Mobile Communications

TCS 455

Dr. Prapun Suksompong

prapun@siit.tu.ac.th

Lecture 14 (Review)
Office Hours:
BKD 3601-7
Tuesday 14:00-16:00
Thursday 9:30-11:30
1

Announcements
Read
Chapter 3: 3.1 3.2, 3.5.1, 3.6, 3.7.2
Posted on the web
Appendix A.1 (Erlang B)
Chapter 9: 9.1 9.5

Due date for HW3: Dec 18

Course Organization
Course Web Site:

http://www.siit.tu.ac.th/prapun/ecs455/
Lectures:
Tuesday 10:40-12:00 BKD 2601
Thursday 13:00-14:20 BKD 3215

Textbook:

Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice

By Theodore S. Rappaport
2nd Edition, Prentice Hall PTR, 2002.
ISBN-13: 978-0130422323.
Call No. TK5103.2 R37 2002
Companion Site:
http://authors.phptr.com/rappaport/

Course Web Site

Please check the course

Web site regularly.

Announcement
References
Handouts/Slides
Calendar
Exams
HW due dates

www.siit.tu.ac.th/prapun/ecs455/
4

Grading System
Coursework will be weighted as follows:

Assignments
Class Participation and Quizzes
Midterm Examination

5%
15%
40%

09:00 - 12:00 on Dec 22, 2009

Final Examination (comprehensive)

09:00 - 12:00 on Mar 9, 2010

Mark your calendars now!

Late HW submission will be rejected.
All quizzes and exams will be closed book.
For grad. student, this is 2/3 of your final score.

40%

Midterm Exam
Not to torture you!

Most questions are straightforward

A few difficult ones
Worth 1 to 2 points each

Study
HW questions / quiz
Only small parts of HWs are graded.
Please take a careful look at the solution.

Lecture notes
Textbook chapters

Midterm Exam
9 pages

9 problems
Start at 9:00 AM
You may start at 9:09 AM if you want to.

99 Points + 1 hidden point

Topics
Chapter 1 > 10%
Fourier transform, modulation

Chapter 2 > 50%

Cellular System

Chapter 3 > 30%

Erlang B derivation: Poisson Process and Markov Chain

Chapter 4 < 10%

Duplexing: FDD and TDD

Provided Formula

Am
ErlangB m, A mm! k
A

k 0 k !

2cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
2sin 2 x 1 cos 2 x

G f

g t e j 2 ft dt

1
1
j
f f c e f f c e j
2
2

cos 2 f ct
g t t0

e j 2 ft 0 G f

e j 2 f0t g t
9

m t cos 2 f ct

G f f0
1
1
M f fc M f fc
2
2

Chapter 1
Review & Introduction

Office Hours:
BKD 3601-7
Tuesday 14:00-16:00
Thursday 9:30-11:30
10

Handout #1
Fourier Transform

Modulation
More on HW1

11

Frequency-Domain Analysis

Shifting Properties: g t t0

e j 2 ft0 G f

Modulation: m t cos 2 f ct
12

e j 2 f0t g t

G f f0

1
1
M f fc M f fc
2
2

Overview of Mobile Communications

Wireless/mobile communications is the fastest growing

segment of the communications industry.

Cellular systems have experienced exponential growth over
the last decade.
Cellular phones have become a critical business tool and part
of everyday life in most developed countries, and are rapidly
replacing wireline systems in many developing countries.

13

Mobile?
The term mobile has historically been used to classify all

radio terminal that could be moved during operation.

More recently,
the term mobile is used to describe a radio terminal that is

attached to a high speed mobile platform

e.g., a cellular telephone in a fast moving vehicle

the term portable is used to describes a radio terminal that can

be hand-held and used by someone at walking speed

e.g., a walkie-talkie or cordless telephone inside a home.
802.11?

14

History of Wireless Communications

The first wireless networks

were developed in the Preindustrial age.

