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Introduction

ThisresearchexaminestheuseofsimileintheDickensiancorpus,Hard
Times.ItisagreatpleasuretometoinvestigatetheuseoftheSimileinthe
worksofCharlesDickensashewastheleadingclassicalwriterofhisperiod.
After having successfully finished this course paper, I can suggest this
investigationtomygroupmates,otherstudents,aswellasforhighschool
teachers as an additional material to learn about the stylistic device The
Simile.Simile,whichisourmainconcerninthiscoursepaper,isconsidered
asoneoftheimportantaspectsofmetaphor.Inthepresentresearch,wewill
attempttolay thefingeronthesetwoblackholesintheuniverseoflanguage
(metaphorandsimile).
Thetopicalityofresearchisdefinedbynecessitytoinvestigatemoreand
inadetailedwayaboutthemostusedstylisticdevice,theSimile,bymeansof
theworkofwellknownanEnglishwriterCharlesDickens,HardTimes.
TheobjectofresearchistoattempttofindanswerswhyCharlesDickens
overusedtheexactstylisticdeviceandtoexplorethenotionofsimileasa
figureofspeechandaccountingforthereasonofusingitintheHardTimes.
Theaimofthepresentresearchistoidentifythefunctionsofthesimile
intheworkofCharlesDickens,HardTimes.Inparallel,anumberofworking
hypothesisisconsideredthroughoutthisstudy:
howdoessimileenablesthereadertohavemoredetailsaboutcertain
qualitiesofauthorscharacters.
whyDickensmakesuseofsimilesofrequentlyinhisworks?
- howcanstylisticdevisesdevelopthewritersworksandgivetothe
worksmorecolourandmeaning?
Scientificnoveltyofresearchisthatattempttodescribe,analysemeans
ofsimilefunctionsexpressedinthenovelHardTimesfromthepositionofthe
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Kyrgyzlanguagespeaker.
The theoretical significance of this course paper is to present a
theoreticalbackgroundwherethefocusisontwolinguisticdevices,metaphor
andsimile.Metaphoristhegeneraltermwhichisusedtorefertodifferent
figuresofspeech.Simile,whichisourmainconcerninthisinquiry,isoneof
thesefigures.Thetheoreticalbackgroundisthesourcefromwhichthebasic
workingmodelofsimileinthepresentstudyisderived.
Thepracticalimportance ofpresentcoursepaperistohighlightthe
authorscriticalreview,emphasizinghisthemesandstyle.Hereisacorpus
based investigation of simile in Hard Times, trying to find out Dickens
motives behind the use of such a linguistic device. This course paper
attemptedtoinvestigatesimileinDickensHardTimes,layingafingeronthe
authorsmotivesbehindtheuseofsuchalinguisticdevice.Differentsimile
markersweredealtwithtoidentifythesyntacticstructureofsimileandits
meaning.Theapparentonesinthenovelarelike,as,asas,asifand
asthough.ExamplesofsimilesinHardTimeswerestudiedaccordingtothe
investigativemodelmentionedinthefirstchapter.

Thestructureofthiscoursepaperis,excepttheIntroductionconsistsoftwo
chapters,ConclusionandtheBibliography.Thefirstchapterisdevotedtothe
reviewofthestylisticdevicesTheSimileandTheMetaphor,andgives
aboutthemageneralsurveyandasmuchtheoreticalsourcesaspossible.Inthe
secondchapterwillberevealedtheroleandthemeaningofsimileinthenovel
HardTimesbyCharlesDickens.Theconclusionevaluatestheresultsandoffers
recommendations.Tothispoint,thepresentstudywillhopefullygiveanaccount
ofthenotionofsimileinDickensHardTimesandelucidateitsvariousmotives
andmeaningsinthelanguageofliterature.CHAPTERI
METAPHORANDSIMILE
AGeneralSurvey
The term literature often bears qualitative connotations which
demonstrate that any literary work has particular characteristics which differ
fromanyordinarywrittenwork.Thequalityofimaginationisoneofthemost
importantdistinguishingmarksofliterature.Inrecentyears,thestudyofliterary
languagehasintroducedanewfactfortheattitudeofstyle.Thisfactisthat
literaturehasasetofmodelsforproducingthedesiredlinguisticeffects.
Astylisticanalysisofanyliteraryproductionleadstotheexaminationof
thewritersvocabulary,hisfigurativelanguageandanyaspectrelatedtohis
languageandthewayinwhichitisused.Stylisticsisthusconsideredasan
avenueleadingtoincreasedenjoymentthroughthecomprehensionoftheways
inwhichatexthasbeenputtogether.
MetaphorandFigurativeLanguage
ThewordmetaphorisderivedfromtheGreekverbmetaphora:meta
meaningover,andphora,tocarryortotransfer.Itreferstoaparticular
linguisticprocesswherebyaspectsofoneitemaretransferredtoanotheritem.
Thus,metaphorandmeaningtransferenceareseenassynonymsintermsof
etymology.Theformerisusuallytakentobeanallembracingtermincluding
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otherfiguresofspeech.
Figurativelanguageisthatlanguagewhichdoesnotmeanwhatitsays.
However,thelanguage,whichuseswordsintheirnormalsenseastheyappear
intheusualpracticeoflanguage,issaidtobeliteral.Figurativelanguageand
literallanguagearetwoendsofascale,ratherthanclearcutcategories.The
differentformsoftransferencearecalledfiguresofspeech.
MetaphorandSimile
Ifonegoesbacktotraditionalviews,mainlyAristotlesview,twomain
semanticcategoriesstandout:metaphorandsimile.Similesaretobeusedjust
asmetaphorsareused;theyareslightlydifferent.Aristotleassimilatessimileto
metaphor.Theformer is anexplicit comparison (unlike metaphor wherethe
comparisonisimplicit)recognizablebyusingwordslikelikeandas.
Metaphorsmaintainthatthetransferofmeaningispossibleorhasalready
occurred (the bonnet of the car), whereas similes suggest transference and
explainitbymeansoftheirmarkers(Thepieceofsteelcovershiscarsengine
asifitwereabonnetcoveringagirlshead).
FunctionsofMetaphor
Metaphor has various functions. It obscures its literal meaning while
allowinganewunderstandingtoemerge.Itenablesthelanguageusertocreate
and understand novel linguistic combinations. Metaphor highlights the
phenomenonofsemanticcreativity.Thislinguisticdevice(metaphor)extends
vocabulary and creates new linguistic expressions through the principle of
economy.Metaphoricalextensionscanbefoundintheapplicationofwordssuch
as mouth, eye, leg and foot to talk about rivers, needles, tables and
mountainsrespectively.Metaphorisconsideredasapowerfultoolwheneverone
describes new situations in terms of what has been described before. Thus,
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metaphorcanfunctionasacognitiveinstrument.
The most important scientific metaphors are those which describe
theoreticalclaimsthatcannotbeliterallyexpressed.Intheoreticalclaimslike
thatofthebrainisakindofcomputer,noliteralexpressioncandescribethe
same claim. Metaphor is thus considered as a tool used by the scientist to
explainhisscientifictheories.Thefunctionofmetaphorisnotonlytoprovidea
pleasingdecoration,butalsotounderstandnewlinguisticaspectsandtodescribe
sometimesascientificobjectorphenomenon.Forinstance,themeltingiron
hardenslikearockwhenitgetscoldisascientificmetaphorusedtodescribe
iron.

