CC08- ORGANISATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR

CC08- ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Module I
Introduction to the concept and relevance of
Organisational
Behaviour
in
Modern
ManagementIndividual
BehaviourPersonality- Values, Attitudes, Perception,
Theories of Personality, Learning.

CC08- ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Module II
Motivation:
Theories
of
MotivationApplication of Motivation in work place- QWLJob Enlargement- Job Enrichment-Job
rotation-Job satisfaction and morale .

CC08- ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Module III
Leadership; Leader v/s manager- Leadership
styles- Concepts and theories Trait,
Behavioral and situational- Transactional and
Transformational Leaderships- Leadership
effectiveness- Power, sources of Power.

CC08- ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Module IV
Group Behaviour- Group Formation and
development- Group Dynamics- Team Building
structure of groups- Group Efficiency - Group
Norms Cohesiveness- Group effectivenessGroup Decision Techniques- Application of
Fundamental
Interpersonal
OrientationKinesics- Body Language.

CC08- ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Module V
Organizational Culture- Concept- Creating and
Sustaining Culture Organizational Change Resistance to Change- Managing Change - Work
StressSources
and
consequences
Organizational Role Stress- Emotional Intelligence
& Emotional Quotient- Conflict Transactional
Analysis & Johari Window Organizational
Development.

References
1. K. Aswathappa, Organisational Behaviour,
Himalaya Publishing House
2. Fred Luthans, Organisational Behaviour, New
York, McGraw Hill.
3. Stephen P Robins, Organisational Behaviour,
Pearson Education.
4. A.F.Stoner and Charles Wenkel, Management
New Delhi, Prentice Hall of India.

Teaching Methodology

Syllabus contents.
Presentations by students.
Assignment submissions.
Case studies.

Assessments
Total Marks: 100
University exams: 60 marks
Usual format :
The student need to answer 5 questions
There will be choices for 1st 4 questions.
The last question is a compulsory case study.
Each one carries 12 marks.
Internal marks : 40 marks
Examination (15)
First internal (3)
Second internal (5)
Model
(7)

Assignment(5) ,seminars(5), group discussions/term projects (5), class

participation(5), attendance/punctuality/discipline (5)

Where Managers Work?

Organization
A consciously coordinated social unit,
composed of two or more people, that
functions on a relatively continuous basis
to achieve a common goal or set of
goals.

Definitions of OB
According to Stephen P Robbins
OB is a field of study that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups and structure have on behaviour within
organisation for the purpose of applying such knowledge
towards improving an Organisational effectiveness.

Definition
Fred Luthans defines Organisational behaviour as the
understanding, prediction and management of human
behaviour in organisation
OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an
organization and how that behaviour affects the
performance of the organization

Why do we study OB?

Helps an individual understand himself/herself and others
better.
Helps in understanding and predicting organizational life
Helps us in influence Organisational events
Helps the manager to understand the basics of motivation
and what he/she should do to motivate subordinates
Helps in maintaining cordial industrial relations

Foundations of OB
Individual
difference

Social systems

Whole person
ob

Mutuality of interests

Caused behaviour

Holistic concept
Human dignity

Contributing disciplines for the

development of OB
Psychology
Sociology
Social psychology
Anthropology
Political science

Contributing Disciplines to the OB

Field
Psychology
The science that seeks to measure, explain, and
sometimes change the behavior of humans and other
animals.

Contributing Disciplines to the OB

Field (contd)
Sociology
The study of people in relation to their fellow human
beings.

Contributing Disciplines to the OB

Field (contd)
Social Psychology
An area within psychology that blends concepts from psychology
and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on one
another.

Contributing Disciplines to the OB

Field (contd)
Anthropology
The study of societies to learn about human beings and their
activities.

Contributing Disciplines to the OB

Field (contd)
Political Science
The study of the behavior of individuals and groups
within a political environment.

Behavioural
science

Psychology

Contribution

Learning
Motivation
Perception
Training
Leadership effectiveness
Job satisfaction
Individual decision making
Performance appraisal
Attitude measurement
Employee selection
Work design
Work stress

Unit of
analysis

Output

Individual

Group dynamics
Work teams
Communication
Power
Conflict
Intergroup behaviour
Sociology
Formal organization theory
Organizational technology
Organizational change
Organizational culture

Social psychology

Behavioural change
Attitude change
Communication
Group processes
Group decision making

Comparative values
Comparative attitudes
Cross-cultural analysis
Anthropology
Organizational culture
Organizational environment

Political science

Group

Conflict
Intraorganizational politics
Power

Organization
system

Study of
Organizational
Behaviour

Factors affecting Org. Effectiveness And Efficiency

Productivity
Absenteeism
Turnover
Job satisfaction
Organizational citizenship

Factors affecting Org. Effectiveness

And Efficiency
Productivity
A performance measure that includes
effectiveness and efficiency.
Effectiveness
Achievement of goals at
less cost.
Efficiency
The ratio of effective
output to the input
required to achieve it.

