina,builtthefirststeampoweredvehiclearound1672asatoyfortheChineseEmperor.Itwasofsmallenoughscalethatitcouldnotcarryadriverbutitwas,quite
possiblythefirstworkingsteampoweredvehicle('automobile').[3][4]
Steampoweredselfpropelledvehicleslargeenoughtotransportpeopleandcargowerefirstdevisedinthelate18thcentury.NicolasJosephCugnotdemonstratedhisfardiervapeur
("steamdray"),anexperimentalsteamdrivenartillerytractor,in1770and1771.AsCugnot'sdesignprovedtobeimpractical,hisinventionwasnotdevelopedinhisnativeFrance.The
centerofinnovationshiftedtoGreatBritain.By1784,WilliamMurdochhadbuiltaworkingmodelofasteamcarriageinRedruth.[5]ThefirstautomobilepatentintheUnitedStateswas
grantedtoOliverEvansin1789,andin1801RichardTrevithickwasrunningafullsizedvehicleontheroadsinCamborne.
19thcentury

Manyvehicleswereinvogueforatime,andoverthenextdecadessuchinnovationsashandbrakes,multispeedtransmissions,andbettersteeringdeveloped.Somewerecommercially
successfulinprovidingmasstransit,untilabacklashagainsttheselargespeedyvehiclesresultedinthepassageoftheLocomotiveAct(1865),whichrequiredmanyselfpropelledvehicles
onpublicroadsintheUnitedKingdomtobeprecededbyamanonfootwavingaredflagandblowingahorn.ThiseffectivelykilledroadautodevelopmentintheUKformostoftherest
ofthe19thcenturyinventorsandengineersshiftedtheireffortstoimprovementsinrailwaylocomotives.Thelawwasnotrepealeduntil1896,althoughtheneedfortheredflagwas
removedin1878.

Cugnot'ssteamwagon,thesecond
(1771)version

Amongotherefforts,in1815,aprofessoratPraguePolytechnic,JosefBozek,builtanoilfiredsteamcar.[6]:p.27WalterHancock,builderandoperatorofLondonsteambuses,in1838builtafour
seatsteamphaeton.[6]:p27
In1867,CanadianjewellerHenrySethTaylordemonstratedhis4wheeled"steambuggy"attheStansteadFairinStanstead,Quebec,andagainthefollowingyear.[7]Thebasisofthebuggy,
whichhebeganbuildingin1865,wasahighwheeledcarriagewithbracingtosupportatwocylindersteamenginemountedonthefloor.[8]
Whatsomepeopledefineasthefirst"real"automobilewasproducedbyFrenchAmdeBollein1873,whobuiltselfpropelledsteamroadvehiclestotransportgroupsofpassengers.
TheAmericanGeorgeB.SeldenfiledforapatentonMay8,1879.Hisapplicationincludednotonlytheenginebutitsuseina4wheeledcar.Seldenfiledaseriesofamendmentstohis
applicationwhichstretchedoutthelegalprocess,resultinginadelayof16yearsbeforetheUS549160(http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US549160)wasgrantedon
November5,1895.
KarlBenz,theinventorofnumerouscarrelatedtechnologies,receivedaGermanpatentin1886.[9]

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AreplicaofRichard
Trevithick's1801road
locomotive'PuffingDevil'
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Thefourstrokepetrol(gasoline)internalcombustionenginethatconstitutesthemostprevalentformofmodernautomotivepropulsionisacreationofNikolausOtto.ThesimilarfourstrokedieselenginewasinventedbyRudolf
Diesel.Thehydrogenfuelcell,oneofthetechnologieshailedasareplacementforgasolineasanenergysourceforcars,wasdiscoveredinprinciplebyChristianFriedrichSchnbeinin1838.Thebatteryelectriccarowesits
beginningstonyosJedlik,oneoftheinventorsoftheelectricmotor,andGastonPlant,whoinventedtheleadacidbatteryin1859.
ThefirstcarriagesizedautomobilesuitableforuseonexistingwagonroadsintheUnitedStateswasasteampoweredvehicleinventedin1871,byDr.J.W.Carhart,aministeroftheMethodistEpiscopalChurch,inRacine,
Wisconsin.[10]ItinducedtheStateofWisconsinin1875,tooffera$10,000awardtothefirsttoproduceapracticalsubstitutefortheuseofhorsesandotheranimals.Theystipulatedthatthevehiclewouldhavetomaintainan
averagespeedofmorethanfivemilesperhourovera200milecourse.TheofferledtothefirstcitytocityautomobileraceintheUnitedStates,startingonJuly16,1878,inGreenBay,Wisconsin,andendinginMadison,via
Appleton,Oshkosh,Waupun,Watertown,FortAtkinson,andJanesville.Whilesevenvehicleswereregistered,onlytwostartedtocompete:theentriesfromGreenBayandOshkosh.ThevehiclefromGreenBaywasfaster,but
brokedownbeforecompletingtherace.TheOshkoshfinishedthe201milecoursein33hoursand27minutes,andpostedanaveragespeedofsixmilesperhour.In1879,thelegislatureawardedhalftheprize.[11][12][13]
20thcentury