SIMILE
ProminentViewsandCriticalAssessments
Simile isafigureofspeechinwhichoneitemislikenedtoanotherin
ordertoenhanceanimage.Thisfigureisrecognizablebytheuseofwordssuch
aslikeoras.Itiscommonlyusedinproseandpoetryanditisafigurative
deviceofgreatantiquity.Simileistherootnotionoftropes.
Todate,itisstillagreedthattherearefewlinguisticstudiesofsimile.
Thus,aunifiedtheoryofsimileisdeemedtobedistantanditseemsbetterto
tackle particular problems instead. A middle course between research and a
generaldiscussionofproblemsis,therefore,advisable.
TheoriesofSimile
Thereexistsnotheoryofsimileinitself.Simileisconsideredasasheepin
the herd of figurative language. Most linguists and philosophers admit that
simileisametaphor.Inthiscase,metaphorisseenasablanketterm.However,
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thereareotherswhodisagreewiththisviewbasingtheirargumentonthefact
thatsimilesarelesseffectivethanmetaphors.
TheModernClassicalTheories
Thesubordinationofsimiletometaphorisreversedinthehandsoflater
Classical theorists. Among these linguists is Barfield who ignores several
rhetoricaldistinctions,especiallythatbetweenmetaphorandsimile.Hecallsa
longandelaboratemetaphorasimilewiththetermlikemissedout.Barfield
claimsthattheelementofcomparisoncandropfurtheroutofsightinpoetry.In
otherwords,thepoetcantalkaboutBwithoutmakinganopenreferencetoA
(sayingAisBorAislikeB).However,thereaderoughttoknowthepoets
intentionthroughtacklingB.Thisisusuallycalledsymbolism.
AnothermodernClassicallinguistisNowottnywhoarguesthatthereisa
merecollocationinoperationinsimile,bringingtogetherimagesdissimilarin
themainbysomeonepointormoreoflikenessdistinguished.Inmetaphor,she
maintains, there is the operation of imagination, which involves the
reader/listenerinthewriterscreativeact.Nowottnyreachestheconclusionthat
thedifferencebetweensimileandstandardlanguageisoneofdegree,butnotof
kind.
FishelovsTheory
Fishelovintroducestwoformsof simile:thepoeticsimile(PS)andnon
poeticone(NPS).Thepoeticsimile(PS)hasparticularstructuralcharacteristics
differentfromthoseofthenonpoeticsimile(NPS).The(NPS)iscomposedof
fourstructuralandsemanticelements:thetopic(T),thevehicle(V),thesimile
marker(SM)andtheground(G).Inthesimileform,Petereatslikeapig,
Peteristhetopic,apigthevehicle,likethesimilemarkerandthemanner
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ofeatingistheground.Unlikenonpoeticsimiles,poeticsimilesdeviateinthe
orderoftheconstituentelements,thelengthorexplicitnessof(T),(G),(SM)and
(V), or the topic and the vehicle may belong to the same category. The
previously mentioned nonpoetic simile (Peter eats like a pig) can become
deviant,givingthefollowingpoeticsimiles:
(1) PiglikePeteriseating.
(2) PeteriseatinglikeapigIsawalongtimeago.
(3) Peterislikeapig.
(4) Peteristheeatingpig.
(5) PetereatslikeJohn.

TheStructureofSimile
Simile is often defined as an explicit comparison, i.e., a comparison
knownofthepresenceofacomparativeword(likeorothersimilemarkers).It
isusuallydescribedasacomparison,whereasthelatterisnotalwaysasimile.
Therefore,thefollowingtwostatements(a)and(b)standasacomparisonanda
similerespectively:
(a) RichardislikeJohn.
(b) Richardislikealion.

