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1.1 Scalar and Vectors

Examiner's Expectation: Students should be able to
(a) define the terms scalar and vector.
(b) determine the resultant of two vectors by a graphical method.
(c) list the vectors and scalars from distance, displacement, length, speed,
velocity, time, acceleration, mass and force.

The terms Scalar & Vector are used to differentiate Physical Quantities. What are Physical
Quantities?
Physical Quantity: Any thing that can be measured is called a Physical Quantity For example
Speed, Momentum, Moment, Velocity, Acceleration, mass, volume, area, distance, speed,
density, pressure, Energy, work done, temperature, heat, Weight, Displacement,light and all
forms of energies, current, voltage Force and all types of forces ie Friction, Upthrust, Drag etc.
Defination of Scalar Quantity: Such a Physical Quantity that can be specified by magnitude or
value (number) only. For example, when you ask someone for time, mass, volume or distance
they would only tell a number(magnitude) say its 120 clock, I am 65 kg, 2 liters of petrol and you
understand exactly what is means. So you can understand some Physical quantities by their
numbers only.
Note: The term magnitude means number or value of something for example 5 kg is the value of
mass of something or 100 km/h is the magnitude of speed.
Definition of Vector Quantity: Such a Physical Quantity that need magnitude and direction for
their specification. For example, when you are applying force you must mention: how much
force you are applying and in which direction. Similarly, acceleration, velocity etc requires
magnitude and direction for their complete specifiation.
Pilots while flying air-craft requires speed and the direction in which they are moving. If direction
is not specified to them they would disappear somewhere else.

Representation of Vector: So vectors require number & direction for their specification. That is
why vectors are represented by arrow or graphically. The size of arrow is the magnitude of the
vector.

Operations on Vector Quantities:

The mathemataical operations (+, -, x & /) on vector quantities are different than normal
operations on numbers. Vector Algebra is different-- don't be afraid we will deal with abnormally
easy vectors addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. In Vector's addition 2 + 2 does not
necessarily means 4 or 4-2 does not necessarily means 2. Therefore, vector quantities are
treated bit different.
Why vector's addition, subtraction, multiplication and division is bit different than normal
numbers? This is because they have directions. If one vector is acting in different direction than
another, therefore, their addition and subtraction can not yeild same results. For example, the

velocity of one plane is north side and other is south side so directions are opposite, therefore,
results would be different than if they were moving in same direction.
Also, vectors can be positive (+) and negative (-) while scalars can only be of positive values.
The only difference between +ve and -ve vectors is that of only direction. -ve vector would have
opposite direction to that of +ve vector.

Vector Addition & Subtraction:

As mentioned earlier, vector addition & subtraction is not as same as Year-6 or graduation level
addition & subtraction of numbers. It's a totally different ball game.
Is there any condition in which vector addition & subtraction can be normal?
Yes, when vectors are acting in same direction (angle). In such condition 2 + 2 = 4 and 10 - 8 =
2. The chart given below can further clearify your idea.

Vector Addition & Subtraction in same direction:

o
o

If forces are acting in same direction they would add.

If forces are acting in opposite direction they would subtract.

The force which is the result of two or more forces is called resultant force. In first example, 10
N is the resultant force of 5 N and 5 N acting in same direction.
Similarly, 0 N is the resultant force of two forces acting in opposite direction 5 N and -5 N.
In last example, 10 N is acting upwards and -5 N acting in opposite direction the resultant force
would be 5 N upwards.
Note: Addition of force is a simple mathematical operation, you just need to see in which
direction forces are acting and associated signs--all you then need to do is to some do grade 2
maths.
Vector Addition & Subraction in different direction:

Vector Multiplication:
Multiplication of two vectors is not a part of the course. However, multiplication of vectors by
numbers is in syllabus.

Multiplication of vectors with numbers:

Vectors' Division:

Vector Quantities: momentum, moment, force and all types of forces ie friction, upthrust, drag
etc, velocity, acceleration, weight, displacement.
Scalar Quantities: mass, volume, area, distance, speed, density, pressure, Energy, work done,
temperature, heat, light and all forms of energies, current, voltage, etc.

appreciate the vector nature of a force

Since force is a vector quantity and all vectors are represented by arrows. Therefore, force is
represented by arrows.

If in one direction, force is positive than in other direction it would be negative. As shown below
for 1 N

For example, weight is always shown with direction downwards(to the center of Earth). Friction
with direction opposite to the direction of motion. Push direction inwards to an object and pull
direction is outwards.

In above two examples, forces are shown with arrows and that is the only way to represent
these forces. In first diagram, the person is pushing an object with a force Fawhile the weight of
the object is Fg and FN Which is the normal reaction from the ground.

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1.2 Measurement techniques

Examiner's Expectation: Students should be able to

(d) describe how to measure a variety of lengths with appropriate accuracy

using tapes, rules, micrometers, and calipers using a vernier as necessary.

Tapes, Rules, Micrometer Screw gauages and Vernier Calipers are used to measure lengths
(length, Width, Breath and Depth). They have different level of accuracy (minimum
measurement they can measure accurately.)
Instrument
1 Tape
Ruler
2
3

Vernier Caliper

4 Micrometer
Screwgauge

Accuracy Uses
1 cm
To measure big objects like size of rooms, buildings, furnitures and cloth piece
Usually in our labs we use meter rule which can measure objects of 100 cm len
0.1 cm
we use meter rule as the more common instrument.
Use to measure objects up to the size of 15 cm. They are used instead of mete
0.01 cm
bring more accuracy in results
0.001 cm Use to measure objects up to the size 2.5 cm. They are also used to obtain a v
result.

Measuring Tape: It is a flexible form of ruler.

Ruler:

Vernier Caliper:

for vernier caliper use following website and youtube video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZUNoWWw6V10&;feature=related
Micrometer Screw Gauge:

for micrometer use following website and youtube video

http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/practical/skills/micrometer.htm
following website will guide you how to use Vernier Caliper and Micrometer Screw gauge.
http://www.phy.uct.ac.za/courses/c1lab/vernier1.html

There is a very common error with all of the above measuring scales--Parallax

Errror.

When you are not reading scale with the exact eye level then the object would appear at
different place. It could be a part of any instrument. This is called Parallax error--solution is look
reading at eye level.

Parallax error effects the accuracy of the measurement.

Also, always check carefully for a zero error before using the any instrument!

(e) describe how to measure a variety of time intervals using clocks and stopwatches.

Now days digital stopwatches are being used rather than analogue because analogue
stopwatches are prone to parallax error. However, starting and stopping of stopwatch manually
for time interval measurement results in error due to reaction time.
Light gates are used for correct time interval measurement between two points. Light gates
automatically takes time by computer.