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Moment of inertia

This article is about the mass moment of inertia of a rotating object. For area moment of inertia in beam bending,
see second moment of area.
The moment of inertia, otherwise known as the an-

Tightrope walker Samuel Dixon using the long rods moment of


inertia for balance while crossing the Niagara River in 1890.
Flywheels have large moments of inertia to smooth out mechanical motion. This example is in a Russian museum.

gular mass or rotational inertia, of a rigid body determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis. It depends on the bodys mass
distribution and the axis chosen, with larger moments requiring more torque to change the bodys rotation. It is an
extensive (additive) property: the moment of inertia of a
composite system is the sum of the moments of inertia of
its component subsystems (all taken about the same axis).
One of its denitions is the second moment
of mass with
respect to distance from an axis r, I = Q r2 dm , integrating over the entire mass Q .

tum. The amount of torque needed for any given rate of


change in angular momentum is proportional to the moment of inertia of the body. Moment of inertia may be
expressed in terms of kilogram-square metres (kgm2 ) in
SI units and pound-square feet (lb ft2 ) in imperial or US
units.

Moment of inertia plays the role in rotational kinetics that


Mass (inertia) plays in linear kinetics - both characterize
the resistance of a body to changes in its motion. The
moment of inertia depends on how mass is distributed
around an axis of rotation, and will vary depending on
the chosen axis. For a point-like mass, the moment of
inertia about some axis is given by d2 m, where d is the
distance to the axis, and m is the mass. For an extended
body, the moment of inertia is just the sum of all the small
pieces of mass multiplied by the square of their distances
from the axis in question. For an extended body of a regular shape and uniform density, this summation sometimes
1 Introduction
produces a simple expression that depends on the dimenWhen a body is rotating, or free to rotate, around an axis, sions, shape and total mass of the object.
a torque must be applied to change its angular momen- In 1673 Christiaan Huygens introduced this parameter
For bodies constrained to rotate in a plane, it is sucient to consider their moment of inertia about an axis
perpendicular to the plane. For bodies free to rotate in
three dimensions, their moments can be described by a
symmetric 3 3 matrix; each body has a set of mutually perpendicular principal axes for which this matrix is
diagonal and torques around the axes act independently
of each other.

3 SIMPLE PENDULUM

in his study of the oscillation of a body hanging from a


pivot, known as a compound pendulum.[1] The term moment of inertia was introduced by Leonhard Euler in his
book Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum in
1765,[1][2] and it is incorporated into Eulers second law.
The natural frequency of oscillation of a compound pendulum is obtained from the ratio of the torque imposed by
gravity on the mass of the pendulum to the resistance to
acceleration dened by the moment of inertia. Comparison of this natural frequency to that of a simple pendulum consisting of a single point of mass provides a mathematical formulation for moment of inertia of an extended
body.[3][4]
Moment of inertia also appears in momentum, kinetic energy, and in Newtons laws of motion for a rigid body as
a physical parameter that combines its shape and mass.
There is an interesting dierence in the way moment of
inertia appears in planar and spatial movement. Planar
movement has a single scalar that denes the moment of
inertia, while for spatial movement the same calculations
yield a 3 3 matrix of moments of inertia, called the inertia matrix or inertia tensor.[5][6]
The moment of inertia of a rotating ywheel is used in a
machine to resist variations in applied torque to smooth
its rotational output. The moment of inertia of an airplane about its longitudinal, horizontal and vertical axes
determines how steering forces on the control surfaces of
its wings, elevators and tail aect the plane in roll, pitch
and yaw.
Spinning gure skaters can reduce their moment of inertia
by pulling in their arms, allowing them to spin faster due to
conservation of angular momentum.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13]

Denition

Moment of inertia I is dened as the ratio of the angular


I = mr2 .
momentum L of a system to its angular velocity around
a principal axis, that is[7][9]
Thus, moment of inertia depends on both the mass m of
a body and its geometry, or shape, as dened by the distance r to the axis of rotation.
L
I= .
This simple formula generalizes to dene moment of in
ertia for an arbitrarily shaped body as the sum of all the
If the angular momentum of a system is constant, then as elemental point masses dm each multiplied by the square
the moment of inertia gets smaller, the angular velocity of its perpendicular distance r to an axis S .
must increase. This occurs when spinning gure skaters
In general, given an object of mass m, an eective radius
pull in their outstretched arms or divers move from a
k can be dened for an axis through its center of mass,
straight position to a tuck position during a dive.
with such a value that its moment of inertia is
If the shape of the body does not change, then its moment
of inertia appears in Newtons law of motion as the ratio
of an applied torque on a body to the angular accelera- I = mk 2 ,
tion around a principal axis, that is
where k is known as the radius of gyration.
= I.