PreWWII
Steampoweredroadvehicles,bothcarsandwagons,reachedthepeakoftheirdevelopmentintheearly1930swithfaststeaminglightweightboilersandefficientenginedesigns.Internalcombustionenginesalsodeveloped
greatlyduringWWI,becomingsimplertooperateandmorereliable.Thedevelopmentofthehighspeeddieselenginefrom1930begantoreplacethemforwagons,acceleratedbytaxchangesintheUKmakingsteamwagons
uneconomicovernight.Althoughafewdesignerscontinuedtoadvocatesteampower,nosignificantdevelopmentsinproductionsteamcarstookplaceafterDoblein1931.
PostWWII
Whethersteamcarswilleverbereborninlatertechnologicalerasremainstobeseen.MagazinessuchasLightSteamPowercontinuedtodescribethemintothe1980s.The1950ssawinterestinsteamturbinecarspoweredby
smallnuclearreactors(thiswasalsotrueofaircraft),butthedangersinherentinnuclearfissiontechnologysoonkilledtheseideas.
Electricautomobiles
In1828,nyosJedlik,aHungarianwhoinventedanearlytypeofelectricmotor,createdatinymodelcarpoweredbyhisnewmotor.[15]In1834,VermontblacksmithThomasDavenport,
theinventorofthefirstAmericanDCelectricalmotor,installedhismotorinasmallmodelcar,whichheoperatedonashortcircularelectrifiedtrack.[16]In1835,ProfessorSibrandus
StratinghofGroningen,theNetherlandsandhisassistantChristopherBeckercreatedasmallscaleelectricalcar,poweredbynonrechargeableprimarycells.[17]In1838,ScotsmanRobert
Davidsonbuiltanelectriclocomotivethatattainedaspeedof4milesperhour(6km/h).InEngland,apatentwasgrantedin1840fortheuseofrailtracksasconductorsofelectriccurrent,
andsimilarAmericanpatentswereissuedtoLilleyandColtenin1847.Between1832and1839(theexactyearisuncertain)RobertAndersonofScotlandinventedthefirstcrudeelectric
carriage,poweredbynonrechargeableprimarycells.
TheFlockenElektrowagenof1888byGermaninventorAndreasFlockenisregardedasthefirstrealelectriccaroftheworld.[14]
Electriccarsenjoyedpopularitybetweenthelate19thcenturyandearly20thcentury,whenelectricitywasamongthepreferredmethodsforautomobilepropulsion,providingalevelof
GermanFlockenElektrowagenof
comfortandeaseofoperationthatcouldnotbeachievedbythegasolinecarsofthetime.Advancesininternalcombustiontechnology,especiallytheelectricstarter,soonrenderedthis
1888,regardedasthefirstelectriccar
advantagemootthegreaterrangeofgasolinecars,quickerrefuelingtimes,andgrowingpetroleuminfrastructure,alongwiththemassproductionofgasolinevehiclesbycompaniessuch
oftheworld[14]
astheFordMotorCompany,whichreducedpricesofgasolinecarstolessthanhalfthatofequivalentelectriccars,ledtoadeclineintheuseofelectricpropulsion,effectivelyremovingit
fromimportantmarketssuchastheUnitedStatesbythe1930s.However,inrecentyears,increasedconcernsovertheenvironmentalimpactofgasolinecars,highergasolineprices,
improvementsinbatterytechnology,andtheprospectofpeakoil,havebroughtaboutrenewedinterestinelectriccars,whichareperceivedtobemoreenvironmentallyfriendlyandcheapertomaintainandrun,despitehigh
initialcosts,afterafailedreappearanceinthelate1990s.
Internalcombustionengines
Earlyattemptsatmakingandusinginternalcombustionengineswerehamperedbythelackofsuitablefuels,particularlyliquids,thereforetheearliestenginesusedgasmixtures.

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Earlyexperimentersusedgases.In1806,SwissengineerFranoisIsaacdeRivazbuiltanenginepoweredbyinternalcombustionofahydrogenandoxygenmixture.In1826,Englishman
SamuelBrowntestedhishydrogenfuelledinternalcombustionenginebyusingittopropelavehicleupShooter'sHillinsoutheastLondon.BelgianbornEtienneLenoir'sHippomobile
withahydrogengasfuelledonecylinderinternalcombustionenginemadeatestdrivefromParistoJoinvillelePontin1860,coveringsomeninekilometresinaboutthreehours.[18]A
laterversionwaspropelledbycoalgas.ADelamareDebouttevillevehiclewaspatentedandtrialledin1884.
About1870,inVienna,Austria(thentheAustroHungarianEmpire),inventorSiegfriedMarcusputaliquidfuelledinternalcombustionengineonasimplehandcartwhichmadehimthe
firstmantopropelavehiclebymeansofgasoline.Today,thiscarisknownas"thefirstMarcuscar".In1883,MarcussecuredaGermanpatentforalowvoltageignitionsystemofthe
magnetotypethiswashisonlyautomotivepatent.Thisdesignwasusedforallfurtherengines,andthefourseat"secondMarcuscar"of1888/89.Thisignition,inconjunctionwiththe
"rotatingbrushcarburetor",madethesecondcar'sdesignveryinnovative.
Itisgenerallyacknowledgedthatthefirstreallypracticalautomobileswithpetrol/gasolinepoweredinternalcombustionengineswerecompletedalmostsimultaneouslybyseveralGerman
inventorsworkingindependently:KarlBenzbuilthisfirstautomobilein1885inMannheim.Benzwasgrantedapatentforhisautomobileon29January1886,andbeganthefirst
productionofautomobilesin1888,afterBerthaBenz,hiswife,hadprovedwiththefirstlongdistancetripinAugust1888,fromMannheimtoPforzheimandbackthatthehorseless
coachwasabsolutelysuitablefordailyuse.Since2008aBerthaBenzMemorialRoutecommemoratesthisevent.

1885builtBenzPatentMotorwagen,
thefirstcartogointoproduction
withaninternalcombustionengine

Soonafter,GottliebDaimlerandWilhelmMaybachinStuttgartin1889designedavehiclefromscratchtobeanautomobile,ratherthanahorsedrawncarriagefittedwithanengine.They
alsoareusuallycreditedwithinventionofthefirstmotorcyclein1886,butItaly'sEnricoBernardioftheUniversityofPadua,in1882,patenteda0.024horsepower(17.9W)122cc
(7.4cuin)onecylinderpetrolmotor,fittingitintohisson'stricycle,makingitatleastacandidateforthefirstautomobile,andfirstmotorcycle.[6]:p.26Bernardienlargedthetricyclein
1892tocarrytwoadults.[6]:p.26
OneofthefirstfourwheeledpetroldrivenautomobilesinBritainwasbuiltinBirminghamin1895byFrederickWilliamLanchester,whoalsopatentedthediscbrakeandthefirstelectric
starterwasinstalledonanArnold,anadaptationoftheBenzVelo,builtbetween1895and1898.[6]:p.25
GeorgeF.FossofSherbrooke,Quebecbuiltasinglecylindergasolinecarin1896whichhedrovefor4years,ignoringcityofficials'warningsofarrestforhis"madantics."[7]
Inalltheturmoil,manyearlypioneersarenearlyforgotten.In1891,JohnWilliamLambertbuiltathreewheelerinOhioCity,Ohio,whichwasdestroyedinafirethesameyear,while
HenryNadigconstructedafourwheelerinAllentown,Pennsylvania.Itislikelytheywerenottheonlyones.[6]:p.25