Factors affecting Org. Effectiveness

And Efficiency
Absenteeism
The failure to report to work.
Are all absences bad?

Turnover
The voluntary and
involuntary permanent
withdrawal from an
organization.

Factors affecting Org. Effectiveness

And Efficiency
Organizational citizenship
behavior (OCB)
Discretionary behavior that is not
part of an employees formal job
requirements, but that nevertheless
promotes the effective functioning
of the organization.

Factors affecting Org. Effectiveness

And Efficiency
Job satisfaction
A general attitude toward ones job, the difference
between the amount of reward workers receive and
the amount they believe they should receive.

OB Model

Challenges and opportunities for OB:

Responding to the globalization
Managing workforce diversity
Improving quality and productivity
Empowering people
Coping with temporariness
Improving ethical behavior
Stimulating innovation and change

Responding to Globalization
Lots of companies are going global.
Personal functions like hiring, training, compensating acquired
a global perspective.
Management required to cope up with unfamiliar laws,
languages, practices, competitors, management styles, work
ethics and more.

Managing Diversity
Organisation have to adapt with different people within the
organisation.
Managing diversity means how the differences are accepted
and respected and how they are made to work in cohesion
Organisation should ensure diversity in building various
groups, teams..

Barriers to accept Diversity

Prejudice
Ethnocentrism
Stereotypes
Discrimination
Backlash

Prejudice
Unjustified negative attitude towards a person based on
his/her membership of a particular group.

Ethnocentrism
Tendency to regard one's own group, culture, or nation as
superior to others

Stereotypes
Set of beliefs about a group that is applied universally to all
members of that group

Eg: all poor people are uneducated, all Asians are good in
math's.

Traits associated with gender Steriotypes

Male
Aggressive
Autocratic
Competitive
Loud
Unemotional

Female
Affectionate
Complaining
Emotional
Mild
Weak

Discrimination
Barring an individual from membership of an organisation or
from a job because of his/her membership of a particular
group.

Eg: company interviews only men for a post that require a lot
of travel.

Backlash
Negative reaction to the gaining of power & influence by the
members of previously under represented groups, leading to
fear and reverse discrimination.

Changing demographics of workforce

Problems related to dual career couples
Increasing number of working mothers
Increasing number of young employees joins the organisation.

Changed employee expectations

Traditional Expectations
Job security, attractive remuneration, housing.
Today
Empowering the people/employees, decision making is
put down to the operational level.
Workers demand better treatment, challenging
assignment, career advancement

Improving Quality & Productivity

With the help of TQM, Re-engineering
TQM- ( Total Quality Management)
A philosophy of management that is driven by the constant attainment
of customer satisfaction through continuous improvement of all
organizational process

Re-engineering
Reconsider how work would be done and the organisation structured
if they were being created from scratch

Technology Transformation
Technology-anything that the worker of an
organisation use to transform its inputs to
outputs
Divided in to
1)Automation
2)Information Technology

Automation
Automation occurs when a task performed by a worker is
mechanized to be performed by a machine

Automation works well only when it is designed to

compliment the skills of the worker rather than replace then

Job oversimplification through Automation

Automation

Poor quality
Low productivity

Work
simplification

Alienation

Impact of IT
Downsizing organisation uses fewer employees to produce greater volumes

Outsourcing process of hiring outside firms to perform the non core activities of
the business.

Wired organisation

Wired organisation
Work from home.
Web conferencing/web seminars.
Interference in to the privacy of the employees - hidden cams
& CCTV.
Problems relating to motivate the employees.
Problems related to org. hierarchies.
Time differences across the globe.
Leadership

Ethics & ethical dilemma

Ethics Refers to a system of moral principles-a sense of right or
wrong, the goodness of badness of actions and the
motives and consequences of actions.
Eg: if protecting others from any harm is considered to
be ethical, then a company which recalls a defective
product from the market is an ethical company.

