8.

3 THE ENCEPHALON

8.3 THE ENCEPHALON

8.3.1 Functions
8.3.2 Parts of the encephalon
8.3.3 Protecting coverings of the encephalon
8.3.4 Blood supply to the encephalon
8.3.5 Blood-brain barrier (BBB)
8.3.6 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
8.3.7 Brain stem
8.3.8 Diencephalon
8.3.9 Cerebellum: structure and function
8.3.10 Cerebrum

8.3.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE ENCEPHALON

Register of sensations
Interrelations
Decision making
Execution of commands
Intelligence, emotions, behaviour and memory

ADULT STRUCTURES OF THE ENCEPHALON

Brain stem:
- Medulla oblongata
- Pons
- Midbrain
Diencephalon:
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Epithalamus (pineal gland or body)
Cerebrum
Cerebellum

MAJOR PARTS OF THE ENCEPHALON

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Brain stem

8.3.3 PROTECTING COVERINGS OF THE

ENCEPHALON
The encephalon is protected by:
The skull
The meninges (cerebrospinal fluid, CSF)
Blood brain barrier (BBB)

MENINGES

Continuous with spinal meninges. Same layers: dura mater, arachnoid mater
and pia mater
Differences:
-Dura mater has 2 layers: periosteal (external) and meningeal
(internal) layer
-No epidural space around brain. Blood vessels pass along surface of
brain, penetrating it sheathed by layer of pia mater

MENINGES

Three extensions of the dura mater divide the brain in different parts:
The falx cerebri: divides the cerebrum in two hemispheres (left and right)
The falx cerebelli: separates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum (left and right)
The tentorium cerebelli: separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum

BLOOD SUPPLY TO BRAIN

Encephalon is 2% of body weight
The brain requires 20% of oxygen
Noble or preferent organ
Cell nutrition: glucose
The nervous tissue requires oxygen at high rates. Blood is
the only substrate of glucose. 15% of blood is pumped to
the encephalon for adequate supply of oxygen and glucose

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
Neurons must be protected from dangerous substances
that may be in blood. That is the reason why nerve capillaries
have low permeability and form the blood-brain barrier
Formed by endothelial cells that cover the nerve capillaries and
astrocytes (barrier/modify permeability)
Nerve capillaries are nearly impermeable:
Strong junctions between endothelial cells and between
endothelial cells and astrocytes: GAP junctions, Adherens
junctions, Tight junctions (predominant)
High permeability: lipid-soluble substances
Low permeability: hydrosoluble susbtance

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER

Endothelial cells

Capillary lumen

Nutrients
(mainly glucose)
Oxygen
Waste products

Interstitial fluid

Carbon dioxide

Tight junction
Astrocyte

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF):

INTRODUCTION
It is synthesized by ependymal cells that cover the choroid
plexuses of the ventricles (cavities of the encephalon).
Function: physical and chemical protection of the encephalon
and spinal cord.
Continuous circulation:
- Subarachnoid space (between arachnoid mater and pia mater)
- Cavities: ventricles
. - Central canal of the spinal cord

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) AND

VENTRICULAR SYSTEM
Lateral ventricles
Third ventricle
Fourth ventricle

There are four ventricles:

- First and second ventricles: lateral ventricles
- Third ventricle: superior to the hypothalamus
- Fourth ventricle: between brain stem and cerebellum

VENTRICULAR SYSTEM

Interventricular foramen (Monros aqueduct) communicates

the lateral ventricle with the thrid ventricle
Cerebral or Silvios aqueduct communicates third and fourth
ventricles

VENTRICULAR SYSTEM

CSF: SYNTHESIS
-

Choroid plexuses: networks of

blood capillaries in walls of
ventricles covered by ependymal
cells
that
filter
plasma
to
synthesize CSF

Tight
junctions
between
ependymal cells forming bloodcerebrospinal fluid barrier

CSF: SYNTHESIS AND CIRCULATION

BRAIN STEM

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

Brain stem:
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
Diencephalon:
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Epithalamus (pineal gland)
Cerebellum
Cerebrum:
- Cortex (gray matter)
- Internal region (white matter) and nuclei (gray matter) within

BRAIN STEM
It is the most primitive region of the encephalon. Located between
spinal cord and the diencephalon
Thalamus (diencephalon)

Midbrain
Pons
Cranial nerves

Medulla
oblongata

Spinal cord
Lateral view

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Inferior part of the brain

stem
Above foramen
magnum
Below the pons
Gray matter / White
mater

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

White matter

Ascendent fascicles (sensory)