3 Simple pendulum

For a simple pendulum, this denition yields a formula


for the moment of inertia I in terms of the mass m of the Moment of inertia can be measured using a simple penpendulum and its distance r from the pivot point as,
dulum, because it is the resistance to the rotation caused

3
by gravity. Mathematically, the moment of inertia of the
pendulum is the ratio of the torque due to gravity about
the pivot of a pendulum to its angular acceleration about
that pivot point. For a simple pendulum this is found to be
the product of the mass of the particle m with the square
of its distance r to the pivot, that is
I = mr2 .
This can be shown as follows: The force of gravity on the
mass of a simple pendulum generates a torque = r F
around the axis perpendicular to the plane of the pendulum movement. Here r is the distance vector perpendicular to and from the force to the torque axis. Here F is
the tangential component of the net force on the mass.
Associated with this torque is an angular acceleration,
, of the string and mass around this axis. Since the mass
is constrained to a circle the tangential acceleration of the Pendulums used in Mendenhall gravimeter apparatus, from 1897
mass is a = r . Since F = ma the torque equation scientic journal. The portable gravimeter developed in 1890
becomes:
by Thomas C. Mendenhall provided the most accurate relative
measurements of the local gravitational eld of the Earth.

= r F = r (m r) = (mr2 ) = Ie,
where e is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the
pendulum. (The second to the last step occurs because
of the BAC-CAB rule using the fact that is always perpendicular to r.) The quantity I = mr2 is the moment of
inertia of this single mass around the pivot point.

around a pivot. Its moment of inertia is the sum of the


moments of inertia of each of the particles that it is composed of.[14][15]:395396[16]:5153 The natural frequency (
n ) of a compound pendulum depends on its moment
of inertia, IP ,

The quantity I = mr2 also appears in the angular momenmgr


,
tum of a simple pendulum, which is calculated from the n =
IP
velocity v = r of the pendulum mass around the pivot,
where is the angular velocity of the mass about the pivot where m is the mass of the object, g is local acceleration of gravity, and r is the distance from the pivot point
point. This angular momentum is given by
to the centre of mass of the object. Measuring this frequency of oscillation over small angular displacements
provides an eective way of measuring moment of inL = r (mv) = (mr2 ) = Ie,
ertia of a body.[17]:516517
using math similar to that used to derive the previous
Thus, to determine the moment of inertia of the body,
equation.
simply suspend it from a convenient pivot point P so that
Similarly, the kinetic energy of the pendulum mass is de- it swings freely in a plane perpendicular to the direction
ned by the velocity of the pendulum around the pivot to of the desired moment of inertia, then measure its natural
yield
frequency or period of oscillation ( t ), to obtain
EK =

1
1
1
mv v = (mr2 ) 2 = I 2 .
2
2
2

This shows that the quantity I = mr2 is how mass combines with the shape of a body to dene rotational inertia.
The moment of inertia of an arbitrarily shaped body is
the sum of the values mr2 for all of the elements of mass
in the body.

Compound pendulum

IP =

mgr
mgrt2
,
=
n2
4 2

where t is the period (duration) of oscillation (usually averaged over multiple periods).
The moment of inertia of the body about its centre of
mass, IC , is then calculated using the parallel axis theorem to be
IC = IP mr2 ,

A compound pendulum is a body formed from an assem- where m is the mass of the body and r is the distance
bly of particles of continuous shape that rotates rigidly from the pivot point P to the centre of mass C .