Ethical dilemma
Ethical dilemma
Situation in which an individual is required to
define right and wrong conduct.
Eg: CCTVs, tapping of phones, computer
monitoring etc.

Ethical dilemma
Problems related to AIDS
Downsizing
Whistle blowing Refers to the disclosure by a former or current employee of any illegal, immoral, or
illegitimate practices involving its employees

Sexual harassment
Physical contact and making advances; a demand or request for sexual favors;
sexually coloured remarks; showing pornography; other unwelcome physical, verbal
or non verbal contact/ gesture of sexual nature.

Performance appraisal

Managing ethics
Code of ethics
For company and for the employee

Ethics committees
Ethics hotline
Ethics training programmes

Challenges and opportunities for OB

Empowering people
Coping with temporariness
Stimulating innovation and change

Individual Behaviour

Foundations of individual Behaviour

Foundations of individual
behaviour

PERSONAL FACTORS

Age
Sex/Gender
Education
Abilities
Martial Status
No of dependents
Creativity

Age
High impact on performance, turnover, Absenteeism,
productivity, job satisfaction.
Avoidable/unavoidable absence.
Performance is dependent on Age ?
Adaptability get reduced by age ?

Sex/ Gender
Researcher has proved that problem solving ability, analytical
skills, competitive drive, motivation, leadership, learning
ability are not gender dependent.
Gender has an impact on turnover and absenteeism

Education
Increased level of education serve to increase an individuals
expectations .
Outcomes involves higher income level, greater and
alternative source of occupational choice.

Abilities
It refers to an individuals capacity to perform various tasks in
the job
Consists of 2 sets of skills
1)Intellectual abilities
2)Physical abilities
Ability-job fit:
Person should fit to the job and job should fit to
person.

Martial status
Marriage impose additional responsibility, need for steady
job, steady income.

Married ones have fewer absences, low turnover, more

satisfied.

No. of dependents
No. of children an employee has is positively
related to absence especially for women.

Creativity
Creativity refers to activities that result in a new or novel way
of viewing or solving a particular problem.
Creative individuals possesses at least three categories of
attributes, back ground experiences, personal traits and
cognitive abilities.

Environmental factors
These factors are mainly external and influence the individual
behaviour.
Economic factors
Employment opportunities
Wage rate
Technological change
The job that an individual holds has a significant influence on
his/her behaviour.
Technological change has a great impact on the lower level of
workers.

Cultural Environment
People grow up in a particular society that shapes their basic
beliefs, values, and behaviour.
Culture varies from country to country
Achievement needs influence employee behaviour.

Political factors
The stability of the government can affect employment
opportunities

Politically unstable government has difficulty in attracting

industry and maintain a steady level of employment

Organisational Systems & Resources

Facilities
Organisation structure & design
Leadership
Reward Systems

Psychological factors
Individual mental characteristics and attributes affect
behaviour.
Characteristics are perception, attitudes, values & learning.

Personality

Personality
Attributes of an individual which make him/her different
from others.
Personality refers to a relatively stable pattern of behaviour
that characterize an individual
Robbins defines personality as" the sum total of ways in
which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.

Personality
Personality has both internal ( Thoughts, values etc ) and
external elements (Observable behaviour).
Personality is relatively stable.
Personality is inherited as well as shaped by the environment.
Inherited characteristics are altered by life experiences.

Determinants of personality

Heredity
Heredity has impact on physical structure, facial attraction,
temperament, muscle composition, energy levels.
Identical twins even have different characteristics.

Environment
Environment is a broad term includes factors such as culturewhich influences norms , attitudes, and values passed from
one generation to another
Eg: respect the elders.
Most of the cultures expect different behaviour from males
and females (sex roles).

Contribution from the Family

Family has an influence on personality at the early stages.
The overall environment created by the parents is critical to
personality development
Eg: diff: between orphans and children raised

by

parents in warm and loving environment.

Brothers & sisters also contribute to personality development.

Socialization process
Persons, groups and organizations exercise their due role in
personality

development.

This

process

is

known

as

socialization process.
Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother
& her infant

Situational considerations
Situation influences the individual personality.
Some situation such as church or employment interview may
constrain many behaviour while other situations like picnic or
in the park may constrain relatively low.

The Big Five personality Traits

Extroversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Emotional stability/ Neuroticism
Openness to experience

Extroversion
Reflects persons comfort level with relationships.
They are sociable, talkative, outgoing-(open to establish
new relationship).
Introverts are less sociable, less talkative, more reluctant
to begin new relationships.