These systems transmitted
information over line-of-sight
distances (later extended by
telescopes) using smoke signals,
torch signaling, flashing
mirrors, signal flares, or
semaphore flags.
15

Semaphore

16

History of Wireless Comm. (2)

Early communication networks were replaced first by the

17

telegraph network (invented by Samuel Morse in 1838) and

later by the telephone.
In 1895, Marconi demonstrated the first radio transmission.
Early radio systems transmitted analog signals.
Today most radio systems transmit digital signals
composed of binary bits.
A digital radio can transmit a continuous bit
stream or it can group the bits into packets.
The latter type of radio is called a packet radio and is
characterized by bursty transmissions

History of Wireless Comm. (3)

The first network based on packet radio, ALOHANET, was

developed at the University of Hawaii in 1971.

ALOHANET incorporated the first set of protocols for
channel access and routing in packet radio systems, and many
of the underlying principles in these protocols are still in use
today.
Lead to Ethernet and eventually wireless local area
networks

18

History of Wireless Comm. (3)

The most successful application of wireless networking has been

the cellular telephone system.

The roots of this system began in 1915, when wireless voice
transmission between New York and San Francisco was first
established.
In 1946 public mobile telephone service was introduced in 25
cities across the United States.
These initial systems used a central transmitter to cover an entire
metropolitan area.
Inefficient!
Thirty years

after the introduction of mobile telephone

service, the New York system could only support 543
users.

19

History of Wireless Comm. (4)

A solution to this capacity problem emerged during the 50s

and 60s when researchers at AT&T Bell Laboratories

developed the cellular concept.
Cellular systems exploit the fact that the power of a
transmitted signal falls off with distance.
Thus, two users can operate on the same frequency at
spatially-separate locations with minimal interference
between them.
Frequency reuse

20

History of Wireless Comm. (5)

The second generation (2G) of cellular systems, first deployed in

21

the early 1990s, were based on digital communications.

The shift from analog to digital was driven by its higher capacity
and the improved cost, speed, and power efficiency of digital
hardware.
While second generation cellular systems initially provided mainly
voice services, these systems gradually evolved to support data
services such as email, Internet access, and short messaging.
Unfortunately, the great market potential for cellular phones
led to a proliferation of (incompatible) second generation cellular
standards.
As a result of the standards proliferation, many cellular
phones today are multi-mode.

Chapter 2
Cellular System

Office Hours:
BKD 3601-7
Tuesday 14:00-16:00
Thursday 9:30-11:30
22

Handout #2

23

Radio-frequency spectrum
Commercially exploited bands

24

25

Tessellating Cell Shapes

Hexagonal cells:
Having largest area for a given
distance between the center of a
polygon and its farthest perimeter
points
Approximating a circular radiation
pattern for an omnidirectional base
station antenna and free space
propagation

26

Frequency Reuse (N = 4, N = 7)
Cluster: a group of N cells use the complete set of available

frequencies
A
B
A

C
B

A
D

A
B

A
D

B
C

A
D

B
C

27

B
C

Activity 1
You have seen N = 3, 4, 7

Find the next five lowest values of N.

In HW2, find the next fifteen lowest values of N.

28

Hexagon
R

3R
R

3
R
2

3R
R

3R
2
R
2
2R

29

3
R
2

1
3
1 3 3 2
Area 6 2
R R
R 2.598R 2
2
2
2 2

Frequency Reuse
Cluster: a group of N cells using the complete set of

available frequencies
4-cell reuse

7-cell reuse

Atotal S
C

Acell N
30

12-cell reuse

19-cell reuse

Co-channel Interference (N=19)

Method of locating co-channel cells in a cellular system. In this example, N = 19 (i.e., I = 3, j = 2). (Adapted from [Oet83]
IEEE.)

Center-to-center distance (D)

D

j
2

3R

3R

2 i 3R

3R cos 120

R 3 i 2 j 2 ij R 3N

i 3R

j 3R

This distance, D,
is called reuse
distance.

120

32

Co-channel reuse ratio

D
Q 3N .
R

Q and N
Co-channel reuse ratio
D
Q 3N .
R

33

SIR
Frequency reuse co-channel interference

K = the number of co-channel interfering cells

The signal-to-interference ratio (S/I or SIR) for a

mobile receiver which monitors a forward channel can be

expressed as
S
S
SIR

I
i 1

S = the desired signal power from the desired base station

Ii = the interference power caused by the ith interfering co-

channel cell base station.