6 CALCULATING MOMENT OF INERTIA ABOUT AN AXIS

Moment of inertia of a body is often dened in terms


of its radius of gyration, which is the radius of a ring of
equal mass around the centre of mass of a body that has
the same moment of inertia. The radius of gyration K
is calculated from the bodys moment of inertia IC and
mass m as the length,[18]:12961297

K=

4.1

6 Calculating moment of inertia


about an axis

IC
.
m

Center of oscillation

A simple pendulum that has the same natural frequency as


a compound pendulum denes the length L from the pivot
to a point called the centre of oscillation of the compound
pendulum. This point also corresponds to the centre of
percussion. The length L is determined from the formula,

g
=
L

Four objects with identical masses and radii racing down a plane
while rolling without slipping. From back to front: spherical shell
(red), solid sphere (orange), cylindrical ring (green) and solid
cylinder (blue). The time for each object to reach the nishing
line depends on their moment of inertia. (OGV version)

mgr
,
IP

The moment of inertia about an axis of a body is calculated by summing mr2 for every particle in the body,
where r is the perpendicular distance to the specied axis.
or
To see how moment of inertia arises in the study of the
movement of an extended body, it is convenient to consider a rigid assembly of point masses. (This equation
IP
g
L= 2 =
.
can be used for axes that are not principal axes provided
n
mr
that it is understood that this does not fully describe the
The seconds pendulum, which provides the tick and moment of inertia.[21] )
tock of a grandfather clock, takes one second to swing
Consider the kinetic energy of an assembly of N masses
from side-to-side. This is a period of two seconds, or a
m that lie at the distances r from the pivot point
natural frequency of radians/second for the pendulum.
P, which is the nearest point on the axis of rotation.
In this case, the distance to the center of oscillation, L ,
It is the sum of the kinetic energy of the individual
can be computed to be
masses,[17]:516517[18]:10841085 [18]:12961300

n =

L=

g
9.81 m/s2
=
= 0.99 m.
n2
(3.14 rad/s)2

EK =

N (

1
i=1

)
mi vi vi

N (

1
i=1

)
2

mi (ri )

N
1 2
=
mi ri2 .
2
i=1

Notice that the distance to the center of oscillation of the


seconds pendulum must be adjusted to accommodate dif- This shows that the moment of inertia of the body is the
ferent values for the local acceleration of gravity. Katers sum of each of the mr2 terms, that is
pendulum is a compound pendulum that uses this property to measure the local acceleration of gravity, and is
called a gravimeter.
N

IP =
mi ri2 .

Measuring moment of inertia

i=1

Thus, moment of inertia is a physical property that comThe moment of inertia of complex systems such as a vehi- bines the mass and distribution of the particles around the
cle or airplane around its vertical axis can be measured by rotation axis. Notice that rotation about dierent axes of
suspending the system from three points to form a trilar the same body yield dierent moments of inertia.
pendulum. A trilar pendulum is a platform supported The moment of inertia of a continuous body rotating
by three wires designed to oscillate in torsion around its about a specied axis is calculated in the same way, exvertical centroidal axis.[19] The period of oscillation of cept with innitely many point particles. Thus the limits
the trilar pendulum yields the moment of inertia of the of summation are removed, and the sum is written as folsystem.[20]
lows:

6.1

IP =

Example calculation of moment of inertia

mi ri2

Another expression replaces the summation with an


integral,

(x, y, z) r dV

IP =
Q

Here, the function gives the mass density at each point


(x, y, z), r is a vector perpendicular to the axis of rotation
and extending from a point on the rotation axis to a point
(x, y, z) in the solid, and the integration is evaluated over
the volume V of the body Q. The moment of inertia of a
at surface is similar with the mass density being replaced
by its areal mass density with the integral evaluated over
its area.
Note on second moment of area: The moment of inertia
of a body moving in a plane and the second moment of
through its centre and perpendicular to its face (pararea of a beams cross-section are often confused. The
allel to its axis of rotational symmetry) is determined
moment of inertia of body with the shape of the crossby integration.[18]:1301 Align the z-axis with the axis
section is the second moment of this area about the zof the disc and dene a volume element as dV = sr
axis perpendicular to the cross-section, weighted by its
drd, then
density. This is also called the polar moment of the area,
and is the sum of the second moments about the x and y

2 R
R4
mR2
axes.[22] The stresses in a beam are calculated using the
IC,disc =
r2 dV =
r2 sr dr d = 2s
=
,
second moment of the cross-sectional area around either
4
2
0
0
Q
the x-axis or y-axis depending on the load.
where m = R2 s is its mass.