From the posterior column tracts

Descendent fascicles (motor)

From the corticospinal tracts

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Gray matter
Nuclei
Cardiovascular center
Respiratory center
Reflex center (swallowing, vomit,
sneeze, hiccups)

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Anterior or ventral:
Pyramids
Posterior or dorsal:
Gracile and cuneate
nuclei
Lateral:
Olives

PONS
Thalamus
(diencephalon)

Midbrain
Pons
Cranial nerves
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Lateral view

Superior to the medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum

Gray (nuclei) / White matter (tracts)
Connects: spinal cord with encephalon
Some axons connect left and right sides of cerebellum. Others are
part of ascending or descending tracts

PONS: FUNCTIONS

- It receives nerve impulses:

Transmits nerve impulses that control the
movement of skeletal muscles from the cortex to
the cerebellum
- Respiration control:
- Pneumotaxic area
- Apneustic area

MIDBRAIN OR MESENCEPHALON

Extends from pons to inferior portion of diencephalon

Cerebral aqueduct: Connects third and fourth ventricles
Anterior or ventral portion
Posterior or dorsal portion

MIDBRAIN

ANTERIOR OR VENTRAL PORTION

Cerebral peduncles: paired bundles of axons
corticobulbar, corticospinal and corticopontine tracts
- Motor fibers (axons)
- Corticospinal tract
- Corticobulbar tract
- Corticopontine tract
- Sensitive fibers
to thalamus

MIDBRAIN
POSTERIOR OR DORSAL PORTION
Also called tectum or
quadrigeminal lamina
- Quadrigeminal
tubercles (colliculi):
Superior
Inferior

MIDBRAIN: QUADRIGEMINAL TUBERCLES

-Superior colliculi:
- Reflex centers for movements (eyes, head,
neck) in response to visual stimuli and others.
-Inferior colliculi:
- Reflex centers for movements of the head and
trunk in response to hearing stimuli

MIDBRAIN

Substantia nigra (melanin): dopaminergic neurons control

subconcious muscular activity
Red nuclei: synapses with axons from cerebellum and cortex.
Control of muscular movement

FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN STEM

Ocular movements
Visual and auditory
reflexes
Coordination of breathing
Connection
cerebellum/cerebrum
Control of involuntary movements
(swallowing)
Center of cardiac control and vasomotor
Respiratory center
Vomiting center

MIDBRAIN

PONS

MEDULLA
OBLONGATA

DIENCEPHALON

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

Brain stem:
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum
Diencephalon:
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Epithalamus (pineal gland)
Cerebrum:
- Cortex.
- Cerebral hemispheres

THE DIENCEPHALON: LOCATION

It is located between the brain stem and the cerebrum

THALAMUS

- Paired oval-shaped masses of gray matter.

- Compossed of 80 nuclei with interspersed tracts of white
matter

THALAMUS: FUNCTIONS

- Modulates sensory information that reaches the cerebral

cortex from the spinal cord and brain stem.
- Knowledge acquisition and maintenance of consciousness.
- Conscious pain, temperature control, thin touch and
pressure (spinothalamic tracts).
- Contributes to motor functions by passing info from
cerebellum and basal nuclei to primary motor area of cerebral
cortex.

HYPOTHALAMUS

-Inferior to the thalamus and superior to the pituitary gland

-Control of many conditions (homeostasis)

HYPOTHALAMUS

Functions: HOMEOSTASIS
1. Control of the Autonomic Nevous System (ANS)
2. Control of the hypophysis (pituitary gland): produces
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
3. Regulation of emotional and behavioural patterns
4. Regulation of hunger and thirst
5. Control of body temperature
6. Regulation of circadian rhythms and consciousness

EPITHALAMUS

- Posterior

and superior to the

thalamus
- Contains:
- Pineal gland or epiphysis:
Secrets melatonin (adjustment of
biological clock)
- Habenular nuclei:
Olfaction (emotional responses
to odors)

CEREBELLUM

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

Brain stem:
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum
Diencephalon:
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Epithalamus (pineal gland)
Cerebrum:
- Cortex (gray matter)
- Internal region (white matter) and nuclei (gray matter) within

THE CEREBELLUM

anterior

cerebellum
Lateral view

Cerebellum
posterior

Ventral view

Dorsal view
2 hemispheres
vermis
folia

It is the second biggest structure of the encephalon. In contains

gray matter (exterior) and white matter (interior)

THE CEREBELLUM: STRUCTURE

- Cerebellar cortex and folia (gray matter)

- Cerebellar nuclei (gray matter)
- Arbor vitae (white matter)
- Cerebellar peduncles: Attach cerebellum to brain stem; here the
spinocerebellar tracts arrive.