34

SIR
The SIR should be greater than a specified threshold for proper

signal operation.

In the first-generation AMPS system, designed for voice calls, the

desired performance threshold is SIR equal to 18 dB.

For the second-generation digital AMPS system (D-AMPS or IS54/136), a threshold of 14 dB is deemed suitable.
For the GSM system, a range of 712 dB, depending on the study
done, is suggested as the appropriate threshold.
Only a relatively small number of nearby interferers need be

considered, because of the rapidly decreasing received power as

the distance increases.
In a fully equipped hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are always

six cochannel interfering cells in the first tier.

Approximation:
35

S
kR
1 D
1

I K kD K R
K

3N

SIR: N = 7
More accurate calculation

36

SIR: N = 3

Even more accurate calculation

2

D3
2R

D2

7R
13R
D1

7R D4
4R

3
2
D1 D5 R 1 4
R 13
2
3R
2

13R
D5

D6

5 3
D2 D4 R
R 4
2 2
D3 2 R
2

D6 4 R

R
2
37

Pt R
SIR

Pt Di 2
i

13

2 4

Improving Coverage and Capacity

As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of

channels assigned to a cell eventually becomes insufficient to

support the required number of users.
At this point, cellular design techniques are needed to
provide more channels per unit coverage area.
Easy!?
C

38

Atotal S

Acell N

Sectoring (N = 7)

39

Sectoring (N = 7)

40

Sectoring (N = 3, 120)

S 1

I K

K=2

41

3N

Sectoring (N = 3 , 60)

S 1

I K

3N

K=1
42

60 Degree Sectoring

43

Sectoring

S 1

I K

3N

Atotal S

Acell N

Advantages
Assuming seven-cell reuse, for the case of 120 sectors, the number

of interferers in the first tier is reduced from six to two.

This reduction lead to the increase of SIR.

The increase in SIT can be traded with reducing the cluster size which

increase the capacity.

Disadvantages
Increase number of antennas at each base station.
Decrease trunking efficiency due to channel sectoring at the base

station.

The available channels in the cell must be subdivided and dedicated to a

specific antenna.

44

Estimating the number of users

Trunking

Allow a large number of users to share the relatively small

number of channels in a cell by providing access to each user,

on demand, from a pool of available channels.
Exploit the statistical behavior of users
Each user is allocated a channel on a per call basis, and upon
termination of the call, the previously occupied channel is
immediately returned to the pool of available channels.

45

Common Terms
Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization, which is the average

channel occupancy measured in Erlangs.

This is a dimensionless quantity and may be used to measure the time utilization

of single or multiple channels.

Denoted by A.

Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H = 1/.

Blocked Call: Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due to

congestion. Also referred to as a lost call.

Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of congestion which is specified as the
probability of a call being blocked (for Erlang B).
The AMPS cellular system is designed for a GOS of 2% blocking. This implies

that the channel allocations for cell sites are designed so that 2 out of 100 calls
will be blocked due to channel occupancy during the busiest hour.

Request Rate: The average number of call requests per unit time. Denoted by

46

M/M/m/m Assumption
Blocked calls cleared
Offers no queuing for call requests.
For every user who requests service, it is assumed there is no setup time and the

user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available.

If no channels are available, the requesting user is blocked without access and is
free to try again later.

Calls arrive as determined by a Poisson process.

There are memoryless arrivals of requests, implying that all users, including

blocked users, may request a channel at any time.

There are an infinite number of users (with finite overall request rate).

The finite user results always predict a smaller likelihood of blocking. So,

assuming infinite number of users provides a conservative estimate.

The duration of the time that a user occupies a channel is

exponentially distributed, so that longer calls are less likely to occur.

There are m channels available in the trunking pool.
For us, m = the number of channels for a cell (C) or for a sector
47

AC
Pb CC ! k .
A

k 0 k !