In simile, resemblance is treated as an attributive circumstantial


relationshipofcomparison:xislikea.Similederivesfromtheintensivetobe
atypeofrelationalprocess.Thelatteristhatofbeinginanattributivemodeof
theformula,aisanattributeofx.Thecircumstantialprocess,however,states
thatxisata.
In the attributive type, an attribute is related to an entity either as a
quality(intensive),asacircumstanceoftime,placeetc.(circumstantial)oras
a possession (possessive). Structurally speaking, the attributive mode has a
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clausecomposedoftwomainelementswhicharetheATTRIBUTE andthe
CARRIER.Forexample,thesimileform,Maxislikeanox,consistsofthe
followingelementsshowninTable(1):
Max

islike

anox

Carrier

Process

Attribute
Table(1)

Insimile,thecomparisoncanbedirectlybetweentwonouns:Thisman
islikeatiger.Inaddition,itcanbeaboutaqualitysharedbythetwoitems:
Herfaceisaswhiteasasheetofpaper.Moreover,thecomparisonmaybe
between actions which make the verb act as the link. Words flower like
crocusesinthehangingwoods.
Althoughitisarguedthatsimiles,metaphorsandcomparisonsareoften
processedinthesameway,thereremainimportantdifferencesbetweenthe
three.Thesedifferencesconcerntheirsyntacticstructuresandtheirusesand
functionsintheEnglishlanguage.
TheSimileMarkers
TherearedifferentsimilemarkersusedinEnglishfromthesimplekinds
tothecomplexones:like,as,asas,asif/though,justlike/asand
others.Thisisanunendinglist;asandlikeare,however,consideredasthe
mostfrequentlyusedmarkers.
Like
Like, as a conjunction, tends to be derived from the old compound
conjunctionlikeas.Theconjunctivelikeisusuallyusedafterverbslikefeel
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andlook:Shelookslikeshehasseenaghost.
Moreover,likemaybeusedasapreposition:Sheislikealittlebaby.It
mayalsofunctionasasubordinatororasanintroductorywordtoanadverbial
clauseofmanner:Thepolicecaughtthethieflikealionstalkingitsprey.
The classification of like is often regarded to be plagued by various
interpretations.Aproposedrulemaintainsthatlikewillbeaconjunctiononly
ifitisfollowedbyaverbalclause.However,theidentificationofitsfunction
remainsadifficulttaskasinthiscase:Sheistakentoteachinglikeaduckto
water. In this instance, the verb of the second clause can be interpreted as
elliptical;suggestingthatlikeisaconjunction.
As
Asisconsideredasasimplesubordinatingconjunction.Itisusually
usedasasynonymoftheconjunctivelike.Ascanalsofunctionasa
preposition.Nevertheless,theprepositionalasisdifferentfromthe
prepositionallike.Theformerreferstoanactualrole,whereasthelatterrefers
tomanner:
- Hespokeasalawyer(inthecapacityof).
- Hespokelikealawyer(afterthemannerof).

Asexhibitsvariouscombinationswithotherwords,producingdifferent
similemarkers,suchasasasandasif/though.Asasisacorrelative
subordinatingconjunction,focusingonanadverboradjectivetomakea
comparison:Herunsasfast(adv)asadeer.Asifandasthoughare
compoundsubordinatingconjunctionswhichintroduceadverbialclauses
indicatingcomparisonwithsomehypotheticalcircumstance:Shelooksatme
asif/thoughIwereastranger.

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SeeSimileMarkersin:http://www.les.aston.ac.Uk/lsu/diss/jkatsaros.html(July2004)TheBasic

WorkingModelofSimile

Similes,asmetaphors,urgethereader/listenertoviewanitemasbeing
likeanotherone.Thetwoprinciplesofcontiguityandcollocationareconsidered
tobeinoperationinthesimileformula,x(is)likey.Contiguity(proximity)
meansthatthetwocompareditemsarecloseinthought,timeorspace.Insimile,
thiscontiguityseemstobedoneinastrangeandshockingwaythroughthe
secondprincipleofcollocation.Collocation,whichisdefinedasthelinguistic
environment of the word in the text, would in the case of simile produce a
certainstructurethatconsistsofthesimilemarker,thetenor,thevehicleand
sometimestheground.
In metaphor, the association of meanings is not clearly explained.
However,collocationinsimileisthedeterminingfactorbecauseofthepresence
ofthemarkerandthevehicle.Throughtheuseofanysimilemarker,anexplicit
comparison can syntactically produce a simile, and it can also produce a
metaphor,butwiththeabsenceofthemarker.Both simile and metaphor are
basedontheprincipleofcomparisononacontinuumfromcomparison-similemetaphor to symbolism.Itisthoughtthatthereisnodifferencebetweenthese
concepts,butagradualtransformationofoneintotheother.
Theeffectsoftheuseofsimileonthereader/listenerareprovedtobe
difficulttoexplain.Anysimilecanleadtoasortoficonicityinthemindofthe
recipient. Personal examination of this device (simile) seems to reduce the
problem into one of meaning and background knowledge. Thus, certain
questionsonthenatureoflanguagewillbegenerated,suchaswhetherthesimile
meaningrequiresanykindoftransferenceorwhetheritisanintelligententityon
its own. For example,the sentence James fights like a tiger can have two
interpretations.ThefirstoneisthatascoopingactionofJamesintoatigeris
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experiencedinthecasewherethereisasenseoftransference:Jamesandthe
tigeractwithfierceenergy.Thesecondinterpretationisthatthebouncingof
Jamesontoatigerinthecasewherethereisnokindoftransference.Hence,
any examination of simile ought to be related to both linguistic and
psychologicalbranches.
Inthepresentstudy,thestructuralanalysisofsimilewillbebasedon
thosetheoriesofLeechandFishelov.Forinstance,inthesimileform,Janeruns
asadeer,Janeisthetenor(T),adeerthevehicle(V),asthesimilemarker
(SM)andrunningtheground(G).Besides,thetopic(Tp)isadescriptionof
Jane. The marker is the determining factor in simile: the latter will be a
metaphorifitsmarkerisomitted.Ifthetwocompareditems(thetenorandthe
vehicle)belongtothesamecategory,thesimilewilldegenerateintoaliteral
comparison.
Simile,whichistherootnotionoftropes,pointsalikenessnotusually
perceivedbetweentwoitemstoclarifyanimage.Moreover,itisanexplicit
comparison with the words like or as, whereas metaphor is an implicit
comparison.Similesarecommonlyfoundinproseandverse.Asaliterarywork,
CharlesDickens HardTimes isfullofdifferentlinguisticfeatures,mainlyof
figuresofspeech.Simileisdeemedtobethemostfrequentlyuseddeviceinthis
novel.Therefore,anexaminationofDickensworks,particularlyofHardTimes,
isneededtounderstandhisstyle,mainlytheuseofsimileinthenovel.