ThesecondMarcuscarof1888atthe
TechnicalMuseuminVienna

Veteranera
ThefirstproductionofautomobileswasbyKarlBenzin1888inGermanyand,underlicensefromBenz,inFrancebyEmileRoger.Therewere
numerousothers,includingtricyclebuildersRudolfEgg,EdwardButler,andLonBolle.[6]:p.2023Bolle,usinga650cc(40cuin)engineofhis
owndesign,enabledhisdriver,Jamin,toaverage45kilometresperhour(28.0mph)inthe1897ParisTourvillerally.[6]:p.23By1900,mass
productionofautomobileshadbeguninFranceandtheUnitedStates.
ThefirstmotorcarinCentralEuropewasproducedbyCzechcompanyNesselsdorferWagenbau(laterrenamedtoTatra)in1897,thePrsident
automobil.[19]ThefirstcompanyformedexclusivelytobuildautomobileswasPanhardetLevassorinFrance,whichalsointroducedthefirstfour
cylinderengine.[6]:p.22Formedin1889,PanhardwasquicklyfollowedbyPeugeottwoyearslater.Bythestartofthe20thcentury,theautomobile
industrywasbeginningtotakeoffinWesternEurope,especiallyinFrance,where30,204wereproducedin1903,representing48.8%ofworld
automobileproductionthatyear.[20]

ThePrsidentautomobile

TheSeldenRoadEngine

IntheUnitedStates,brothersCharlesandFrankDuryeafoundedtheDuryeaMotorWagonCompanyin1893,becomingthefirstAmericanautomobilemanufacturingcompany.The
AutocarCompany,foundedin1897,establishedanumberofinnovationsstillinuse[21]andremainstheoldestoperatingmotorvehiclemanufacturerintheU.S.However,itwasRansom
E.OldsandhisOldsMotorVehicleCompany(laterknownasOldsmobile)whowoulddominatethiseraofautomobileproduction.Itsproductionlinewasrunningin1901.TheThomasB.JefferyCompanydevelopedthe
world'ssecondmassproducedautomobile,and1,500Ramblerswerebuiltandsoldinitsfirstyear,representingonesixthofallexistingmotorcarsintheU.S.atthetime.[22]Withinayear,Cadillac(formedfromtheHenryFord
Company),Winton,andFordwerealsoproducingcarsinthethousands.
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Withinafewyears,adizzyingassortmentoftechnologieswerebeingproducedbyhundredsofproducersalloverthewesternworld.Steam,electricity,and
petrol/gasolinepoweredautomobilescompetedfordecades,withpetrol/gasolineinternalcombustionenginesachievingdominanceinthe1910s.Dualand
evenquadenginecarsweredesigned,andenginedisplacementrangedtomorethanadozenlitres.Manymodernadvances,includinggas/electrichybrids,
multivalveengines,overheadcamshafts,andfourwheeldrive,wereattempted,anddiscardedatthistime.

ThefirstautomobileinJapan,a
FrenchPanhardLevassor,in1898

In1898,LouisRenaulthadaDeDionBoutonmodified,withfixeddriveshaftanddifferential,making"perhapsthefirsthotrodinhistory"andbringing
Renaultandhisbrothersintothecarindustry.[23]Innovationwasrapidandrampant,withnoclearstandardsforbasicvehiclearchitectures,bodystyles,
constructionmaterials,orcontrols.Manyveterancarsuseatiller,ratherthanawheelforsteering.During1903,Ramblerstandardizedonthesteering
wheel[24]andmovedthedriver'spositiontothelefthandsideofthevehicle.[25]Mostcarswereoperatedatasinglespeed.Chaindrivewasdominantover
thedriveshaft,andclosedbodieswereextremelyrare.DrumbrakeswereintroducedbyRenaultin1902.[26]Thenextyear,DutchdesignerJacobusSpijker
builtthefirstfourwheeldriveracingcar[27]itnevercompetedanditwouldbe1965andtheJensenFFbeforefourwheeldrivewasusedonaproduction
car.[28]

Innovationwasnotlimitedtothevehiclesthemselves,either.Increasingnumbersofcarspropelledthegrowthofthepetroleumindustry,[29]aswellasthedevelopmentoftechnologytoproduce
gasoline(replacingkeroseneandcoaloil)andofimprovementsinheattolerantmineraloillubricants(replacingvegetableandanimaloils).[30]

