Glass cutter

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Glass cutter, showing hardened steel cutting wheel (far left), notches for
snapping, and ball (on end of handle) for tapping
A glass cutter is a tool used to make a shallow score in one surface of a piece of
glass that is to be broken in two pieces. The scoring makes a split in the surface
of the glass which encourages the glass to break along the score. Regular,
annealed glass can be broken apart this way but not tempered glass, since it
shatters rather than breaking cleanly into two pieces.
A glass cutter may use a diamond to create the split or more commonly a small
cutting wheel is used made of hardened steel or tungsten carbide 4-6 mm in
diameter, with its cutting edge ground to a V-shaped profile. Some glass cutters
hold a small amount of cutting oil, which both lubricates the wheel and prevents
the split in the glass from closing. When properly lubricated a steel wheel can
give a long period of satisfactory service. However, tungsten carbide wheels
have a significantly longer life than steel wheels and offer other advantages in
use, such as greater and more reproducible penetration in cutting and
consequently easier parting of the glass.
In the Middle Ages glass was cut with a tool which was nothing more than a
sharply pointed rod of iron, heated to a high temperature. The red hot point was
drawn along the moistened surface of the glass causing it to snap apart. The
fracture was not very accurate and the rough piece had to be chipped or grozed
down to the exact shape with the help of a hooked tool called a grozing iron. The
present day Steel Wheel Cutter, which is almost universally used, was invented
in 1869 by Samuel Monce in Bristol. Connecticut.[1]
At the time the first steel wheel glass cutter was invented in 1869, glass
manufacturers produced mostly plain flat glass which was used primarily for
windows[citation needed]. Great progress has taken place over the years until
now we have hard glass, soft glass, heat-resisting glass, thick glass, thin glass,

decorative glass and countless other varieties.With these many variations it

becomes necessary to change the penetration action of the wheel to
compensate for the difference in the structural composition of the glass. This is
accomplished by varying the degree of the bevel which produces a progressively
sharper or duller "cut." A soft glass such as plate glass requires a dull cutting
while the harder glass requires a sharper wheel[citation needed]. There is a
reason for the difference in cutter wheel diameters. The great majority of wheels
are 7/32" in diameter. The pressure of the wheel as it rolls over the glass has a
bearing on the penetration, and there is a ratio between the pressure and the arc
of the wheel that is important. With average hand pressure the 7/32" diameter
wheel gives best results. For a duller wheel on soft glass a slightly different
pressure is required. This is compensated for with a larger wheel, 1/4" in
diameter making it unnecessary for the operator to change the hand pressure.
The smaller wheel, 1/8" in diameter, is used for cutting patterns, and for cutting
circles. Here the wheel with a small arc is necessary to follow curved lines
without dragging.
A computer-assisted CNC semi-automatic glass cutting table is usually used to
score large sheets of glass, which are then broken out by hand into the individual
sheets of glass (also known as "lites"[2] in the glass industry).
Contents [hide]
1 Cutting process
2 Breaking methods
3 Bottle Cutting
4 Rope Method
5 Torch Method
6 Water Method
7 See also
8 References
[edit]Cutting process

The glass is first lubricated along the cutting line with a light oil. The cutter is
then pressed firmly against the surface of glass and a line is scribed to form a
"score" or "cut". The glass is now weakened by this score and the panel is ready
to be split along the scored line. The score is then "run" or "opened" to extend
the split using running pliers, or by carefully applying pressure (exactly under the
score) on the bottom side of the glass using a straight edge or a wedge directly
under the score and pressing evenly on each side. Tapping under the score
encourages the split, but tends to reduce the smoothness of the broken edge

and on thicker glass this may be an issue. Where a tightly-curved edge is

required care must be taken as glass will follow the path of least resistance when
separating and may not follow the score, so cutting tight corners, small shapes
and internal corners may be very difficult to perform. Many internal cuts require
specialized equipment to be successful.
After breaking the glass along the score it will reveal the "clean cut" edge. Clean
cut edges on thick glass may be "splayed". A splay is where the cut edge is a
razor sharp feathering on the edge and extra caution should be used here. At
this point the clean cut edge of the glass panel may be ground to remove the
sharp edges or the arris.
General purpose glass is mostly made by the float glass and is obtainable in
thicknesses from 1.5mm to 25mm. Thin float glass glass cuts very easily with a
sharp cutter but needs firm support under the panel because of the pressure
placed on it when scoring. Thick glass such as 10mm float glass is more difficult
to cut and break requiring considerable skill and strength, Different Glass with
textured or patterned surfaces may demand specialised methods for scoring and
opening the cuts.
[edit]Breaking methods