Erlang B

A
48

Example
How many users can be supported for 0.5% blocking

probability for the following number of trunked channels in a

blocked calls cleared system?
(a) 5
(b) 10
Assume each user generates 0.1 Erlangs of traffic.

49

AC
Pb CC ! k .
A

k 0 k !

Erlang B

A
50

Example
Consider a cellular system in which
an average call lasts two minutes
the probability of blocking is to be no more than 1%.

If there are a total of 395 traffic channels for a seven-cell

reuse system, there will be about 57 traffic channels per cell.

From the Erlang B formula, the may handle 44.2 Erlangs or
1326 calls per hour.

51

AC
Pb CC ! k .
A

k 0 k !

Erlang B

A
52

Example
Now employing 120 sectoring, there are only 19 channels

per antenna sector (57/3 antennas).

For the same probability of blocking and average call length,
each sector can handle 11.2 Erlangs or 336 calls per hour.
Since each cell consists of three sectors, this provides a cell
capacity of 3 336 = 1008 calls per hour, which amounts
to a 24% decrease when compared to the unsectored case.
Thus, sectoring decreases the trunking efficiency while
improving the S/I for each user in the system.

53

AC
Pb CC ! k .
A

k 0 k !

Erlang B

A
54

Erlang B Trunking Efficiency

55

Big Picture
S = total # available duplex radio channels for the system
Frequency reuse with cluster size N
A
S
Capacity C total
Acell N

Trunking

S
kR
1 D
1

K
Tradeoff I
K kD K R
m = # channels allocated to
each cell.

3N

Omni-directional: K = 6
120 Sectoring: K = 2
60 Sectoring: K = 1

= Average # call attempts/requests per unit time

Am

Call blocking
m
!
A

tra
ffic
i
ntens
i
ty
or
l
oad
[Erla
ngs]
=
P m i.

probability b
A
1

H Average call length

56
i 0 i !
Erlang-B formula

Chapter 3
Poisson process and Markov chain

Office Hours:
BKD 3601-7
Tuesday 14:00-16:00
Thursday 9:30-11:30
57

M/M/m/m Assumption
Blocked calls cleared
Offers no queuing for call requests.
For every user who requests service, it is assumed there is no setup time and the

user is given immediate access to a channel if one is available.

If no channels are available, the requesting user is blocked without access and is
free to try again later.

Calls arrive as determined by a Poisson process.

There are memoryless arrivals of requests, implying that all users, including

blocked users, may request a channel at any time.

There are an infinite number of users (with finite overall request rate).

The finite user results always predict a smaller likelihood of blocking. So,

assuming infinite number of users provides a conservative estimate.

The duration of the time that a user occupies a channel is

exponentially distributed, so that longer calls are less likely to occur.

There are m channels available in the trunking pool.
For us, m = the number of channels for a cell (C) or for a sector
58

Assumption (cont)
The call request process is Poisson with rate
If m = 3, this call will be blocked
t

K(t)

The duration of calls are i.i.d. exponential r.v. with rate .

m=3
2
1

t
K(t) = state of the system
= the number of used channel at time t
We want to find out what proportion of time the system has K = m.

59

Poisson Process?
One of these is a realization of a two-dimensional Poisson point
process and the other contains correlations between the points.
One therefore has a real pattern to it, and one is a realization of
a completely unstructured random process.

60

Poisson Process
All the structure that is
visually apparent is
imposed by our own
sensory apparatus, which
has evolved to be so
good at discerning
patterns that it finds
them when theyre not
even there!

61

Example
Examples that are well-modeled as Poisson processes include
radioactive decay of atoms,
telephone calls arriving at a switchboard,
page view requests to a website,
rainfall.

62

Handout #3: Poisson Process

63

Poisson Process
The number of arrivals N1, N2 and N3 during non-overlapping time intervals
are independent Poisson random variables with mean = the length of the
corresponding interval.
1

N1 = 1

W1

3
N3 = 1

N2 = 2
W2 W3

W4

The lengths of time between adjacent arrivals W1, W2, W3 are i.i.d.
exponential random variables with mean 1/.
64

Time

Small Slot Analysis (Poisson Process)

Aka discrete time approximation
1
2
N1 = 1
W1

N3 = 1

N2 = 2
W2 W 3

Time

W4

In the limit, there is at most one arrival in any slot. The numbers of arrivals on the slots are
i.i.d. Bernoulli random variables with probability p1 of exactly one arrivals = where is the
width of individual slot.