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CHAPTERII
INVESTIGATIONoftheUSEofSIMILEinDICKENS
HARDTIMES
CharlesDickens:ACriticalReview
Victorians appear to be the British people contemporaries in different
ways.TheyfacedseveraldifficultieswhichcanbefoundintheBritishsociety
evennow.
VictorianEnglandisknownofthegreatdevelopmentoftheIndustrial
Revolution.By1850,Englandwasthefirstindustrialnationintheworld:most
of its people worked in industry. Although it may have been an era of
achievementandprogress,theVictorianagewasalsoaperiodofdoubtand
anxiety.
Duringthisera,membersofhumbleoriginsmovedtopositionsofwealth
and government, and people of the working class were forced into the
overcrowdedcitieswheretheyworkedinbadconditionsforlowwages.This
situationinspiredseveralVictorianwriterswhoattemptedtodepictarealpicture
of their society. Through many of their works, these writers revealed their
commitmenttowardstheirsocialenvironmentduringthenineteenthcentury.
DickensasaCommittedNovelist
Charles Dickens is regarded as one of the most outstanding English
novelistswhoseimmensecreativepowermadehimthemostpopularauthorof
hisage.Borninanindustrialsociety,Dickenswasalwaysawareofthesocial
andeconomicabyssesofthatperiod.Hewroteseveralnovels,beginningwith
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Pickwick Papers (183637) and ending with The Mystery of Edwin Drood
(1870);hisinventivenessisprodigious.Mostofhisnovelswerefirstserialised
inmonthlyorweeklyinstallmentsindifferentmagazines;thentheyappearedin
volumeforms.HisfirstPickwickPapershashadagreatsuccess.Itcameoutina
serial form and gave the Victorian literature some of its most amusing and
knowncharacters.
HardTimesisoftenregardedasaworkoftheVictoriantimes.Through
this novel, Dickens attempts to show the abuses and inadequacies of the
Victorian institutions. The novel is set in an industrial environment where
ThomasGradgrindschildrenwerebornandbroughtupinaccordancewithhard
facts,neglectinganykindofimagination.Philip,themaincharacterofDickens
GreatExpectations,hasmanyhopesanddreamswhichcannotbereached.The
novelisusuallyviewedasapictureofPhilipssociety,inwhichVictorianstry
tocopewithitscruelties.
DickensProseStyle
Dickensisoftenknownforthecontinuousvitalityofhisprosestyle.Most
ofhisnovelsarecharacterisedbyhisgiftoffascinatingcharacterisation.His
minorcharactersare,intermsofaction,distinguishedbytheirindividualspeech
patterns, idiosyncratic idioms which belong only to those characters and are
neverrepeated.Dickensextremelyflexiblestylecreatessuchdiscriminations
andsocialobservations.Hischaracterstakeplaceintheworldofthenovelto
which they belong through their language. They are remarkable individuals.
OliverTwist,Micawber,UriahHeep,TinyTim,Squeers,Scroogeanddozensof
othercharactersarepartoftheEnglishfolklore.
Inwriting,Dickenspowersarethoughttobemany.Theauthorcanmake
plotsofcomplexitytoensureasenseofmysteryanduncertaintyinhisnovels.
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Thiswayhelpshimasanovelistwhosewritingsareproducedinserialform.He
develops the technique of suspense to afine art inhis works. His plots are
deemedtobetheproductofhisfertileimagination.Hischaractersarevividly
andcogentlydrawnandinvitethereaderswarmlyintothepagesofhisnovels.
HardTimes,oneofhismostfamousnovels,hasoccupiedalargepartin
theworksofmanycritics.ItisregardedasaproductoftheVictoriantimes.The
novelwasoftenstudiedasahistoricalwork,neglectingitsartisticandlinguistic
sides.Critics,suchasRuskinsawthatHardTimesoughttobecloselytackledby
persons interested in social matters. Leavis was the first literary critic who
appreciatedDickensfullyastheShakespeareofthenovel.
HardTimes:AnOverview
HardTimesfirstappearedinweeklypartsinDickensjournal,Household
Words.ThefirstpartwaspublishedinissueNo.210inApril1854,andthelast
oneinAugustofthesameyearinissueNo.229.Thenovelwasthenpublished
inonevolumebyBradburyandEvansinthesameyear.Inthisedition,the
authoraddedtitlestohischaptersandtothethreebooksintowhichthenovelis
divided.
ThePlot
Thomas Gradgrind, a citizen of the industrial city, Coketown, is a
misguided advocate of Utilitarianism. Mr. Gradgrind as a practical man
believesinfactsandstatisticsandbringsuphistwoeldestchildren,Tomand
Louisa,accordingly,suppressingtheimaginativesidesoftheirnature.
ThestoryopensintheGradgrindsschoolwhereThomasGradgrindis
presentedaddressinghispupils,insistingontheimportanceoffacts.Itisironic
that onhiswayhometoStoneLodge,Mr. Gradgrindpassesthecircusand
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discoversthatTomandLouisaarepeepingintothetent 1.SissyJupeistheonly
littlevesselinthisschoolthatisnotfilledwithfacts.Anotherpupil,Bitzer,
showsoffhisabilitytoreciteallthephysicalcharacteristicsofahorse.
Attheendofthenovel,Dickens,briefly,introducesthefutureofhismain
characters.ThefutureshowsBitzerrisinginbusiness,Bounderbydyingofafit
inthestreet,Gradgrindadoptingthephilosophyoffaith,hopeandlove,Tom
dyingpenitentabroad,Sissymarryingandraisingalovingfamily,andLouisa,
remainingunmarried,lovingSissyandherchildren.
TheStyleofHardTimes
In HardTimes,thereareseveralinstancesofthemaincharacteristicsof
Dickensstyle.Someofthesedevicesmanifestthemselvesinrepetition,diction,
detailondetail,irony,humour,imageryandsimile.