Three methods are usually used to break the glass along the score. In the first
method, the operator uses two hands and holds the edge of the glass,
perpendicular to the score, with the forefingers under the glass and the thumbs
on top. The operator then rotates both hands outward to break the glass along
the line. The second method consists of placing one finger underneath the sheet
of glass, directly under the scribed line, and in one smooth motion, lifting the
edge of the glass and giving it a small push horizontally. The second method is
quicker than the first, but requires more practice. These two methods are usually
used when breaking glass on a glass cutting table that lifts the glass gently by
forcing air up through the table. The third method is used with smaller sheets of
glass, and consists of placing the score along the edge of the table and snapping
the overhanging part of the glass in a downward motion. With experience, the
break follows the score. However breaking with one finger under the score is
dangerous and will pinch the finger as the glass rolls away. Looking along the
edge of the cut glass, one can tell which way the cutter was run and which way
the glass was run or snapped, by the flow of feathers, in the edge. In most
scenarios, glass will break where you want it, so long as it's well lubricated and
run before it has a chance to cool off.
[edit]Bottle Cutting

Currently, a very popular art is the cutting and recrafting of common glass
bottles. Bottle cutting is slightly more complex than standard flat plane glass
cutting, mainly because the cutter is dealing with a round surface. There are

slightly different designs of cutters for such projects that allow for the cutter to
find center and swing an arm with a steel head around the bottle making a clean
score line. There are a few different methods of getting a clean cut from this
point. It becomes more difficult than pushing against the glass because it will
shatter. There are three popular methods that can be used to make the cut. This
includes the rope method, the torch method and the water method.
[edit]Rope Method

The rope method is a common practice for those novice at cutting glass bottles.
The idea is to take a rope or piece of string and tie it tightly to the bottle directly
into score line. The string is to be then painted with a flammable oil then set on
fire. The heat that comes from the burning string will cause the bottle to soften in
the score. While the score is still warm, the bottle is then placed under a flow of
cold water which will tighten the heated molecules at such a quick rate that the
stress of the bottle is released through your score causing a break in the glass.
Problems with this method include the stress in the bottle being so great that the
bottle fails to break immediately on the score line and will leave large jagged
pieces that take a long time to grind down.
[edit]Torch Method

The torch method is very similar to the rope method but requires a much more
practiced hand in cutting bottles. The idea here is to use a torch to heat the
bottle over the score line until the bottle reaches appropriate temperature to
then place under the cold running water. Problems that occur with this method
include still large jagged edges much like the rope method, however, much more
accurate to the score. An advantage to this method is the lack of material and
cost with a quicker and cleaner result.
[edit]Water Method

Although all methods include a cold stream, this

is the only method in which to make a cut
using entirely water. Problems that occur in
the rope method and the torch method is that
the glass becomes too hot too quickly making
inaccurate breaks with large stress lines and
fractures in the glass. With the water method,
you can obtain an almost perfect cut and at a
faster and cheaper rate than almost all other
methods. In this method, boiling water is
poured slowly on the score line raising the
temperature in the glass at a much slower rate
than a fire method and will maintain a much
lower temperature. Once the bottle becomes
warm, it is then placed under the cold running
water for the break. Problems still occure
during this method with sometimes jagged
edges and stress lines and fractures, however;
most methods are a 50%-60% success rate,
where as the water method is about a 95%
success rate. Glass
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the material. For other uses, see Glass (disambiguation).

Moldavite, a natural glass formed bymeteor impact, from Besednice, Bohemia

Roman Cage Cup from the 4th century CE

Oldest mouth-blown window-glass in Sweden (Kosta Glasbruk, 1742). In the middle is the pontil mark from
theglassblower's pipe.

Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid material. Glasses are typically brittle and
optically transparent.
The most familiar type of glass, used for centuries in windows and drinking vessels, is soda-lime glass,
composed of about 75% silica (SiO2) plussodium oxide (Na2O) from soda ash, lime (CaO), and several
minor additives. Often, the term glass is used in a restricted sense to refer to this specific use.
In science, however, the term glass is usually defined in a much wider sense, including every solid that
possesses a non-crystalline (i.e., amorphous) structure and that exhibits a glass transition when heated
towards the liquid state. In this wider sense, glasses can be made of quite different classes of materials:
metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications

(bottles, eyewear) polymer glasses (acrylic glass, polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate) are a lighter
alternative to traditional silica glasses.
Contents
[hide]

1 Silicate glass

1.1 History

1.2 Glass ingredients

1.3 Contemporary glass production

1.3.1 Architecture

1.4 Glassmaking in the laboratory

2 Other glasses

2.1 Network glasses

2.2 Amorphous metals

2.3 Electrolytes

2.4 Aqueous solutions

2.5 Molecular liquids

2.6 Polymers

2.7 Colloidal glasses

2.8 Glass-ceramics

3 Structure

4 Glass versus supercooled liquid

4.1 Behavior of antique glass

5 Physical properties

5.1 Optical properties

5.2 Color

6 Glass art

6.1 Museums

7 See also

8 References

9 Further reading

10 External links

[edit]Silicate

glass

Silica (the chemical compound SiO2) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In

nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, branching rootlike
structures called fulgurite.

[edit]History
Main article: History of glass
The history of creating glass can be traced back to 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia.[citation needed] The
term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, now in
modern Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for
a transparent, lustrous substance.[1]

[edit]Glass

ingredients

Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production

While fused quartz (primarily composed of SiO2) is used for some special applications, it is not very
common due to its high glass transition temperature of over 1200 C (2192 F).[2] Normally, other
substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, "soda"), which lowers the
glass transition temperature. However, the soda makes the glass water soluble, which is usually
undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide[CaO], generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium

oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The
resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass.[3] Soda-lime
glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.
Most common glass contains other ingredients added to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is
more 'brilliant' because the increasedrefractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and
increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass
a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due
to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eye glasses.[citation needed] Iron can be
incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors,
while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths.[4]
The following is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses, and their ingredients, properties, and
applications:
1.

Fused silica glass, vitreous silica glass: silica (SiO2). Has very low thermal expansion, is very hard
and resists high temperatures (10001500 C). It is also the most resistant against weathering
(alkali ions leaching out of the glass, while staining it). It is used for high temperature applications
such as furnace tubes, melting crucibles, etc.

2.

Soda-lime-silica glass, window glass: silica 72% + sodium oxide (Na 2O) 14.2% + magnesia (MgO)
2.5% + lime (CaO) 10.0% + alumina (Al2O3) 0.6%. Is transparent, easily formed and most suitable
for window glass. It has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat (500600 C). Used
for windows, containers, light bulbs, tableware.

3.

Sodium borosilicate glass, Pyrex: silica 81% + boric oxide (B2O3) 12% + soda (Na2O) 4.5% +
alumina (Al2O3) 2.0%. Stands heat expansion much better than window glass. Used for chemical
glassware, cooking glass, car head lamps, etc. Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex) have as main
constituents silica and boron oxide. They have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740
Pyrex CTE is 3.25106/C[5] as compared to about 9106/C for a typical soda-lime glass[6]),
making them more dimensionally stable. The lower CTE also makes them less subject
to stress caused by thermal expansion, thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock. They
are commonly used for reagent bottles, optical components and household cookware.

4.

Lead-oxide glass, crystal glass: silica 59% + soda (Na 2O) 2.0% + lead oxide (PbO) 25% +
potassium oxide (K2O) 12% + alumina 0.4% + zinc oxide (ZnO) 1.5%. Has a high refractive index,
making the look of glassware more brilliant (crystal glass). It also has a high elasticity, making
glassware 'ring'. It is also more workable in the factory, but cannot stand heating very well.

5.

Aluminosilicate glass: silica 57% + alumina 16% + boric oxide (B2O3) 4.0% + barium oxide (BaO)
6.0% + magnesia 7.0% + lime 10%. Extensively used for fiberglass, used for making glassreinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.). Also for halogen bulb glass.

6.

Oxide glass: alumina 90% + germanium oxide (GeO2) 10%. Extremely clear glass, used for fiberoptic wave guides in communication networks. Light loses only 5% of its intensity through 1 km of
glass fiber.[7]

Another common glass ingredient is "cullet" (recycled glass). The recycled glass saves on raw materials
and energy; however, impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure.
Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide may be added to reduce the
number of air bubbles in the glass mixture.[3] Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct raw
material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition.