Time
D1

The number of slots between adjacent

arrivals is a geometric random variable.

The total number of arrivals on n slots is a

binomial random variable with parameter
(n,p1)

In the limit, as the slot length gets smaller, geometric

binomial
65

exponential
Poisson

Poisson Process (Recap)

We spent a few lectures now studying Poisson process.
This is used to model call arrivals in M/M/m/m queue (which

gives Erlang B formula).

Along the way, we review many facts from probability theory.

pmf Binomial, Poisson, Geometric

pdf - Exponential
Independence
Expectation, characteristic function
Sum of independent random variables and how to analyze it by
characteristic functions

You have seen that Poisson process connects many concepts that

you learned from introductory probability class.

66

Handout #4: Erlang B & Markov Chain

67

Small Slot Analysis (Erlang B)

Suppose each slot duration is .

Consider the ith small slot.

Let Ki = k be the value of K at the beginning of this time slot.
k = 2 in the above figure.
Then, Ki+1 is the value of K at the end of this slot which is the
same as the value of K at the beginning of the next slot.
P[0 new call request] 1 -
P[1 new call request]
k
How do these events affect Ki+1 ?
1

P[0 old-call end]

1 k

P[1 old-call end] k 1

68

k 1

Small slot Analysis (2)

Ki+1 = Ki + (# new call request) (# old-call end)

1 k k

k-1

1 k

k+1

1 1 k k 1 k
The labels on the arrows are
probabilities.
69

P[0 new call request] 1 -

P[1 new call request]
P[0 old-call end] 1 - k
P[1 old-call end] k

Small slot Analysis: Markov Chain

Case: m = 2

1
2

70

1 2

Markov Chain
Markov chains model many phenomena of interest.
We will see one important property: Memoryless
It retains no memory of where it has been in the past.
Only the current state of the process can influence where it goes

next.

Very similar to the state transition diagram in digital circuits.

In digital circuit, the labels on the arrows indicate the input/control

signal.
Here, the labels on the arrows indicate transition probabilities. (If the
system is currently at a particular state, where would it go next on
the next time slot? )
We will focus on discrete time Markov chain.

71

Example: The Land of Oz

Land of Oz is blessed by many things, but not by good

weather.
They never have two nice days in a row.
If they have a nice day, they are just as likely to have snow as rain

the next day.

If they have snow or rain, they have an even chance of having the
same the next day.
If there is change from snow or rain, only half of the time is this
a change to a nice day.
If you visit the land of Oz next year for one day, what is the

chance that it will be a nice day?

72

State Transition Diagram

1/4
1/4

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/4

1/2

1/4

73

R = Rain
N = Nice
S = Snow

Markov Chain (2)

Let Ki be the weather status for the ith day (from today).
Suppose we know that it is snowing in the land of Oz today. Then

K0 = S

where S means snow.

Goal: We want to know whether K365 = N where N means nice.
Of course, the weather are controlled probabilistically; so we can only
find P[K365 = N].
From the specification (or from the state transition diagram), we know
that
1
1
1
P K1 R , P K1 N , P K1 S
4
4
2
Define vector
p i P K i R P K i N P K i S