Agreeableness
Ability to get along with others.
They are trusting, good natured, co-operative, soft hearted.
People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their
needs than the need of others

Conscientiousness
Refers to the number of goals that a person focuses on.
A highly conscientious person focuses on relatively few
number of goals at one time
They are dependable, systematic in their approach,
responsible, achievement oriented and self disciplined

Emotional stability/ Neuroticism

Focuses on individuals ability to cope with stress.
People with emotional stability tends to be calm, relaxed,
secure, unworried.
People with low emotional stability tends to be nervous,
depressed and insecure.

Openness to experience
Openness addresses ones range of interests.
Person will be intellectual, imaginative, curious, broadminded.
People with low level of openness tend to be less receptive to
new ideas and less willing to change their minds.

The Big Five personality Traits

Other Major personality traits

Authoritarianism
Machiavellianism
Self Esteem
Risk taking

Authoritarianism
Individuals who has a strong self belief in the legitimacy of
established mechanisms of formal authority, opposes the use
of feelings, strong orientation towards rules and regulations,
exhibits a negative philosophy of people.

They prefer autocratic / directive leadership

Machiavellianism
Degree to which an individual is pragmatic/ realistic,
maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can
justify means.
Refers to the individuals propensity to manipulate other
people.
The people are prone to participate in organizational
politics
In the case of jobs require bargaining skills (labors
negotiation, commissioned sales) they perform better.

Self Esteem
Refers to the feelings of like or dislike of one self.
People with high self esteem have the abilities to undertake
challenging jobs
In managerial positions low self esteems will tend to be
concerned with pleasing others

Risk Taking
People differ in their willingness to take risks/chances.
This has an impact on the how long it takes the managers to
make a decision.
Studies have proved that decision accuracy was same for both
risk taking & non risk taking groups.

Locus of Control
Refers to an individuals belief that events are
either within their control or are determined by
the forces beyond ones control
Internals
Individuals who believe that they
control what happens to them.

Externals
Individuals who believe that
what happens to them is
controlled by outside forces
such as luck or chance.

Type A & Type B personality

Type A

Type B

Always moving, walking, eating

rapidly
Feels impatient with the rate at
which most event take place
Think or do 2or more things at
once.
They are obsessed with numbers
measuring their success in terms
of how much of any thing they
acquire

Never suffer from a sense of time

urgency with its accompanying
impatience
Feels no need to display or discuss
either their achievements or
accomplishments
unless
such
exposure is demanded by the
situation.
Dont want to exhibit their
superiority at any cost

Type A & Type B personality

Type A are highly competitive and hardworking but type B
occupies the topmost executive positions in
organisation.why?

Theories of personality
Type theory
Trait theory
Psychoanalytic theory

Type theory
People are grouped in to identifiable categories on the basis
of structure of body ,psychological factors etc
Relationship is established between features of face & body
and personality
Eg :short plump person is said to be sociable, heavy set
muscular individual was described as noisy , fond of physical
activity.

Type theory
Another basis for type personalities is psychological factors.

Eg: introvert &extrovert

These above factors are normally associated with
an individuals sociability and interpersonal
orientation.

Trait theory
Trait- Characteristics of a persons behavior
Eg:

intelligence,

emotional

stability,

aggressiveness,

creativeness, friendly, cautious,

Trait theories classify individuals on the basis of traits.
Personality can be described by a number of traits.
Personality trait is understood as enduring attribute of a
person that appear consistently in a variety of situation.
Traits are reactions not some thing that a person possesses
Eg:shyness

Psychoanalytic Theory

Proposed by Sigmund Freud.

Personality composed of 3 elements
1.
2.
3.

Id
Ego
Superego

Freud likened the mind to an iceberg- only a

small segment of which protruded above the
surface of water

Psychoanalytic Approach
Unconscious (id) Is the inborn component
of personality
Instincts
Tension reduction
through reflex actions
and primary process
Eg: no laws, no rules

Conscious

Ego
Superego

Preconscious

Unconscious
Id

Psychoanalytic Approach
Conscious(ego)
Develops out of
the id because of
the necessity for
dealing with the
real world.
Maximizes
pleasure and
minimizes pain

Ego

Conscious

Superego

Preconscious

Unconscious
Id

Psychoanalytic Approach
Preconscious
(superego)-judges
whether an action
is right or wrong
according to the
standards of the
society.