[edit]Contemporary

glass production

A modern greenhouse in Wisley Garden, England, made from float glass

Main articles: Glass production, Float glass, and Glazier

Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Sodalime glass for mass production is melted ingas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses
include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks.[3]
After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows
and similar applications is formed by thefloat glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by
Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous
ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of
gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish.
[8]

Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. Further glass

forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques.

Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses. Surface
treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability (glass container
coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields), or
optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating).

[edit]Architecture
Main articles: Architectural glass and Glazing

The use of glass in buildings is a transparent feature to allow light to enter into rooms and floors,
illuminating enclosed spaces and framing an exterior view through a window. It is also a material for
internal partitions and external cladding.

[edit]Glassmaking

in the laboratory

New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale
laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those
used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly
pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or
other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron
oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition).[9]Evaporation losses during glass melting
should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over
easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over
relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to
reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw
materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The
obtained glass is usuallyannealed to prevent breakage during processing.[9][10]
In order to make glass from materials with poor glass forming tendencies, novel techniques are used to
increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers. Examples of these techniques
include aerodynamic levitation (cooling the melt whilst it floats on a gas stream), splat quenching (pressing
the melt between two metal anvils) and roller quenching (pouring the melt through rollers).
See also: Optical lens design, Fabrication and testing of optical components

[edit]Other

glasses

[edit]Network

glasses

A CD-RW (CD). Chalcogenide glassesform the basis of re-writable CD and DVD solid-state memory technology.[11]

Some glasses that do not include silica as a major constituent may have physico-chemical properties
useful for their application in fiber optics and other specialized technical applications. These include fluoride
glasses, aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses, borate glasses, and chalcogenide glasses.

There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers.
The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds.
The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network
formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium,
potassium) alter the network structure; they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby nonbridging oxygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass network and holding one negative charge
to compensate for the positive ion nearby. Some elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as
a network former (Pb4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier.
The presence of non-bridging oxygens lowers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and
disrupts the network, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and lowering the melting temperature.
The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical
conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility, however, decreases the
chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions,
with their two positive charges and requirement for two non-bridging oxygen ions to compensate for their
charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. The
most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium),
for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance. [12] Corrosion resistance of glass can be achieved
by dealkalization, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction with e.g. sulfur or fluorine
compounds. Presence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass,
and to its electrical resistance; glasses for electronics (sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps...) have to take this in
account.
Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index.
Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and therefore is used in colored glasses. The
viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda
glasses); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use
as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly
immobile in the matrix and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical
resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda-lime glass (10 8.5 vs 106.5 Ohmcm, DC at
250 C). For more details, see lead glass.[13]
Addition of fluorine lowers the dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and attracts the
electrons in the lattice, lowering the polarizability of the material. Such silicon dioxide-fluoride is used in
manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. High levels of fluorine doping lead to formation of volatile
SiF2O and such glass is then thermally unstable. Stable layers were achieved with dielectric constant down
to about 3.53.7.[14]

[edit]Amorphous

metals

Samples of amorphous metal, with millimeter scale

In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films,
etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially
termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the
order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic
atoms become "locked into" a glassy state. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering
molten metal onto a spinning metal disk. More recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers
with thickness exceeding 1 millimeter. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal
Technologiessell a number of zirconium-based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been
produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys. [15]
[16][17]

In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "qglass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase," to form in the Al-FeSi system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by
a first-order transition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show that the q-glass nucleates
from the melt as discrete particles, which grow spherically with a uniform growth rate in all directions.
The diffraction pattern shows it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Yet there is a nucleation barrier, which
implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and the melt. [18][19]

[edit]Electrolytes
Electrolytes or molten salts are mixtures of different ions. In a mixture of three or more ionic species of
dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that the liquid can easily be supercooled into a
glass. The best studied example is Ca0.4K0.6(NO3)1.4.

[edit]Aqueous

solutions

Some aqueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state, for instance LiCl:RH2O in the composition
range 4<R<8.