1903World'sWorkArticle

Thereweresocialeffects,also.Musicwouldbemadeaboutcars,suchas"InMyMerryOldsmobile"(atraditionthatcontinues)while,in1896,WilliamJenningsBryanwouldbethefirstpresidentialcandidatetocampaignina
car(adonatedMueller),inDecatur,Illinois.[31]Threeyearslater,JacobGermanwouldstartatraditionforNewYorkCitycabdriverswhenhespeddownLexingtonAvenue,atthe"reckless"speedof12mph(19km/h).[32]Also
in1899,Akron,Ohio,adoptedthefirstselfpropelledpaddywagon.[32]
By1900,theearlycentersofnationalautomotiveindustrydevelopedinmanycountries,includingBelgium(hometoVincke,whichcopiedBenzGermain,apseudoPanhardandLinonand
Nagant,bothbasedontheGobronBrilli),[6]:p,25Switzerland(ledbyFritzHenriod,RudolfEgg,Saurer,JohannWeber,andLorenzPopp),[6]:p.25VagnfabrikABinSweden,Hammel(byA.F.
HammelandH.U.JohansenatCopenhagen,inDenmark,whichonlybuiltonecar,ca.1886[6]:p.25),Irgens(startinginBergen,Norway,in1883,butwithoutsuccess),[6]:p.2526Italy(whereFIAT
startedin1899),andasfarafieldasAustralia(wherePioneersetupshopin1898,withanalreadyarchaicparaffinfuelledcentrepivotsteeredwagon).[6]Meanwhile,theexporttradehadbegun,
withKochexportingcarsandtrucksfromParistoTunisia,Egypt,Iran,andtheDutchEastIndies.[6]:p25
On5November1895,GeorgeB.SeldenwasgrantedaUnitedStatespatentforatwostrokeautomobileengine(U.S.Patent549,160(https://www.google.com/patents/US549160)).Thispatent
didmoretohinderthanencouragedevelopmentofautosintheU.S.SeldenlicensedhispatenttomostmajorAmericanautomakers,collectingafeeoneverycartheyproduced.TheStudebaker
brothers,havingbecometheworld'sleadingmanufacturersofhorsedrawnvehicles,madeatransitiontoelectricautomobilesin1902,andgasolineenginesin1904,butalsocontinuedtobuild
horsedrawnvehiclesuntil1919.[33]:p.90In1908,thefirstSouthAmericanautomobilewasbuiltinPeru,theGrieve.[34]MotorcarswerealsoexportedveryearlytoBritishcoloniesandthefirst
motorcarwasexportedtoIndiain1897.
Throughouttheveterancarera,however,theautomobilewasseenmoreasanoveltythanasagenuinelyusefuldevice.Breakdownswerefrequent,fuelwasdifficulttoobtain,roadssuitablefor
travelingwerescarce,andrapidinnovationmeantthatayearoldcarwasnearlyworthless.Majorbreakthroughsinprovingtheusefulnessoftheautomobilecamewiththehistoriclongdistance
driveofBerthaBenzin1888,whenshetraveledmorethan80kilometres(50mi)fromMannheimtoPforzheim,tomakepeopleawareofthepotentialofthevehiclesherhusband,KarlBenz,
manufactured,andafterHoratioNelsonJackson'ssuccessfultranscontinentaldriveacrosstheUnitedStatesin1903.
The1908NewYorktoParisRacewasthefirstcircumnavigationoftheworldbyautomobile.German,French,ItalianandAmericanteamsbeganinNewYorkCityFebruary12,1908withthree
ofthecompetitorsultimatelyreachingParis.TheUSbuiltThomasFlyerwithGeorgeSchuster(driver)wontheracecovering22,000milesin169days.Whileotherautomakersprovided
motoristswithtirerepairkits,Ramblerwasfirstin1909toequipitscarswithasparetirethatwasmountedonafifthwheel.[35]

InMyMerryOldsmobile
songbookfeaturingan
OldsmobileCurvedDash
automobile(produced1901
1907)andperioddriving
clothing

BrassorEdwardianera
NamedforthewidespreaduseofbrassintheUnitedStates,theBrass(orEdwardian)Eralastedfromroughly1905throughtothebeginningofWorldWarIin1914.

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Withinthe15yearsthatmakeupthisera,thevariousexperimentaldesignsandalternatepowersystemswouldbemarginalised.Althoughthemoderntouringcarhadbeeninventedearlier,
itwasnotuntilPanhardetLevassor'sSystmePanhardwaswidelylicensedandadoptedthatrecognisableandstandardisedautomobileswerecreated.Thissystemspecifiedfrontengined,
rearwheeldriveinternalcombustionenginedcarswithaslidinggeartransmission.Traditionalcoachstylevehicleswererapidlyabandoned,andbuckboardrunaboutslostfavourwiththe
introductionoftonneausandotherlessexpensivetouringbodies.
By1906,steamcardevelopmenthadadvanced,andtheywereamongthefastestroadvehiclesinthatperiod.
Throughoutthisera,developmentofautomotivetechnologywasrapid,dueinparttohundredsofsmallmanufacturerscompetingtogaintheworld'sattention.Keydevelopmentsincluded
theelectricignitionsystem(bydynamotorontheArnoldin1898,[36]thoughRobertBosch,1903,tendstogetthecredit),independentsuspension(actuallyconceivedbyBollein
1873),[36]andfourwheelbrakes(bytheArrolJohnstonCompanyofScotlandin1909).[6]:p27Leafspringswerewidelyusedforsuspension,thoughmanyothersystemswerestillinuse,
withanglesteeltakingoverfromarmoredwoodastheframematerialofchoice.Transmissionsandthrottlecontrolswerewidelyadopted,allowingavarietyofcruisingspeeds,though
vehiclesgenerallystillhaddiscretespeedsettings,ratherthantheinfinitelyvariablesystemfamiliarincarsoflatereras.Safetyglassalsomadeitsdebut,patentedbyJohnWoodin
Englandin1905.[26](Itwouldnotbecomestandardequipmentuntil1926,onaRickenbacker.)[26]

ModelTFordcarparkednearthe
GeelongArtGalleryatitslaunchin
Australiain1915

Between1907and1912intheUnitedStates,thehighwheelmotorbuggy(resemblingthehorsebuggyofbefore1900)wasinitsheyday,withoverseventyfivemakersincluding
Holsman(Chicago),IHC(Chicago),andSears(whichsoldviacatalog)thehighwheelerwouldbekilledbytheModelT.[6]:p.65In1912,Hupp(intheU.S.,suppliedbyHale&Irwin)and
BSA(intheUK)pioneeredtheuseofallsteelbodies,[37]joinedin1914byDodge(whoproducedModelTbodies).[26]Whileitwouldbeanothertwodecadesbeforeallsteelbodies
wouldbestandard,thechangewouldmeanimprovedsuppliesofsuperiorqualitywoodforfurnituremakers.[6]
Someexamplesofcarsoftheperiodincluded:
1907InJapan,theHatsudokiSeizoCo.Ltd.isformed,whichwaslaterrenamedin1951asDaihatsuKgyKabushikigaisha.
19081927FordModelTthemostwidelyproducedandavailable4seatercaroftheera.Itusedaplanetarytransmission,andhadapedalbasedcontrolsystem.FordTwas
proclaimedasthemostinfluentialcarofthe20thcenturyintheinternationalCaroftheCenturyawards.
1909MorganRunaboutaverypopularcyclecar,cyclecarsweresoldinfargreaterquantitiesthan4seatercarsinthisperiod[38]
1910MercerRaceaboutregardedasoneofthefirstsportscars,theRaceaboutexpressedtheexuberanceofthedrivingpublic,asdidthesimilarlyconceivedAmerican
UnderslungandHispanoSuizaAlphonso.
19101920BugattiType13anotableracingandtouringmodelwithadvancedengineeringanddesign.SimilarmodelsweretheTypes15,17,22,and23.
1917JapanesecompanyMitsubishibuildstheMitsubishiModelA,allhandbuiltinlimitednumbersforJapaneseexecutives.