Simile
Simile is the most frequently used linguistic device in Hard Times.
Dickensmakesuseofthisdevicetodescribehischaractersandhisfictional
placesinthenovel.HisdepictionofCoketownstandsasaninstanceoftheuse
ofsimile:[]itwasatownofunnaturalredandblacklikethepaintedfaceof
a savage. Analysing the syntactic structure of this simile, the tenor (T) is
Coketown,thevehicle(V)isthefaceofasavage,theground(G)canbe
darkness,thesimilemarker(SM)islikeandthetopic(Tp)isaportrayalof
Coketown.Theauthortriestointroducethegrimrealityofthisindustrialtown.
Charles Dickens wrote many novels known for their attack on the
Victoriansocialevils.Hisstoriesoftenpointtothevalueandimportanceof
cheerfulnessandimaginationasanantidotetothecrueltiesofasocietybasedon
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factsandreason.
Dickens Hard Times raises different issues related to the Victorian
society as a whole. The author compares the educational system of Thomas
Gradgrind who insists on facts and the world of circus which represents
imagination. HardTimes presentsapessimisticpictureofEnglandduringthe
Victorianage.
As a literary work, the novel can be considered as a store of various
linguisticfeatures.Dickensmakesuseofdifferentlinguisticdevices,suchas
repetition,ironyandimagery.Simileis,yet,themostfrequentlyuseddevicein
thenovel.
Theauthorhasanobjectivebehindtheoveruseofthisfigureofspeech:
DickenswantstotransmithisimpressionsandviewstowardstheVictorians.
Thischaptertriestoexaminetwomainissues.First,itattemptstoclarifythe
statusof simileinthenovelbyexploringdata.Second,ittriestoelucidatethe
conceptof simile byformulatinganoperationaldefinitionandassessingthose
differenttheoriesputforward.
TheSelectedSimileMarkersintheStudy
AimingatinvestigatingsimileinHardTimes,differentsimilemarkersare
examinedtoknowhowtheyoperate.Thesemarkersareoftenconsideredto
makeanopenset,makingitadifficulttasktoconfinesimile.
There are, however, two structures, like and as, which become
apparentandclearbyvirtueoftheirfrequencyofoccurrenceinthenovel.The
similemarker,as,combineswithotherwordstoproducevariousstructures.
Thefollowingfivesimilemarkersformthebasisofthisinvestigation:like,
as,asas,asifandasthough.
Inordertofacilitatethesearchforsimilesinthenovel,thechoiceofthese
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markersisoneofconvenienceandofexhaustiveness.Intuitively,itcanbesaid
thatthesemarkersareatthecoreofsimile.
Specifyingthelinguisticcontextofthefivesimilemarkersinthenovel
can help to exclude some citations. As may not signal simile if it is
immediatelyfollowedbyconjunctssuchasto,yetandfor1:
Asasdoesnotindicatetheoccurrenceofsimileifitispresentedwithwords
likesoon,well,often,muchandnear.
1

SimileMarkers,in:http://www.les.aston.ac.Uk/lsu/diss/jkatsaros.html(July2004)

TheFrequencyofSimileinHardTimes
Inthissection,eachsimilemarkerinthenovelisexaminedinordertosee
howitworks.Differentsimilesarestudiedinaccordancewiththeinvestigative
model described in the literature review section, focusing on their syntactic
structures.
Like
Likeisoftenregardedastheprototypicalsimilemarker.Itisusedin
differentstructuresin HardTimes torepresentvarioustopics.Dickensmakes
useofliketotalkaboutanimateandinanimatetopics,describinghischaracters
andplaces.Intheopeningchapterofthenovel,Dickenshasrecoursetosimile,
portraying Mr. Gradgrind when he introduces his model philosophy to his
pupils.
Dickens makes use of caricature to describe his characters physical
appearance.Forthispurpose,heintroducessimilestodrawmoredetailsabout
the people he describes in the novel. His portrayal of Bitzers appearance
definingthehorseisanotherillustrationoftheuseofsimileinHardTimes:
Bitzer,afterrapidlyblinkingatThomasGradgrindwithbotheyesatonce,and
socatchingthelightuponhisquiveringendsoflashesthattheylookedlikethe
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antennaeofbusyinsects,puthisknucklestohisfreckledforehead,andsat
downagain.(HT:4)