[edit]Molecular

liquids

A molecular liquid is composed of molecules that do not form a covalent network but interact only through
weak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds. Many molecular liquids can be
supercooled into a glass; some are excellent glass formers that normally do not crystallize.
A widely known example is sugar glass.
Under extremes of pressure and temperature solids may exhibit large structural and physical changes that
can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions.[20] In 2006 Italian scientists created an amorphous phase
of carbon dioxide using extreme pressure. The substance was named amorphous carbonia(a-CO2) and
exhibits an atomic structure resembling that of silica.[21]

[edit]Polymers
[edit]Colloidal

glasses

Concentrated colloidal suspensions may exhibit a distinct glass transition as function of particle
concentration or density.[22][23][24]

[edit]Glass-ceramics

A high strength glass-ceramic cooktop with negligible thermal expansion.

Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics.
They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the
microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases.
Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries.
When applied to whiteware ceramics, vitreousmeans the material has an extremely low permeability to
liquids, often but not always water, when determined by a specified test regime. [25][26]
The term mainly refers to a mix of lithium and aluminosilicates that yields an array of materials with
interesting thermomechanical properties. The most commercially important of these have the distinction of
being impervious to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop
cooking. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of the crystalline ceramic phase can be
balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic
has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can
sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 C.[25][26]

The amorphous structure of glassy Silica (SiO2) in two dimensions. No long range order is present, however there is
local ordering with respect to the tetrahedralarrangement of oxygen (O) atoms around the silicon (Si) atoms.

[edit]Structure
Main article: Structure of liquids and glasses
As in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks any long range translational periodicity.
However, due to chemical bondingcharacteristics glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order
with respect to local atomic polyhedra.[27]

[edit]Glass

versus supercooled liquid

Main article: Glass transition

In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. [28]
[29][30][31][32]

However, the term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass

transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time)
then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is
frozen into the solid state at Tg. Generally, the structure of a glass exists in a metastable state with respect
to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no
crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase. [33]
Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition[34][35] where
certain thermodynamic variables such as volume,entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass
transition range. However, the glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase
transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat
capacity are discontinuous.[36] Despite this, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not
entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium
phase transformations in solids.[31][32]

List of unsolved problems in physics

What is the nature of the transition between a fluid or regular

solid and a glassy phase?
"The deepest and most interesting unsolved problem in solid
state theory is probably the theory of the nature of glass and
the glass transition." P.W. Anderson[37]
Glass is an amorphous solid. It exhibits an atomic structure close to that observed in the supercooled liquid
phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a solid. [34][38] The notion that glass flows to an
appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical
analysis (see viscosity of amorphous materials).
Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass
tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature. [39] A supercooled liquid behaves as a
liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instantly if
a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of
comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in
active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only
the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, whereas rotational and translational motion is
arrested. This helps to explain why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most
experimental time scales.

[edit]Behavior

of antique glass

The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often
offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries. The assumption
being that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid.
[40]

However, this assumption is incorrect; once solidified, glass does not flow anymore. The reason for the

observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique
used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process,
described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the
edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the
glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water
accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window.[41] Occasionally such glass has been found
thinner side down or thicker on either side of the window's edge, the result of carelessness during
installation.[42]
Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass
factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is
thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into
smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour centred in one of

the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect. Modern glass intended for windows is produced
as float glass and is very uniform in thickness.
Several other points can be considered that contradict the "cathedral glass flow" theory:

Writing in the American Journal of Physics, materials engineer Edgar D. Zanotto states "... the
predicted relaxation time for GeO2 at room temperature is 1032 years. Hence, the relaxation period
(characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer." [43] (1032 years is many times
longer than the estimated age of the Universe.)

If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have
flowed proportionately more but this is not observed. Similarly, prehistoric obsidian blades should
have lost their edge; this is not observed either (although obsidian may have a different viscosity from
window glass).[34]

If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then the
effect should be noticeable in antique telescopes. Any slight deformation in the antique telescopic
lenses would lead to a dramatic decrease in optical performance, a phenomenon that is not observed.
[34]

There are many examples of centuries-old glass shelving that has not bent, even though it is under
much higher stress from gravitational loads than vertical window glass.

The above does not apply to materials that have a glass transition temperature close to room temperature,
such as certain plastics used in daily life like polystyrene and polypropylene.