THE CEREBELLUM: STRUCTURE

- Separated from cerebrum by tentorium cerebelli

- Two cerebellar hemispheres separated by the falx cerebelli

THE CEREBELLUM
Anterior lobe

Anterior lobe

Flocculonodular lobe

Posterior lobe

Posterior lobe

The posterior and anterior lobe control subconscious aspects

of skeletal muscle movements
The flocculonodular
equilibrium

lobe

contributes

to

balance

and

THE CEREBELLUM: FUNCTIONS

Receives sensory information from: muscles, tendons, joints,
balance receptors, visual receptors
Regulates posture and balance, through the spinocerebellar
tracts and the vestibular nerve information
Compares voluntary movements designed by the cerebral
cortex with what is going to occur (coordinates thin and
complex movements)
Coordinates and smoothes complex sequences of skeletal
muscle contractions
Fundamental for the motor activities that constitute an ability
CEREBELLUM damage: ataxia (reduction in the ability to

coordinate movements)

CEREBRUM

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

Brain stem:
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
Diencephalon:
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
- Epithalamus (pineal gland)
Cerebellum
Cerebrum:
- Cortex and nuclei (gray matter)
- Tracts (white matter)

CEREBRUM: FUNCTIONS

THANKS TO THE CEREBRUM WE ARE ABLE TO

TALK
READ
WRITE
MAKE CALCULATIONS
REMEMBER THE PAST, PLAN FOR THE FUTURE
CREATE

CEREBRUM: STRUCTURE
Biggest part of the encephalon
External Gray matter Cerebral cortex
Internal White matter and nuclei of gray matter (basal nuclei)

White matter

Gray matter

CEREBRUM: STRUCTURE OF CORTEX

- Convolutions or gyri: folds

- Fissures: deep grooves
- Sulci: shallower grooves

CEREBRUM: STRUCTURE

Cerebral hemispheres and longitudinal fissure

Longitudinal
fissure

The falx cerebri is located within the longitudinal fissure

CEREBRUM: STRUCTURE
The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum
The corpus callosum is a broad band of white matter

THE CEREBRUM
Formed by two hemispheres bound by the corpus callosum.
Each hemisphere is divided in four lobes, termed after the corresponding
bone of the skull: frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes
Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

CEREBRUM: STRUCTURE

Cerebral lobes and sulcus

Central sulcus

Parieto-Occipital
sulcus

Lateral cerebral sulcus

(fissure)

CEREBRUM: STRUCTURE

CEREBRUM: PRIMARY AREAS

Precentral
gyrus

Postcentral
gyrus

CEREBRUM: FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

Sensory areas: Receive and process signals or

sensory impulses
Motor areas: start voluntary movements
Association areas: perform more complex
integrative functions (memory, emotions,
reasoning, will, judgement, personality traits,
and intelligence)

CEREBRUM: FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

Receive sensory signals

SENSORY AREAS

Posterior half of the cerebral

hemispheres
Posterior to the central sulcus

MOTOR AREAS

ASSOCIATION AREAS

Exit of motor orders

Mainly in the anterior part of
each hemisphere

Motor and sensory areas

Large areas in the lobe surfaces:
parietal, occipital, temporal and
frontal

SENSORY AREAS

Primary somatosensory
area

-Posterior to the central sulcus, in the

parietal lobe
-Receives signals for touch, pain, tickle,
proprioception, itch, vibration, pressure,
temperature

Primary auditory area

-Temporal lobe
-Receives information for sound

Primary gustatory area

-Postcentral gyrus superior to the lateral

sulcus in the parietal cortex
-Receives impulses for taste

Primary olfactory area

-Medial aspect of the temporal lobe

-Receives impulses for smell. Olfactory
perception

Primary visual area

-Posterior tip of occipital lobe

-Receives visual information. Visual
perception

SENSORY AREAS

MOTOR AREAS

Primary motor area

Brocas speech area

-Precentral gyrus of the frontal

lobe
-Controls contractions of skeletal
muscles at the opposite side of the
body
-Frontal lobe, close to the lateral
cerebral sulcus
-It is located in left hemisphere in
97% of population
-Sends nerve impulses to
premotor regions to coordinate
contraction of muscles involved in
speech and breathing

MOTOR AREAS

ASSOCIATION AREAS

Somatosensory
association area

-Posterior to the primary

somatosensory area
-Integrates and interprete somatic
sensations (shape, texture)