AStanleySteamerracecarin1903.
In1906,asimilarStanleyRocketset
theworldlandspeedrecordat
205.5km/hatDaytonaBeachRoad
Course.

Vintageera
ThevintageeralastedfromtheendofWorldWarI(1918),throughtheWallStreetCrashattheendof1929.Duringthisperiod,thefrontenginedcarcametodominate,withclosed
bodiesandstandardisedcontrolsbecomingthenorm.In1919,90%ofcarssoldwereopenby1929,90%wereclosed.[6]:p.7Developmentoftheinternalcombustionenginecontinuedata
rapidpace,withmultivalveandoverheadcamshaftenginesproducedatthehighend,andV8,V12,andevenV16enginesconceivedfortheultrarich.Alsoin1919,hydraulicbrakeswere
inventedbyMalcolmLoughead(cofounderofLockheed)theywereadoptedbyDuesenbergfortheir1921ModelA.[26]Threeyearslater,HermannRieselerofVulcanMotorinvented
thefirstautomatictransmission,whichhadtwospeedplanetarygearbox,torqueconverter,andlockupclutchitneverenteredproduction.[26](Itslikewouldonlybecomeanavailable
optionin1940.)[26]Justattheendofthevintageera,temperedglass(nowstandardequipmentinsidewindows)wasinventedinFrance.[26]Inthiseratherevolutionarypontondesignof
carswithoutfullyarticulatedfenders,runningboardsandothernoncompactledgeelementswasintroducedinsmallseriesbutamassproductionofsuchcarswasstartedmuchlater(after
WWII).
Manyoftoday'smoderninnovationshavebranchedfromamannamedPrestonTucker,whodesignedtheTucker48.PrestonTuckerposedhisideaofanAmericanmadevehicleinthe
1923LanciaLambda
1920sandwasthemanwhoinspiredtheideaofarearmotor,andindividualtorqueconvertersandwentondesigningasafetycarwithinnovativefeaturesandmodernstyling.Despitethe
competitorshewasfacing,hewentonmakingawatercooledaluminumblock,flat6rear,discbrakes,fourwheelindependentsuspension,fuelinjection,thelocationofallinstruments
withinreachofthesteeringwheel,seatbelts,andapaddeddashboard.PrestonTuckerwasthefirstmantomakeaneightcylindersedanthatwouldreachanaverageof20milespergallon.PrestonTuckerhadintroducedhis
innovativecartothemarketatalowbasedpriceof$4,000(oneofhisgoalsbeingthatthe"bigthree":Chevrolet,Chrysler,andFordwerepricingtheirvehiclesatanunreasonablepriceandyetnotgivingconcerntotheneeds
anddesiresoftheconsumers).PrestonTuckerwasthebasisofmanyautomotiveinnovationsinthe1920sandhadonlysucceededinmaking50ofthesevehicles.
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Between1922and1925thenumberofUSpassengercarbuildersdecreasedfrom175to70.H.A.Tarantous,managingeditorofMoToRMemberSocietyofAutomotiveEngineers,ina
NewYorkTimesarticlefrom1925gavethisexplanation:Manymanufacturerswereunableto"keeppacewiththebiggerproductionunits"andfallingprices,especiallyforthe"lower
pricedcar,commonlycalledthecoach".Apartfromthehigherdemandforsmallercars,Tarantousmentionsthe"pyroxylinfinish",theeightcylinderengine,thefourwheelbrakesand
balloontiresasthebiggesttrendsfor1925.[39]
Exemplaryvintagevehicles:
19221939Austin7theAustinSevenwasoneofthemostwidelycopiedvehiclesever,servingasatemplateforcarsaroundtheworld,fromBMWtoNissan.
19221931LanciaLambdaveryadvancedcarforthetime,firstcartofeaturealoadbearingmonocoquetypebodyandindependentfrontsuspension.
19241929BugattiType35theType35wasoneofthemostsuccessfulracingcarsofalltime,withover1,000victoriesinfiveyears.
19251928Hanomag2/10PSearlyexampleofpontonstyling.
19271931FordModelA(19271931)afterkeepingthebrasseraModelTinproductionfortoolong,Fordbrokefromthepastbyrestartingitsmodelserieswiththe1927Model
A.Morethan4millionwereproduced,makingitthebestsellingmodeloftheera.TheFordModelAwasaprototypeforthebeginningofSovietmasscarproduction(GAZA).
1930CadillacV16developedattheheightofthevintageera,theV16poweredCadillacwouldjoinBugatti'sRoyaleasthemostlegendaryultraluxurycarsoftheera.

1926Austin7Boxsaloon

1926BugattiType35

Prewarera
TheprewarpartoftheclassicerabeganwiththeGreatDepressionin1930,andendedwiththerecoveryafterWorldWarII,commonlyplacedat1946.Itwasinthisperiodthatintegrated
fendersandfullyclosedbodiesbegantodominatesales,withthenewsaloon/sedanbodystyleevenincorporatingatrunkorbootattherearforstorage.Theoldopentoprunabouts,
phaetons,andtouringcarswerephasedoutbytheendoftheclassiceraaswings,runningboards,andheadlightsweregraduallyintegratedwiththebodyofthecar.
Bythe1930s,mostofthemechanicaltechnologyusedintoday'sautomobileshadbeeninvented,althoughsomethingswerelater"reinvented",andcreditedtosomeoneelse.Forexample,
frontwheeldrivewasreintroducedbyAndrCitronwiththelaunchoftheTractionAvantin1934,thoughithadappearedseveralyearsearlierinroadcarsmadebyAlvisandCord,and
inracingcarsbyMiller(andmayhaveappearedasearlyas1897).Inthesamevein,independentsuspensionwasoriginallyconceivedbyAmdeBollein1873,butnotputinproduction
untilappearingonthelowvolumeMercedesBenz380in1933,whichproddedAmericanmakerstouseitmorewidely.[36]In1930,thenumberofautomanufacturersdeclinedsharplyas
theindustryconsolidatedandmatured,thanksinparttotheeffectsoftheGreatDepression.