[edit]Physical

properties

See also: List of physical properties of glass

[edit]Optical

properties

Glass is in widespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to
visible wavelengths of light. In contrast, polycrystalline materials do not in general transmit visible light.
[44]

The individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets (grain boundaries) reflect or scatter light

resulting in diffuse reflection. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated with grain
boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline
material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the
supercooled liquid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follow surface tension,
which imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, which give glass its clearness, can be
retained even if glass is partially light-absorbing i.e. colored.[45]
Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics, without scattering it. It
is used in the manufacture of lenses and windows. Common glass has a refraction index around 1.5.

According to Fresnel equations, the reflectivity of a sheet of glass is about 4% per surface (at normal
incidence in air), and the transmissivity of one element (two surfaces) is about 90%. Glass also finds
application in optoelectronics e.g., for light-transmitting optical fibers.

[edit]Color
Main article: Glass coloring and color marking

Common soda-lime float glass appears green in thick sections because of Fe 2+impurities.

Studio glass or art glass often includes multiple colors, which increases the difficulty of production, as each color has
different chemical and physical properties when molten.

Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are
homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic
glasses).[46] Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, althoughiron(II)
oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt%[47] produce a green tint, which can be viewed in thick pieces or with
the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and Cr2O3 additions may be used for the production of green
bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber
glass ranging from yellowish to almost black.[48] A glass melt can also acquire an amber color from a
reducing combustion atmosphere. Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green
tint given by iron(II) oxide. When used in art glass orstudio glass glass is colored using closely guarded

recipes that involve specific combinations of metal oxides, melting temperatures and 'cook' times. Most
colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors who serve this market although
there are some glass makers with the ability to make their own color from raw materials.

[edit]Glass

art

A vase being created at the Reijmyre glassworks, Sweden

Paperweight with items inside the glass,Corning Museum of Glass

A glass sculpture by Dale Chihuly, "The Sun" at the "Gardens of Glass" exhibition in Kew Gardens, London. The piece
is 4 metres (13 feet) high and made from 1000 separate glass objects.

Glass tiles mosaic (detail).

A display at Canberra Glassworks, Australia

Main articles: Studio glass, Art glass, and Glass art

From the 19th century, various types of fancy glass started to become significant branches of
the decorative arts. Cameo glass was revived for the first time since the Romans, initially mostly used for
pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement in particular made great use of glass, withRen
Lalique, mile Gall, and Daum of Nancy important names in the first French wave of the movement,
producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using lustre techniques. Louis
Comfort Tiffany in America specialized in secular stained glass, mostly of plant subjects, both in panels and
his famous lamps. From the 20th century, some glass artists began to class themselves as in effect
sculptors working in glass, and as part of the fine arts.
Several of the most common techniques for producing glass art include: blowing, kiln-casting, fusing,
slumping, pate-de-verre, flame-working, hot-sculpting and cold-working. Cold work includes traditional
stained glass work as well as other methods of shaping glass at room temperature. Glass can also be cut
with a diamond saw, or copper wheels embedded with abrasives, and polished to give gleaming facets; the
technique used in creatingWaterford crystal.[49] Art is sometimes etched into glass via the use of acid,

caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this was done after the glass was blown or cast. In the 1920s
a new mould-etch process was invented, in which art was etched directly into the mould, so that each cast
piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced
manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of colored glass, led to cheap glassware in the 1930s,
which later became known as Depression glass. [50] As the types of acids used in this process are extremely
hazardous, abrasive methods have gained popularity.
Another technique is devitrification.
Objects made out of glass include not only traditional objects such as vessels (bowls, vases, bottles, and
other containers), paperweights, marbles,beads, but an endless range of sculpture and installation art as
well. Colored glass is often used, though sometimes the glass is painted, innumerable examples exist of
the use of stained glass.

[edit]Museums
Apart from historical collections in general museums, modern works of art in glass can be seen in a variety
of museums, including the Chrysler Museum, the Museum of Glass in Tacoma, the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, the Toledo Museum of Art, and Corning Museum of Glass, in Corning, NY, which houses the world's
largest collection of glass art and history, with more than 45,000 objects in its collection. [51]
The Harvard Museum of Natural History has a collection of extremely detailed models of flowers made of
painted glass. These were lampworked byLeopold Blaschka and his son Rudolph, who never revealed the
method he used to make them. The Blaschka Glass Flowers are still an inspiration to glassblowers today.[52]