Then,
74

1
p 0 0 0 1 and p 1
4

1
4

1
2

The Land of Oz: Transition Matrix

1/4

p i 1 p i P

1/4

R N S
1
R
2

1
P N
2
1
S
4

1
4
0
1
4

p n p 0 Pn
p 2 0.3750 0.1875 0.4375

1
4

1
2
1

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/4

1/2
1/4

P K i 1 R K i N

p 3 0.3906 0.2031 0.4063

p 5 0.3994 0.2002 0.4004
75

p 7 0.4000 0.2000 0.4000 p 8 p 9 p 10

p 365

Finding Pn for large n

1
2

1
P
2
1

1
4
0
1
4

1
4

1
2
1

0.4375
P 2 0.3750

0.3750
0.4063
P 3 0.4063

0.3906

0.1875 0.3750
0.2500 0.3750

0.1875 0.4375
0.2031 0.3906
0.1875 0.4063

0.2031 0.4063

0.4004 0.2002 0.3994

P 5 0.4004 0.1992 0.4004

0.3994 0.2002 0.4004

76

0.4000 0.2000 0.4000

8
9
10
P 7 0.4000 0.2000 0.4000 P P P

0.4000 0.2000 0.4000

Land of Oz: Answer

Recall that
So,

p n p 0 Pn

p 7 p 0 P7 0.4 0.2 0.4

Note that the above result is true regardless of the initial p 0

365
p 365 p 0 P 0.4 0.2 0.4

P[K365 = N]

77

Global Balance Equations

Easier approach for finding the long-term probabilities

Let pk be the long-term

probability that K = k.

2/5

2 / 5 3 / 5
P

1
/
2
1
/
2

3/5

A
1/2

78

3
1
p A pB
5
2

1/2

M/M/m/m Queuing Model

Small slot Analysis: Markov Chain

Case: m = 2
1

1 2

Let pk be the long-term

probability that K = k.

Global Balance equations

p0 p1
p0 p1 p2 1

p0
79

1
A2
1 A
2

p1 2 p2

, p1 Ap0 , p2

1 2
A p0
2

pb pm

Truncated birth-and-death process

Continuous-time Markov chain

More general than M/M/m/m

80

Chapter 4
Multiple Access

Office Hours:
BKD 3601-7
Tuesday 14:00-16:00
Thursday 9:30-11:30
81

82

Duplexing
Allow the subscriber to send simultaneously information to the

base station while receiving information from the base station.

Talk and listen simultaneously.

We define forward and reverse channels as followed:

Forward channel or downlink (DL) is used for communication

from the infrastructure to the users/stations

Reverse channel or uplink (UL) is used for communication from
users/stations back to the infrastructure.
Two techniques
1.
2.

83

Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

Time division duplexing (TDD)

Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)

Provide two distinct bands of frequencies (simplex channels)

for every user.

The forward band provides traffic from the base station to
the mobile.
The reverse band provides traffic from the mobile to the
base station.
Used in cellular

84

Time Division Duplexing (TDD)

Use time instead of frequency to provide both a forward and

85

reverse link.
Each duplex channel has both a forward time slot and a
reverse time slot.
The UL and DL data are transmitted on the same carrier
frequency at different times.
If the time separation between the forward and reverse lime slot is
small, then the transmission and reception of data appears
simultaneous to the users at both the subscriber unit and on the
base station side.
Used in Bluetooth and Mobile WiMAX
Each transceiver operates as either a transmitter or receiver on the
same frequency

Problems of FDD
Because each transceiver simultaneously transmits and

receives radio signals which can vary by more than100 dB,

the frequency allocation used for the forward and reverse
channels must be carefully coordinated within its own system
and with out-of-band users that occupy spectrum between
these two bands.
The frequency separation must be coordinated to permit the
use of inexpensive RF and oscillator technology.

86

Advantages of FDD
TDD frames need to incorporate guard periods equal to the

max round trip propagation delay to avoid interference

between uplink and downlink under worst-case conditions.
There is a time latency created by TDD due to the fact that
communications is not full duplex in the truest sense.
This latency creates inherent sensitivities to propagation delays

of individual users.

87

Advantages of TDD
Enable adjustment of the downlink/uplink ratio to efficiently

support asymmetric DL/UL traffic.

With FDD, DL and UL always have fixed and generally, equal

DL and UL bandwidths.

Assure channel reciprocity for better support of link

adaptation, MIMO and other closed loop advanced antenna

technologies.
Ability to implement in nonpaired spectrum
FDD requires a pair of channels
TDD only requires a single channel for both DL and UL

providing greater flexibility for adaptation to varied global

spectrum allocations.

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