Bitzerisnotausualhumanbeing;heistheproductofhismechanical
society.Hegivesadefinitionofahorseintheclassroominarobotlikemanner.
Intheabovepassage,DickensdescribesBitzerslashesastheantennaeofan
insect.Thus,the(T)isBitzerslashes,the(V)istheantennaeofbusyinsects
and the (SM) is like. The (G) is quivering: Bitzers lashes quiver as the
antennaeoftheinsectsact.Besides,the(Tp)isaportrayalofBitzer.
ThroughoutHardTimes,Dickenscontinuestoportrayhischaracters
appearanceandactions.HedescribesThomasGradgrind(Tom)asfollows:
But,LouisalookedatherfatherwithmoreboldnessthanThomasdid.Indeed,
Thomasdidnotlookathim,butgavehimselfuptobetakenhomelikea
machine.(HT:1011)

Inthiscaseofsimile,Tomiscomparedtoamachinecontrolledbyhis
father.Syntacticallyspeaking,the(T)isTom,the(V)isamachineand
like is the (SM). The (G) of this comparison is acting automatically.
Moreover,the(Tp)isadepictionofTom.Tomfollowsthedirectionofhis
fatherwithoutthinkingorshowinganyfeeling.Throughthiscaseofsimile,the
author illustrates the theme of harsh education in the Victorian society. Mr.
Gradgrind depriveshissonoffeelingsandemotions.Theuseoftheindefinite

article,a,generalizessuchaportrayal.Intheinstanceabove,thepsychological
impressionisoneofgeneralizationcombinedwiththementalimageryinvolved.
Dickens is often known for his wit to create special characters in his
novels. The author uses simile as a means to give more details about his
characters.HisdescriptionofJosiahBounderbysappearancestandsasanother
instanceoftheuseofsuchalinguisticdeviceinHardTimes:
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Amanwithagreatpuffedheadandforehead,swelledveinsinhistemples,
andsuchastrainedskintohisfacethatitseemedtoholdhiseyesopen,andlift
hiseyebrowsup.Amanwithapervadingappearanceonhimofbeinginflated
likeaballoon,andreadytostart.(HT:12)

In brief, the simile marker, like, is used to describe characters, their


actionsandsomeplacesinthenovel.Therefore,onemaysaythatlikehelps
thewriterdevelophisplotandenhancesnarrationofhisstory.

As
Asisoftenconsideredtobeoneofthemostimportantsimilemarkers
becauseitcancombinewithotherwordstoformdifferentstructures.Theauthor
makesuseofthemarkerasinHardTimestotackledifferenttopics.Thelatter
includeshumanportrayals,actionsanddescriptionsoffeelings.
Throughout the novel, as is used either as a pre position or as a
subordinator, introducing a clause of similarity. In the following instance of
simile,asfunctionsasapreposition.Comingbackhome,StephenmeetsMrs.
Pegler, a mysterious old woman who asks him many questions about
Bounderbyshealthandappearance.Stephensatisfieshercuriosity,givingher
informationaboutthesocalledselfmademan:
Asshestraightenedherownfigure,andheldupherheadinadaptingher
actiontoherwords,[].
Andhowdidhelook,Sir?Washeportly,bold,outspoken,and
hearty?Andhealthy,saidtheoldwoman,asthefreshwind?
Yes,returnedStephen.(HT:69)

InMrs. Peglersspeech,thecomparisonisbetweenBounderbyandthe
freshwind.Inthiscaseof simile,the(T)isBounderby,the(V)isthefresh
20

windandthe(SM)isas.Besides,the(G)ishealthfulness.Bounderbyis
totallyfreefromanyillnessandfullofenergy.The(Tp)isadescriptionof
Bounderby.
Dickensalsomakesuseofassimilesinordertocompletethemakeup
ofhischaracters.HedescribesMrs.Sparsitasfollows:
Allthejourney,immovableintheairthoughneverleftbehind;plaintothe
darkeyesofhermindastheelectricwires whichruledacolossalstripof
musicpaperoutoftheeveningsky,wereplaintothedarkeyesofherbody;
[].(HT:188)

In short, the (SM), as, functions either as a preposition or as a


subordinatorin HardTimes.Dickensusesthismarkerinordertoportrayhis
charactersandtheiractions.
Asas
OneofthemainsimilemarkersusedinHardTimesisasas.This
markeristhoughttobeintroducedtointensifymeaning,beingpossiblymore
effectivethantheothersimilemarkersinthisrespect.Dickensdoeshave
recoursetoasastotalkaboutdifferenttopics.Hedescribespeople,their
actionsandfeelings,theirmentalstatesandverbalacts.Healsodepicts
inanimateobjectssuchasplacesinthenovel.
DickensusesasasinasceneinwhichBounderby,standinginfrontof
the fire at Stone Lodge, talks to Mrs. Gradgrind about the poverty he
experienced in his childhood and the way he overcame all the obstacles to
becomea successfulselfmademan:
[]Ipassedthedayinaditch,andthenightinapigsty.[]Notthata
ditchwasnewtome,forIwasborninaditch.
Mrs.Gradgrind,alittle,thin,white,pinkeyedbundleofshawls,[];Mrs.
21

Gradgrindhopeditwasadryditch?
No!Aswetasasop.Afootofwaterinit,saidMr.Bounderby.(HT:13)