Conscious

Ego
Superego

Preconscious

Unconscious
Id

Psychoanalytic
Divisions of the Mind
Id - instinctual drives present at birth
Id tries to rid of the tension by reflex actions and primary
process.
operates according to the pleasure principle. (immediate
tension reduction)
Primary process refers to attempt of an individual to form
mental images of the object to remove tension
Inborn reflex mechanism involves coughing, sneezing,
blinking
does not distinguish between reality and fantasy

Psychoanalytic
Divisions of the Mind
Ego - develops out of the id in infancy
understands reality and logic
Ego develops out of the id because of the
necessity for dealing with the real world
It takes in to consideration the external
consequences of actions and directs our
behaviour so as to maximize pleasure and
minimize pain

Psychoanalytic
Divisions of the Mind
Superego
Represents the values and morals of the society as
thought to the child by parents and others
It judges whether an action is right or wrong
according to the standards of society
responsible for guilt

Id, ego, superego

Id seeks pleasure, ego tests for reality, and
superego strives for perfection

Meyers-Briggs Type
Indicator(MBTI)

MBTI
MBTI Measures
How people prefer to focus their
attention(Extroversion vs Introversion)
Collect information ( Sensing vs iNtuition)
Process and evaluate information ( Thinking vs
Feeling)
Orient themselves to the other world( Judging vs
Perceiving)

MBTI
Sensing vs iNtuition
Sensing type uses organised structure to acquire factual
details. intuitive people collect information non
systematically.

Thinking vs Feeling
Thinking type rely on cause effect relationship and
weigh evidences unemotionally. Feeling type consider
how the choices affect others

Judging vs Perceiving
Enjoy control of decision making and want to resolve problems
quickly. Perceiving type are more flexible

MBTI
Eg
ESTJ: (Extraverted Thinking with Introverted
Sensing); extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking
(T), judgment (J)
Go to this link for a free MBTI Check
http://www.16personalities.com/

Learning

Learning
Definition
According to Stephen Robbins any relatively
permanent change in the behavior that occurs as
a result of experience

Learning
Learning involves change
Learning involves change in behavior
The change must be relatively permanent

Theories of Learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Social learning

Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which individual respond to some
stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

Classical Conditioning
Pavlov's Dog Experiment

Food --------------------> Salivation

Unconditioned Stimulus ---------> Unconditioned Response

Bell with Food ------> Salivation

Unconditioned Stimulus------> Unconditioned Response

Bell ----------------------> Salivate

Conditioned Stimulus ---------> Conditioned Response

Classical Conditioning
Start with 2 things that are already connected with each other
(food& salivate) then we add a 3rd thing (bell) for several trials
Eventually, this third thing may become so strongly associated
that it has the power to produce the old behavior.

Operand Conditioning
Proposed by B.F Skinner
Also known as reinforcement theory
This theory suggests that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
Behavior that results in pleasant consequences is more likely
to be repeated.
Behavior that results in unpleasant consequences is less likely
to be repeated.

Operand Conditioning
In any given situation, people will explore a variety of
possible behaviors.
Future behavioral choices are affected by the consequences
of earlier behaviors.

Operand Conditioning
Reinforcement
A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired
response.
Eg: verbal praise, a good grade

Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Avoidance (negative reinforcement)
Extinction
Punishment

Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a reward or other desirable
consequence that follows behavior.
Eg : A compliment from the boss after completing a
difficult job and a salary increase following a period of
high performance.

Avoidance
Also known as negative reinforcement.
Rather than receiving a reward following a desirable behavior,
the person is given the opportunity to avoid an unpleasant
consequence.
Eg: An employees boss may habitually criticize individuals
who dress casually. To avoid criticism, the employee may
formally dress to suit the supervisors taste.

Extinction
Extinction tends to decrease the frequency of undesirable
behavior, especially behavior that was previously rewarded.

Punishment
Tends to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors.
Punishment is presented as an unpleasant consequence of
undesirable behavior.
Eg: verbal or written reprimands, pay cuts, loss of privileges,
and termination.

Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement when a desired behavior is
reinforced each and every time it is demonstrated
Intermittent reinforcement when a desired behavior is
reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth
repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

Types of intermittent reinforcement

Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed interval
Variable interval

Types of intermittent reinforcement

Fixed Ratio when a fixed number of responses are required to
be emitted for obtaining the reinforcement.
Eg: piece-rate payment system

Variable Ratio when a varying or random number of

responses must be emitted before reinforcement occurs.
Eg: when the employees are given certain percentage on their
performance as the incentive as commission.