FordV8(ModelB)

Exemplaryprewarautomobiles:
19321939AlvisSpeed20thefirstwithallsynchromeshgearbox
19321948FordV8(ModelB)introductionoftheflatheadV8inmainstreamvehicles
19341938Tatra77firstserialproducedcarwithaerodynamicaldesign
19341940BugattiType57asingularrefinedautomobileforthewealthy
19341956CitronTractionAvantthefirstmassproducedfrontwheeldrivecar,builtwithmonocoquechassis
19361955MGTseriessportscars
19382003VolkswagenBeetleadesignthatwasproducedforover60yearswithover20millionunitsassembledinseveralcounties
19361939RollsRoycePhantomIIIV12engine
RollsRoycePhantomIII

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CitronTractionAvant

VolkswagenBeetle

Postwarera
SinceWorldWarIIautomobiledesignexperiencedthetotalrevolutionchangestopontonstyle(withoutanoncompactledgeelements),oneofthefirstrepresentativesofthatwerethe
SovietGAZM20Pobeda(1946),BritishStandardVanguard(1947),U.S.StudebakerChampionandKaiser(1946),aswellasthelowproductionCzechluxuryTatraT600Tatraplan
(1946)andtheItalianCisitalia220sportscar(1947).
Automobiledesignandproductionfinallyemergedfromthemilitaryorientationandothershadowofwarin1949,theyearthatintheUnitedStatessawtheintroductionofhigh
compressionV8enginesandmodernbodiesfromGeneralMotors'OldsmobileandCadillacbrands.Hudsonintroducedthe"stepdown"designwiththe1948Commodore,whichplaced
thepassengercompartmentdowninsidetheperimeteroftheframe,thatwasoneofthefirstnewdesignpostwarcarsmadeandfeaturedtrendsettingslabsidestyling.[40]The
unibody/strutsuspended1951FordConsuljoinedthe1948MorrisMinorand1949RoverP4intheautomobilemarketintheUnitedKingdom.InItaly,EnzoFerrariwasbeginninghis
250series,justasLanciaintroducedtherevolutionaryV6poweredAurelia.
Throughoutthe1950s,enginepowerandvehiclespeedsrose,designsbecamemoreintegratedandartful,andautomobilesweremarketedinternationally.AlecIssigonis'MiniandFiat's
500diminutivecarswereintroducedinEurope,whilethesimilarkeicarclassbecamepopularJapan.TheVolkswagenBeetlecontinuedproductionafterHitlerandbeganexportstoother
nations,includingtheU.S.Atthesametime,NashintroducedtheNashRambler,thefirstsuccessfulmoderncompactcarmadeintheU.S.,[41]whilethestandardmodelsproducedbythe
"BigThree"domesticautomakersgreweverlargerinsize,featuredincreasingamountsofchrometrim,andluxurywasexemplifiedbytheCadillacEldoradoBrougham.Themarketsin
Europeexpandedwithnewsmallsizedautomobiles,aswellasexpensivegrandtourers(GT),liketheFerrariAmerica.

1946GAZM20Pobedaoneofthe
firstmassproducedcarswithponton
design

Themarketchangedinthe1960s,astheU.S."BigThree"automakersbeganfacingcompetitionfromimportedcars,theEuropeanmakersadoptedadvancedtechnologies,andJapanemergedasacarproducingnation.Japanese
companiesbegantoexportsomeoftheirmorepopularsellingcarsinJapaninternationally,suchastheToyotaCorolla,ToyotaCorona,NissanSunny,andNissanBluebirdinthemid1960s.ThesuccessAmericanMotors'
compactsizedRamblermodelsspurredGMandFordtointroducetheirowndownsizedcarsin1960.PerformanceenginesbecameafocusofmarketingbyU.S.automakers,exemplifiedbytheera'smusclecars.In1964,the
FordMustangdevelopedanewmarketsegment,theponycar.NewmodelstocompetewiththeMustangincludedtheChevroletCamaro,AMCJavelin,andPlymouthBarracuda.Captiveimportsandbadgeengineering

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increasedintheU.S.andtheUKasamalgamatedgroupssuchastheBritishMotorCorporationconsolidatedthemarket.BMC'sspacesavingMini,whichfirstappearedin1959,became
popularandweremarketedundertheAustinandMorrisnames,untilMinibecameamarqueinitsownrightin1969.[42]Competitionincreased,withStudebaker,apioneeringautomaker,
shuttingdownasthetrendforconsolidationreachedItalywherenichemakerslikeMaserati,Ferrari,andLanciawereacquiredbylargercompanies.Bytheendofthedecade,thenumber
ofautomobilemarqueshadbeengreatlyreduced.
Technologydevelopmentsincludedthewidespreaduseofindependentsuspensions,widerapplicationoffuelinjection,andanincreasingfocusonsafetyinautomotivedesign.Innovations
duringthe1960sincludedNSU'sWankelengine,thegasturbine,andtheturbocharger.Ofthese,onlythelast,pioneeredbyGeneralMotors,andincorporatedbyBMWandSaab,butlater
sawmassmarketuseduringthe1980sbyChrysler.MazdafocusedondevelopingitsWankelengine,whichhadproblemsinlongevity,emissions,andfueleconomy.OtherWankel
licensees,includingMercedesBenzandGM,neverputtheirdesignsintoproductionbecauseofengineeringandmanufacturingproblems,aswellasthelessonsfromthe1973oilcrisis.
The1970swereturbulentyearsforautomakersandbuyerswithmajoreventsreshapingtheindustrysuchasthe1973oilcrisis,stricterautomobileemissionscontrolandsafety
requirements,increasingexportsbytheJapaneseandEuropeanautomakers,aswellasgrowthininflationandthestagnanteconomicconditionsinmanynations.Smallersizedgrewin
popularity.TheU.S.sawtheestablishmentofthesubcompactsegmentwiththeintroductionoftheAMCGremlin,followedbytheChevroletVegaandFordPinto.Thestationwagons
(estate,break,kombi,universal)bodydesignwaspopular,aswellasincreasingsalesofnoncommercialallwheeldriveoffroadvehicles.