Inhisspeech,Bounderbymakesacomparisonbetweentwoitems,the
ditchandasop.TheditchwhereBounderbywasbornandthesophavethe
samecharacteristics.Thus,the(T)istheditch,the(V)isasop,the(SM)is
asasandthe(G)iswet.The(Tp)isadepictionoftheditch.Tomaintain
theideaofbeingselfmade,Bounderbydoesexaggerateeverythingabouthis
childhood. He proclaims that the ditch was the place where he was born,
consideringitasasop.BounderbytriestoshowMrs.Gradgrindhowmiserable
thelifehelivedwas.
Finally,onemayconcludethatthesimilemarker,asas,isusedfor
differentpurposesinHardTimes.Dickenshasrecoursetoitinordertohandle
varioustopics.Inasassimiles,thegroundisexplicitlycited.Thus,mostof
thesesimilesarenonpoetic.Thismarkerisoftenregardedasanotherformof
as.
Asif
Itcanbesaidthattheuseofasifinthenovelisduetocertainmotivesof
thewriter.Thismarkerusuallyintroducesahypotacticclause;itfunctionsasa
subordinatingconjunction.Dickensmakesuseofsuchamarkerinportraying
human beings, in depicting their actions and emotions, and in describing
inanimateobjects.
DescribingSissysreactionafterlosingherfather,theauthorusessimile
toemphasizethenatureofhermakeup:
Itwassopathetictohearhersayingmanythingsofthiskind,withherface
turnedupward,andherarmsstretchedoutasifsheweretryingtostophis
departingshadowandembraceit[].(HT:33)
22

Byusingasifsimiles,Dickenstacklesdifferenttopics.The(SM),as
if,usuallyfunctionsasasubordinatingconjunction,introducingahypotactic
clause.Inthelatter,theauthor usesthesubjunctivemoodwhichreferstoa
hypotheticalstate.Inthisrespect,onededucesthatthesubjunctiveparallelsthe
indefinitearticleasameansforgeneralization.
Asthough
Asthoughisconsideredasanoldformofasif.Asasubordinating
conjunction,italsoexpandsintoahypotacticclause.InHardTimes,thissimile
markerisusedtotalkaboutcharacters,theiractions,theirfeelingsandinanimate
items.
In the second opening chapter of the novel, Dickens emphasizes the
physicalappearanceofBitzer,Gradgrindspupil,makinguseofasthough:
Hisskinwassounwholesomelydeficientinthenaturaltinge,thathelooked
asthough,ifhewerecut,hewouldbleedwhite.(HT:4)

Through the use of simile in his novel, Dickens tries to describe his
characters, their actions and the places where they live. Therefore, such
descriptionscanhelptodeveloptheplotofthestory.Also,hehasrecourseto
thislinguisticdevicetointensifythemeaningofanywordinhisworkandto
create new meanings without using new words. The teacher as well as the
studentmayfindsuchdataofsimileausefulwaytointroduceanyliterarywork
in the classroom. In the following chapter, we will try to propose some
pedagogicalimplicationsoftheuseofsimileinDickensHardTimes.
HelpingLearnerswithSimileintheNovel
Students often find difficulties in understanding the ambiguities of
23

figurativelanguage.Manynovelsarerichinvariousfiguresofspeechwhichare
included under the general term of metaphor. The latter is an implicit
comparisonbetweentwoessentiallyunlikeitems.
Studentsmayfinditdifficulttounderstandmetaphorsinnovelsforsome
reasons.First,itisnotnecessarilyclearforlearnersthatametaphorisusedin
theliterarytexttheyarereading.However,similesareclearlyidentifiedbythe
learner of English, since there is a simile marker in each structure. Second,
learners may find difficulty in unraveling the relation between apparently
dissimilarthings.Forinstance,themetaphoricalstatementdaysfireisoften
usedtodescribethesun.Tounderstandthismetaphor,thelearnerofEnglish
oughttoinferthatoneitem,thesun,isimplicitlycomparedtotheother,the
fire.So,thefirestandsforthesun.Studentsneedtofindoutthequalities
that the two items have in common; some of these characteristics are
brightnessandwarmth.Inaddition,theyshoulddiscovertheeffectsofthe
useofsuchadevice.Therefore,understandingmetaphorsinvolvesengagingina
seriesoflinguisticinferences.Studentsmayinterpretmetaphorsorsimilesby
drawing on their own individual associations. These associations are usually
determinedbytheconventionsandcustomsoftheirsocialenvironment.The
simile,heislikealion,isoftenusedtorefertobravenessandcourage;itis
also introduced by students from other societies to indicate savagery or
royalty.Theteacherneedstostrikeabalancebetweenallowingtheintegrityof
learnersinterpretations,whilesimultaneouslyreferringtothesymbolicmeaning
forthewriterssociety.
Another point that can arise is that students may find difficulty in
distinguishingbetweentheusesofthedifferentsimilemarkers,like,as,as
as,asifandasthough.Inthiscase,theteacherofliteratureoughttofinda
strategyoraplanofhis/herlessononsimiletofollowinordertogetoverallthe
24

above mentioned difficulties. In the following section, we suggest a sample


lessonofhowtoteachsimileusingaliterarytextasacorpus.