Types of intermittent reinforcement

Fixed interval when the reinforcements are spaced at uniform
intervals of time.
Eg: in monthly or weekly payment system.

Variable interval when reinforcements are distributed in time

so that these are unpredictable.

Social learning Theory

Social learning / observational/ vicarious learning theoryemphasizes the ability of an individual to learn by observing
others.
The individual acquires new knowledge by observing what
happens to his or her model.
The models may include parents, teachers, peers, tv artists
etc.

Observational Learning
ATTENTION

Focuses on models behaviour

RETENTION

Retains in memory

PRODUCTION
PROCESS

Ability to perform

MOTIVATION

Situation when behavior is useful

OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING

Performs the behavior as earlier demonstrated

by model

Principles of Learning
Goal Setting

Goals and objectives of training are clearly communicated to

the trainees

Meaningful presentation

Materials should be meaningfully arranged and subsequent

information build up on previous information

Practice and repetition

Trainees should be given an opportunity to practice what

have been learned

Feedback and reinforcement

Knowledge about how well one has performed is motivating.

Verbal encouragement or other extrinsic rewards reinforce
desired behaviour

Whole Vs part learning

Complex jobs should be broken down in to parts

Massed Vs spaced learning

Practicing a new skill with rest pauses in between ( spaced ) is

more effective than massed practice

Individual differences

People learn at different rates and in different styles

Transfer of learning

Transfer occurs when trainees use on their job what they

have learned in training.
ligo@macfast.org

128

Learning curves
Amount learned
plateau

fatigue

Initial spurt

End spurt

Disorganization of
learning
Organisation of learning
time

Attitudes & Values

Attitude
Attitudes refers to beliefs, feelings and action tendencies of
an individual or group of individuals towards objects, ideas
and people.
Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects,
people, or events.
Eg: I like cricket, I like ice cream

Nature of attitudes
Attitudes refers to feelings and beliefs of an individual or
groups of individuals.
Attitudes are learned
Attitude tends to result in behaviour or action.
The feelings and beliefs are directed towards other people,
objects, or ideas.
All people irrespective of their status or intelligence , hold
attitudes.

Components of Attitude

Cognitive
Component

Attitude

Affective
Component
Behavioral
Component

Components of attitudes
A cognitive element- the beliefs, opinion, knowledge, or
information held by the individual
Affective component- the feelings, sentiments, moods and
emotions about some idea, person, event or object
A behavioral component- the predispositions to get on a
favorable or unfavorable evaluation of something
Intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something.

Formation of Attitude
Direct experience with the object
Classical conditioning And Attitudes (association)
Operand conditioning and Attitudes (reinforcement)
Vicarious learning
Family and peer groups
Neighborhood
Economic status and occupation
Mass communication/ Media

Functions of attitudes

Adjustment function
Ego-defense function
Expressive function
Knowledge function

Adjustment Function
Attitudes help people adjust to their work environment.
Eg:When employees are well treated , they are likely to
develop a positive attitude towards management and
organisation.

Ego-defense function
People often form and maintain certain attitudes to protect
their own self images.
Eg: workers may feel threatened by the advancement of
female workers. They may create an attitude that the
women are very emotional

Expressive function
It helps to express individuals values and self identity
Eg: consumers express their values in the products they
buy, the lifestyle they exhibit

Knowledge function
Attitudes are often substituted for knowledge.
In the absence of knowledge , we use our attitudes to
organize and make sense out of the perceived object person
or idea.
Eg: in the absence of knowledge about a person , we may use
a stereotyped attitude for judging a person.

Changing attitude
Barriers to change attitudes
Escalation of commitment/ prior commitment.
Cognitive dissonance
Insufficient information

Escalation of commitment
Refers to the prior commitment of people to a particular
cause and their non willingness to change.

Cognitive dissonance
Put forward by Leon Festinger
Individuals seek consistency in their attitude and behaviour
Cognitive dissonance-Its a state of inconsistency between an
individuals attitude and behavior
Individuals tries to reduce tension by
Changing the attitude
Changing the behavior
Rationalizing the thoughts
Eg: people know the side effects of smoking, but still they
smoke.