Visual association area

-Occipital lobe
-Relates present and past visual
experiences

Auditory association
area

-Inferior to the primary auditive area in

the temporal cortex
-Allows recognition of particular
sounds

Wernikes area

-Temporal and parietal lobe

-Interpretes meaning of speech

Common integrative area

-Receives and interpretes impulses

from other areas. Formation of
thoughts

Premotor area

-Anterior to the primary motor area

-Controls contraction of muscles with a
complex and sequential nature

ASSOCIATION AREAS

CEREBRUM: HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION

Left hemisphere

Right hemisphere

SENSORY AND MOTOR PATHWAYS OF THE SOMATIC SYSTEM

Ascendent (SENSORY) pathways: from the body surface

to the primary somatosensory area
1) Posterior column medial lemniscus pathway
2) Spinothalamic (anterolateral) pathway
Descendent (MOTOR) pathways: origin in the primary
motor area and brain stem:
Direct
Indirect

SENSORY PATHWAYS

SENSORY PATHWAYS
Somatic PNS;
Afferent neurons

1st order:
From somatosensory
receptor
to spinal cord or brain
stem

CNS;
Thalamus

2nd order:
From spinal cord or
brain stem to thalamus

CNS;
Cerebral cortex

3rd order:
From thalamus to
primary somatosensory
area of the cerebrum

ASCENDING OR SENSORY PATHWAYS

Posterior column medial lemniscus pathway

Spinothalamic tract (anterolateral pathway)

POSTERIOR COLUMN PATHWAY: MEDIAL LEMNISCUS

Second
order neuron
Segunda Neurona
THEY CROSS IN THE
MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Posterior column
First order neuron

POSTERIOR COLUMN PATHWAY: MEDIAL LEMNISCUS

Third order neuron:

From the thalamus until the somatosensory area of the
cerebral cortexde la corteza.

Sensations: Proprioception, vibration, thin touch, stereognosis

SPINOTHALAMIC (ANTEROLATERAL) PATHWAY

Contains 2 bundles or tracts:

Spinal cord

Lateral

Anterior

Pain and temperature

Crude touch, pressure

tickle

Third order
neuron

Second order
neuron

First order
neuron

Axons cross in the

spinal cord and ascend

MOTOR PATHWAYS

Somatic motor pathways (descending):

- Direct or pyramidal Start in the cerebral cortex.
Anterior and lateral corticospinal
Corticobulbar (voluntary movements)
- Indirect or extrapyramidal Start in other areas
such as the brain stem
Rubrospinal, Vestibulospinal, Reticulospinal (2)
(muscle tone, balance)

MOTOR PATHWAYS

Superior somatic neuron (upper motor neuron, UMN):

- Contact neurons with the lower motor neurons through the
somatic motor pathways
Inferior motor neuron (lower motor neuron, LMN):
- End of the motor pathways
- Body of somas in spinal cord (innervate limbs and
trunk) or brain stem (innervate face and head). Axons reach
skeletal muscles
- Only neurons that go from the CNS to the skeletal
muscles

MOTOR PATHWAYS
CNS;
Cortex (direct)
Brain stem
(indirect)

CNS;
Brain stem or
spinal cord

Superior somatic
neurons

PNS;
Skeletal muscle

Inferior motor neurons

Interneurons

MOTOR PATHWAYS

Lateral corticospinal
pathways

Upper Motor Neuron

Axons cross at the level of

the pyramids in the medulla
oblongata

Lower Motor Neuron

Anterior
corticospinal
pathways

MOTOR PATHWAYS

Upper Motor Neuron

Axons cross in
the spinal cord

Lower Motor Neuron

CORTICOBULBAR PATHWAY

Some fibers
decussate and
others dont, ending
in the nuclei of the
cranial pairs.

DIRECT SOMATIC MOTOR PATHWAYS

Lateral Corticoespinal
tract

-Axons decussate in pyramids

-Control distal skeletal muscles of limbs
-Skilled movements of hands and feet

Anterior Corticoespinal
tract

-Axons do not decussate in the pyramids

-Axons decussate in the spinal cord
(cervical or lumbar segments)
-Movements of neck and trunk (axial
skeleton) and proximal limbs

Corticobulbar tract

-From cortex to brain medulla oblongata

-Exit through 9 cranial pairs of the brain
stem (from III to XII)
-Voluntary movement of eyes, tongue
and neck

TEXT BOOKS

TORTORA JW. "Principles of Anatomy and Physiology". 13th ed. Willey

Eds., 2011
SILVERTORN. "Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach. 5th Edition.
Panamericana eds, 2009