1953MorrisMinorSeriesII

Totheendofthe20thcentury,theU.S.BigThree(GM,Ford,andChrysler)partiallylosttheirleadingposition,Japanbecameforawhiletheworld'sleaderofcarproductionandcars
begantobemassmanufacturedinnewAsian,EastEuropean,andothercountries.
Notableexemplarypostwarcars:
19461958GAZM20PobedaSovietcarwithfullpontondesign
19471958StandardVanguardBritishmassmarketcarwithfullpontondesign
19481971MorrisMinoranearlypostwarcarexportedaroundtheworld
19531971ChevroletBelAirand19532002CadillacEldoradoBroughamfirstgenerationswererepresentativeoftailfindesign
19551976CitronDSaerodynamicdesignandinnovativetechnology,awardedthirdplaceasCarofthe20thCentury
19592000MiniaradicalandinnovativesmallcarthatwasmanufacturedforfourdecadesawardedsecondplaceasCarofthe20thCentury
19611975JaguarEtypeaclassicsportscardesign
19631989Porsche911asportscarwasawardedfifthplaceasCarofthe20thCentury
1964presentFordMustangtheponycarthatbecameoneofthebestsellingcarsoftheera
1966endofthe20thcenturyFiat124anItaliancarthatwasproducedunderlicenseinmanyothercountiesincludingtheSovietUnion
19661971Subaru1000oneofthefirstJapanesebuiltsedansusingaboxerengine,frontwheeldriveandintroducingthe"doubleoffsetjoint"driveshafttothefrontwheels
1967NSURo80thebasicwedgeprofileofthisdesignwasemulatedinsubsequentdecades,[43]unlikeitsWankelengine
1969Datsun240ZJapanesesportscar[44]
19801988AMCEaglethefirstmassproducedfulltimeallwheeldrivecar[45]

1947StandardVanguardponton
styledcarin1954versionasstation
wagon(break)

1954PlymouthSavoyStation
Wagon,oneofthefirstU.S.allmetal
stationwagons

Modernera
Themoderneraisnormallydefinedasthe25yearsprecedingthecurrentyear.However,therearesometechnicalanddesignaspectsthatdifferentiatemoderncarsfromantiques.The
modernerahasbeenoneofincreasingstandardisation,platformsharing,andcomputeraideddesign.
Someparticularcontemporarydevelopmentsaretheproliferationoffrontandallwheeldrive,theadoptionofthedieselengine,andtheubiquityoffuelinjection.Mostmodernpassenger
carsarefrontwheeldrivemonocoque/unibodydesigns,withtransverselymountedengines.
Bodystyleshavechangedaswellinthemodernera.Threetypes,thehatchback,sedan,andsportutilityvehicle,dominatetoday'smarket.Alloriginallyemphasisedpracticality,buthave
mutatedintotoday'shighpoweredluxurycrossoverSUV,sportswagon,twovolumeLargeMPV.TheriseofpickuptrucksintheUnitedStates,andSUVsworldwide,haschangedthe
faceofmotoring,withthese"trucks"comingtocommandmorethanhalfoftheworldautomobilemarket.TherewasalsotheintroductionofMPVclass(smallernoncommercial
passengerminivans),amongthefirstofwhichweretheFrenchRenaultEspaceandtheChryslerminivanversionsintheU.S.

1974CitronDS

Themodernerahasalsoseenrapidlyrisingfuelefficiencyandengineoutput.Theautomobileemissionsconcernshavebeeneasedwithcomputerisedenginemanagementsystems.
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Theeconomiccrisisof2008cutalmostathirdoflightvehiclesalesfromChrysler,Toyota,Ford,andNissan.ItalsosubtractedaboutafourthofHonda'ssalesandaboutaseventhofsales
fromGeneralMotors.[46]
Since2009,Chinahasbecometheworld'sleadingcarmanufacturerwithproductiongreaterthanJapan,theUnitedStates,andallofEurope.Besideslargegrowthofcarproductionin
Asianandothercountries,therehasbeengrowthintransnationalcorporategroups,theproductionoftransnationalautomobilessharingthesameplatforms,aswellasbadgeengineeringor
rebadgingtosuitdifferentmarketsandconsumersegments.
Sincetheendofthe20thcentury,severalawardcompetitionsofcarsandtruckshavebecomewidelyknown,suchasEuropeanCaroftheYearCaroftheYearJapan,NorthAmericanCar
oftheYear,WorldCaroftheYear,TruckoftheYear,andInternationalCaroftheYear,sothatvehiclesofdifferentclasses,producers,andcountrieswinalternately.Also,Carofthe
Centuryawardswereheld,inwhichintheUStheFordModelTwasnamedasmostinfluentialcarofthe20thcentury.