Insufficient information
Some times the people see no reason why they should change
their attitude

Changing attitude of employees

Give feed back

Positive role model
Providing new information
Use of fear
Influence of friends and peers
Co-opting approach
Taking people who are dissatisfied with a situation and
getting them involved in improving things.

Work related attitudes

Job satisfaction
Organizational commitment
Job involvement

Work related attitudes

Job satisfaction
Refers to the general attitude of employees towards
their jobs.
It is a collection of attitudes about specific factors of
the job.
Job involvement
The degree to which the person identifies with his or
her job, actively participate in it and considers his or
her performance important to organisation.
Organisational commitment
Refers to employees identification with a particular
organisation

Model of job satisfaction

Organizational
factors

Low turnover
Outcomes
expected

Job
satisfaction

Group
factors
Outcomes
received
Individual
factors

Low
absenteeism

High turnover
Job
dissatisfaction

High
absenteeism

Causes & Consequences of job satisfaction

Organizational factors

Wages
Promotions
Nature of work
Organizational policies and
procedures
Working conditions

Group factors
Size
supervision

Individual factors
Personality
Motivation
interests

Productivity
Turnover
Absences
Safety
Job stress
unionization

Values
Values represent stable long-lasting beliefs about what is
important
Values are general beliefs about life whereas attitudes are
directed towards specific objects, events or people.
Values influence our attitude towards objects events or
people

Value system
Value system is a hierarchy based on a ranking of an
individuals values in terms of ones intensity.
Source of our Value Systems
include national culture, parents, teachers, friends, and
environmental influences.

Types of values
There are two type of values
Terminal values
Instrumental values

Types of values
Terminal values Desired sates of existence that we think are worth striving
for.
Instrumental values Are desirable modes of behavior that helps us to reach the
objectives of terminal values

Types of Personal Values

Exhibit 5-7

Types of Personal Values

End (Goal) Values

Prosperity
Stimulating, active life
Achievement
World peace
Harmony in nature and art
Equality
Personal and family security
Freedom
Happiness

Adapted from Exhibit 5-6 Formation of Consistent Attitudes

Means (Behavior) Values

Ambition and hard work
Open-mindedness
Competence
Cheerfulness
Cleanliness
Courageousness
Forgiving nature
Helpfulness
Honesty

Values across cultures.

Power distance
Individualism vs. collectivism
Quantity of life vs. quality of life
Uncertainty avoidance
Long-term vs. short term orientation

Values across cultures

Power distance- the degree to which the people in a country
accept power in an organization is distributed unequally.

Individualism Vs. collectivism- degree to which the people in

the country prefer to act as individuals rather than as a
member of groups

Values across cultures

Quantity of life Vs. quality of life- quantity of life refers to the
degree to which values of acquisition of money and material
goods prevail in a society.

Quality of life is the degree to which people value relationship

and show concern for the welfare of others.

Values across cultures

Uncertainty avoidance- the degree to which the people in the
country prefers structured over unstructured situations
Long-term Vs. short-term orientation- a national culture
attribute that emphasize the future, persistence
Short term orientation values the past and the present, and
emphasize the respect for tradition and fulfilling social
obligations

Perception

Perception
Perception is the process of becoming aware of situations,
and adding meaningful associations to sensations.
Perception is the process of receiving information and making
sense of world around us.
Perception involves deciding which information to notice, how
to categorize the information, and how to interpret it with in
the framework of our existing knowledge.

Perception
Perception can be defined as the process of receiving,
selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking and reacting to
sensory stimuli or data.

Perceptual process
PERCEIVER

RECEIVING

SELECTING

ORGANIZING

OBJECT
REACTING

CHECKING

SITUATION

INTERPRETING

Receiving stimuli
Stimuli is received through sensory organs.
External stimuli
Eg: light and sound, the taste of food and the smell of
chemicals etc.
Internal stimuli
Eg: hunger, thirst, pain etc.

Selecting stimuli
The process of filtering the information received by the senses
.
External Factors influencing selection
Nature (visual, auditory, pictures etc)
Location
Colour/intensity
Size
Movement
Repetition
Novelty and familiarity
Contrast

Contrast principle of perception

External stimuli stands out against the background, which are
not what people are expecting, will receive their attention.

Contrast principle of perception

Selecting stimuli
Internal factors influencing selection
1.
2.
3.
4.