Seetheproposeddefinitionofsimile(pp.9192)

CONCLUSION
Thepresentstudyshowstheimportantroleofsimile,incontrastwiththe
classicalviewwhichhighlightsthedecorativefunctionofthislinguisticdevice.
Following the Romantic view, it can be said that simile functions in a
constructiveway.
Metaphor, being a blanket term, refers to different figures of speech,
including simile. Metaphor is an implicit comparison, whereas simile is an
explicitone,usingmarkerslikelikeandas.Itiscommonlyusedinpoetry
andprose.Asaliterarywork,DickensHardTimescontainsdifferentlinguistic
devices,mainlyfiguresofspeech.Simileisthefrequentlyusedfigureofspeech
inthenovel.
Dickensusesvariousformsofsimilewithdifferentmarkers.Like,as,
asas,asifandasthoughrepresentthesimilemarkersinvestigatedinthe
present study. This work considered the functions of simile in the readers
25

approachtothenarrativewhichisusuallysaidtorepresentanunknownworld,
remotefromthepresentexperience.Thepresentinquiryattemptedtoaccount
forthemeansbywhichDickensallowshisreaderstoaccesseachdetailofhis
society.

26

Wehopethatthesequestionswillopenupforthestudentnewperspectivesfor
researchonsimileinliterature.Wealsohopethatthisstudyhashelpedtothrow
somelightontheuseofsimileinCharlesDickensHardTimes.Ourobjectiveis
thatteachersaswellasstudentswillfindsomeusefultheoreticalandpractical
ideasaboutsimile.BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Alderson,J.C.andUrquhart,A.H.,1984,ReadinginaForeignLanguage,

London:Longman.
- Beardsley, M., 1967, Metaphor, in Edwards, P., (ed.), 1967, The

EncyclopaediaofPhilosophy,vol.5,NewYork:MacmillanPublishing.
- Betsky,S., 1996,SocietyinThackerayandTrollope,inFord,B.,(ed.),

1996, FromDickenstoHardy,vol.6of TheNewPelicanGuidetoEnglish


Literature,London:PenguinBooks(pp.139163).
- Black, M., 1979, More about Metaphor, in Ortony, A., (ed.), 1979,

MetaphorandThought,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress(pp.1943).
- Carey, J., 1973, The Violent Effigy: A Study of Dickens Imagination,

London:FaberandFaber.
- Carter,R. and McRae,J., 1996, ThePenguinGuidetoEnglishLiterature:

BritainandIreland,London:PenguinBooks.
- Chapman,R.,1973,LinguisticsandLiterature,London:EdwardArnold.

SimileMarkers,in
http://www.les.aston.ac.Uk/lsu/diss/jkatsaros.html(July2004)
PlotOverviewofHardTimes,in
http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/hardtimes/summary.html(March2005)
27

ThemesofHardTimes,in
http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/hardtimes/themes.html(March2005)

Glossary
- Alliteration:afigureofspeechinwhichconsonants,mainlyatthebeginning

ofwordsandstressedsyllables,arerepeated.
- Allusion:usuallyanimplicitreferencetoanotherworkofliteratureorartand

toapersonoranevent.Itisanappealtothereaderstosharesomeexperience
withthewriter.
- Caricature: a term used to refer to the exaggerated description of ones

appearanceandattitudes.
- Diction: word choice; different ways of selecting from the range of

vocabularies.
- Drama:aworkthatismadetobeperformedonstagebyactors.
- Euphemism:thesubstitutionofamildexpressionforaharshandbluntone.
- Hyperbole: afigureofspeechthatischaracterisedbyanexaggerationfor

emphasis.
- Imagery: coverstheuseoflanguagetorepresentobjects,actions,feelings,

thoughtsandanysensoryexperience.
- Irony: somethingwhichhasanothermeaningputbythewriter;itisusually

theopposite,andoftenhasahumoroustone.
-
- Metaphor:referstoacertainlinguisticprocesswherebyaspectsofoneitem
aretransferredtoanotheritem.
- Metonymy:afigureofspeechinwhichthenameofathingistransferredto

taketheplaceofanotherthingwithwhichitisassociated.
- Modality:textualelementssuchasmodalauxiliaries(e.g.may,could,would)
28

and sentence adverbs (perhaps, certainly) signaling attitude and enabling


speakerstoexpressdegreesofcommitmenttothetruthorvalidityofwhatthey
aretalkingabout.
- Oxymoron: a common device which combines contradictory words and

meaningsforaparticulareffect.
- Parallelism: consists of phrases or sentences of similar construction and

meaningplacedsidebyside,balancingeachother.
- Personification:theattributionofhumanfeaturestoinanimateobjects.
- Polysemy:thechangeofmeaninginwords.
- Pragmatics:thestudyofwhatpeoplemeanbylanguagewhentheyuseitina

suitablecontexttoachievecertainaims.
- Repetition: amainunifyingelementinpoetryandprose.Itcanconsistof

sounds,specialsyllablesandwords,phrases,ideasandmetricalpatterns.
- Rhythm: the sense of movement communicated by the arrangement of

stressedandunstressedsyllablesandbythedurationofthesyllables.
- Romanticperiod:aliterarymovementthatrejectstherulesofClassicismand

focusesontheneedforexpressingpersonalpassionsduringtheeighteenthand
nineteenthcenturies.
- Semantics:thestudyofmeaningasencodedinalanguageinabstractionfrom

itsuseinaparticularcontext.
- Simile:anexplicitcomparisonofonethingwithanother,recognizablebythe

useofwordslikelikeandas.
- Stylistics: the study of style in language, i.e., the analysis of distinctive

linguisticexpressionsandthedescriptionoftheirpurposeandeffect.
- Symbol: an object, animate or inanimate, that represents or stands for

somethingelse.Itcombinesanimagewithaconcept.
Synecdoche:afigureofspeechwhichcoversthosecaseswherethepartstands
29

forthewholeorviceversa.

30

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