A2011ToyotaCorolla,oneofthe
world'sbestsellingmodels

Exemplarymoderncars:
1966presentToyotaCorollaaJapanesesaloon/sedanthathasbecomethebestsellingnameplateofalltime,withover40millionsoldacross11generationsthroughJuly2013.[47]
19661992OldsmobileToronadoIntroducedelectronicantilockbrakingsystem,[48]andairbag[49]FirstmoderneraAmericancarwithfrontwheeldrive.
1973presentMercedesBenzSClassSeatbeltpretensioner,andelectronictractioncontrolsystem
1975presentBMW3Seriesthe3SerieshasbeenonCarandDrivermagazine'sannualTenBestlist17times
1977presentHondaAccordsaloon/sedanaJapanesesedanthatbecamepopularintheU.S.
1983presentChryslerminivansthetwoboxminivandesignnearlypushedthestationwagonoutofthemarket
1984presentRenaultEspacefirstmassonevolumecarofnoncommercialMPVclass
1986presentFordTaurusthismidsizedfrontwheeldrivesedandominatedtheU.S.marketinthelate1980s
1997presentToyotaPrius,launchedintheJapanesemarketandbecamethebestknownhybridelectricvehicleandalsotheworld'stopsellinghybrid.[50]
1998presentFordFocusoneofthemostpopularhatchbacksandFord'sbestsellingworldcar
2008presentTataNanoaninexpensive(100,000,$2200),rearengined,fourpassengercitycaraimedprimarilyattheIndiandomesticmarket
20082012TeslaRoadsterfirsthighwaycapableallelectricvehicleinserialproductionforsaleintheU.S.inthemodernera.Soldabout2,500unitsworldwide.
20082013BYDF3DMfirsthighwaycapableseriesproductionpluginhybrid,launchedinChinainDecember2008,soldover2,300units.[51][52]
2009present,MitsubishiiMiEVfirsthighwaycapableseriesproductionallelectriccar,launchedinJapaninJuly2009forfleetcustomers,andinApril2010forretailcustomers.RebadgedversionsoftheiMiEVare
soldinEuropebyPSAPeugeotCitron(PSA)asthePeugeotiOnandCitronCZero.[53][54]
2010present,NissanLeafandChevroletVoltallelectriccarandpluginhybridcorrespondingly,launchedinDecember2010,aretheworld'stopsellingmassproductionvehiclesoftheirkind.[55]Asofearly
December2015,globalLeafsalestotaled200,000unitsandVoltsalesover100,000.[56]
2012present,TeslaModelSIntroducedin2012,theModelSquicklyclimbedupsales.Itwasrankedastheworld'sbestsellingpluginelectricvehiclein2015.[57]ItwasalsonamedcarofthecenturybyCarand
Driver.[58]

Seealso
Automotiveindustryinformationoncurrentproductionandcompanies
Motocycle
Historyoftheinternalcombustionengine
Timelineofmotorvehiclebrands
TimelineofNorthAmericanautomobiles
Historyoftransportation

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24.Hyde,CharlesK.(2009).StoriedIndependentAutomakers:Nash,Hudson,andAmericanMotors.WayneStateUniversityPress.p.12.ISBN9780814334461.Retrieved24June2014.
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43.Hevesi,Dennis(10April2008)."ClausLuthe,CarDesignInnovator,IsDeadat75".TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved2January2016.
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46.Belser,JonahNelson,GregoryPoma,Frank."EconomicCrisis".nhd.weebly.com.Retrieved24June2014.
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49."DirectoryIndex:Oldsmobile/1974_Oldsmobile/album".Oldcarbrochures.com.Retrieved20111120.
50."ToyotaIsGlobalHybridLeaderWithSalesOf7Million"(Pressrelease).Torrance,California:PRNewswire.20141013.Retrieved20141025.SalesofthePriusfamily(allfiguresinthousands)asofSeptember2014consistof:3,360.4Prius
liftbacks,853.8Priusc/Aqua,498.0Priusv//+and65.3PriusPHVs.
51.FrederikBalfour(20081215)."China'sFirstPlugInHybridCarRollsOut".BloombergBusiness.Retrieved20150217.
52.JohnVoelcker(20150129)."2016BYDTang:PlugInHybridSUVIsFirstOfFourToCome".GreenCarReports.Retrieved20150217.BYDwasthefirstcompanyintheworldtolaunchaproductionpluginhybriditsF3DMin2008was
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56.JeffCobb(20151208)."PluginPioneers:NissanLeafandChevyVoltTurnFiveYearsOld".HybriCars.com.Retrieved20151215.Seetablewithranking:"World'sTopBestSellingPluginElectriccars."Accountingforglobalcumulative
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salesbyearlyDecember2015,pluginelectriccarsalesareledbytheNissanLeaf(200,000),followedbyVolt/Amperafamily(104,000),andtheTeslaModelS(100,000).AsofNovember2015,rankingnextaretheMitsubishiOutlanderPHEV
(85,000)andthePriusPluginHybrid(75,000).
57.http://www.hybridcars.com/teslamodelsisamericasbestsellingplugincarthisyear/
58.http://www.caranddriver.com/tesla/models

Furtherreading
Berger,MichaelL.(2001).TheautomobileinAmericanhistoryandculture:areferenceguide.GreenwoodPublishingGroup.ISBN9780313245589.
Halberstam,David(1986).TheReckoning.Morrow.ISBN0688048382.
Kay,JaneHoltz(1997).Asphaltnation:howtheautomobiletookoverAmerica,andhowwecantakeitback.CrownPublishers.ISBN0517587025.
Krarup,M.C.(November1906)."AutomobilesforEveryUse".TheWorld'sWork:AHistoryofOurTimeXIII:81638178.Retrieved20090710.Includesphotosofmanyc.1906specialpurposeautomobiles.
Norman,Henry(April1902)."TheComingoftheAutomobile".TheWorld'sWork:AHistoryofOurTimeV:33043308.Retrieved20090710.

Externallinks
AutomuseumDr.CarlBenz,Ladenburg/Germany(http://www.automuseumdrcarlbenz.de/)
WikimediaCommonshas
BerthaBenzMemorialRoute(http://www.berthabenz.de/indexen.php?inhalt=home)
mediarelatedtoHistoryof
UniversityofWashingtonLibrariesDigitalCollectionsTransportationphotographs
automobiles.
(http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/transportation/searchterm/automobile*/field/subjec/mode/all/conn/and/cosuppress/)Digitalcollectiondepicting
variousmodesoftransportation(includingautomobiles)inthePacificNorthwestregionandwesternUSAduringthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury.
Historyoftheautomobile(http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aacarssteama.htm)onAbout.com:Inventorssite
HistoryofAutomobileAirConditioning(https://web.archive.org/20160111133623/http://www.nyc.net.au/node/149398)onNYC.net
AutomotiveHistory(https://web.archive.org/20160131044758/http://www.automotivehistoryonline.com/)Anongoingphotographichistoryoftheautomobile.
TakingtheWheel(http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/explore/dgexplore.cfm?topic=industry&collection=TakingtheWheelManufa&col_id=153),Manufacturers'catalogsfromthefirstdecadeofAmerican
automobiles
Historyanddirectoryofelectriccarsfrom1834to1987(http://www.electriccarsociety.com/ev_hist.htm=)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_automobile&oldid=706806735"
Categories: Historyoftheautomobile
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon25February2016,at11:30.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregisteredtrademarkof
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