Learning
Psychological needs
Age difference
Interests

Learning and perception

Learning by itself plays a major role in developing the
perceptual set.
It creates expectancy in people.
Eg:

TURN
OFF THE
THE ENGINE

Bird
In The
The bush

Psychological needs
Unreal things often look real because of deprived needs.
Eg: a thirsty person in a desert for instance gets the illusion of
water when seeing sand from distance

Age difference
Different perceptions of the old and the young are due to
their age differences
Older one complain about inability of the new, young ones to
take tough decisions in turn young managers complain about
the old ones to resist changes

Perceptual organisation
Ambiguous figures
figure background
Perceptual grouping
similarity
proximity
closure
continuity
Perceptual constancy

Ambiguous figures
Perceptual organization becomes a difficult task when there
are confusing and disorganized stimuli in the external
environment.

Ambiguous figures

Ambiguous figures
An Ambiguous Figure a
duck or a rabbit

An Ambiguous Figure a
kneeling woman or a mans
face

Ambiguous figures

Figure background
Relationship of a target to its background influences
perception.
Perceived objects stand out as separable from their general
background.
Eg: in a noisy and crowded restaurant one is able to hold a
meaningful conversation with a colleague

Figure ground experiment

Perceptual grouping
principle of similarity
Objects of similar shape , size, or Colour tends to be
grouped together.
Eg: employees who wear tie are regarded as a common
group, a company requires visitors to wear white hats
while the workers should wear yellow hats.

Perceptual grouping
Principle of proximity
Tendency to perceive stimuli which are near one another
as belonging together.
Eg: several employees working for an organization may be
identified as a single group because of physical proximity.

Perceptual grouping
Principle of closure
A person has the tendency to perceive a whole when none
exist
Persons perceptual process will close the gaps which are
unfilled from sensory organs
Eg: a manager makes a complex decision even though
some details are lacking on the basis of experience and
imagination.

Principle of closure
Eg:

Principle of Continuity

Continuity principle states that a person tends to

perceive the extension of a stimulus.

Perceptual Constancy
Our ability to perceive certain characteristics of an object as
remaining constant.
The perception of elements like size, shape, color, brightness and
location of an object remains constant and does not change from
one individual to another.
Eg: photograph of a person, The image of an apple

Process of interpreting
Assign meaning to information
Factors affecting interpreting stimuli

Perceptual set
Attribution
Stereotyping
Halo effect
projection

Perceptual set
Previously held beliefs about object
It influence an individuals perception of similar
objects
Eg: a managers attitude towards workers

Attribution theory

When individuals observe behavior , they attempt to determine

whether it is internally or externally caused.

It helps determine the manner in which supervisors behave

towards their subordinates.

The behaviour of others can be based on 3

factors
1.Distinctiveness
2.Consistency
3.Consensus.

Rules of Attribution

Attribution theory
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency to underestimate the influence of external
factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors
when making judgments about the Behaviour of others.

Eg: a manager is prone to attribute the poor performance

of the sales people because of their laziness rather than to
innovative product line introduced by the competitors.

Attribution theory
Self serving basis
The tendency of the individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors while putting blame for
failures on external factors
Eg: feed back provided to the employee in the
performance review will be predictably distorted by the
recipients depending on whether it is positive or negative.

Attribution theory
Selective perception
People selectively interpret what they want to see on the
basis of their interest , background, experience, and
attitudes.
Eg: A plastic surgeon is more likely to notice an imperfect
nose than a plumber.

Stereotyping
When a perceiver judges some person based on his
perception about the group to which the person belongs, it is
known as stereotyping.
Stereotyping may attribute favorable or unfavorable traits to
the person being perceived.
In organizations, stereotypes are based on gender, race,
ethnicity.
Eg: Japanese people are very hardworking

Halo effect
Drawing general impression about an individual on the basis
of a single characteristics (mainly positive characteristics).
Eg: performance evaluation, a professor giving more marks to
a well liked student.
Rusty halo/horn effect ( over emphasizing the negative
characteristics)

Projection
Attributing ones own characteristics to other people
Eg: if you want challenge and responsibility then you assume
that others also want the same.

Process of checking
After the data has been received and interpreted the
perceiver needs to check
whether
his
interpretations are right or wrong.

Process of reacting
Last phase of perceptional process
It can be either positive/favorable or negative/unfavorable

Factors that influence perception

Factors in perceiver

Attitudes
Motives
Interests
Experience
expectations
Factors in situation

Time
Work settings
Social settings

perception

Factors in target
Nature
Motion
Sound
Size
Background

Perception & OB
Job interview
Performance Appraisal