6.1

Example calculation of moment of inertia

Main article: List of moments of inertia


The moment of inertia of a compound pendulum constructed from a thin disc mounted at the end of a thin rod
that oscillates around a pivot at the other end of the rod,
begins with the calculation of the moment of inertia of
the thin rod and thin disc about their respective centres
of mass.[18]

The moment of inertia of the compound pendulum


is now obtained by adding the moment of inertia of
the rod and the disc around the pivot point P as,
( )2
L
IP = IC,rod + Mrod
+ IC,disc + Mdisc (L + R)2 ,
2
where L is the length of the pendulum. Notice that the
parallel axis theorem is used to shift the moment of inertia from the centre of mass to the pivot point of the
pendulum.

The moment of inertia of a thin rod with constant


cross-section s and density and with length about
a perpendicular axis through its centre of mass is
determined by integration.[18]:1301 Align the x-axis
with the rod and locate the origin its centre of mass
at the centre of the rod, then

A list of moments of inertia formulas for standard body


shapes provides a way to obtain the moment of inertial of
a complex body as an assembly of simpler shaped bodies.
The parallel axis theorem is used to shift the reference
point of the individual bodies to the reference point of
the assembly.

/2
x3
x dV =
x s dx = s
3 /2
/2

As one
example,
consider the moment of inertia of
( more
)
3
sphere
3of constant
m2 density about an axis through
s
a
solid
+
=
,
=
8 of mass.
8
12 is determined by summing the
its3centre
This
moments of inertia of the thin discs that form the sphere.
If the surface of the ball is dened by the equation[18]:1301

IC,rod =
Q

/2

where m = s is the mass of the rod.

The moment of inertia of a thin disc of constant


thickness s, radius R, and density about an axis x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R2 ,

7 MOMENT OF INERTIA IN PLANAR MOVEMENT OF A RIGID BODY

ri = ri R,

vi = (ri R) + V,

where is the angular velocity of the system and V is the


velocity of R.
For planar movement the angular velocity vector is directed along the unit vector k which is perpendicular to
the plane of movement. Introduce the unit vectors e from
the reference point R to a point r , and the unit vector t
= k e so
ri ei = ri R,

vi = ri ti + V,

i = 1, . . . , n.

This denes the relative position vector and the velocity


vector for the rigid system of the particles moving in a
plane.
Note on the cross product: When a body moves paralthen the radius r of the disc at the cross-section z along lel to a ground plane, the trajectories of all the points in
the body lie in planes parallel to this ground plane. This
the z-axis is
means that any rotation that the body undergoes must be
around an axis perpendicular to this plane. Planar movement is often presented as projected onto this ground
r(z)2 = x2 + y 2 = R2 z 2 .
plane so that the axis of rotation appears as a point. In this
Therefore, the moment of inertia of the ball is the sum of case, the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the
body are scalars and the fact that they are vectors along
the moments of inertia of the discs along the z-axis,
the rotation axis is ignored. This is usually preferred for
introductions to the topic. But in the case of moment of
R
R
inertia, the combination of mass and geometry benets

IC,ball =
r(z)4 dz =
(R2 z 2 )2 dz
from the geometric properties of the cross product. For
R 2
R 2
this reason, in this section on planar movement the an(
) R

2 2 3 1 5
4
gular velocity and accelerations of the body are vectors
=
R z R z + z
2
3
5
perpendicular to the ground plane, and the cross product
R
)
(
operations are the same as used for the study of spatial
2 1
R5
= 1 +
rigid body movement.
3 5
=

2mR2
,
5

where m = 4/3R is the mass of the ball.

7.1 Angular momentum in planar movement

The angular momentum vector for the planar movement


of a rigid system of particles is given by[14][17]

Moment of inertia in planar


movement of a rigid body

[mi (ri R) vi ]
If a mechanical system is constrained to move parallel
i=1
n
to a xed plane, then the rotation of a body in the sys
tem occurs around an axis k perpendicular to this plane.
=
[mi ri ei (ri ti + V)]
In this case, the moment of inertia of the mass in this
i=1
[ n
]
[ n
]
system is a scalar known as the polar moment of iner

2
=
mi ri k +
(mi ri ei ) V.
tia. The denition of the polar moment of inertia can be
i=1
i=1
obtained by considering momentum, kinetic energy and
Newtons laws for the planar movement of a rigid system Use the centre of mass C as the reference point so
of particles.[14][17][23][24]
L=

If a system of n particles, Pi, i = 1,...,n, are assembled into


a rigid body, then the momentum of the system can be
written in terms of positions relative to a reference point
R, and absolute velocities v

ri ei = ri C,
n

i=1

(mi ri ei ) = 0,

7.3

Newtons laws for planar movement

and dene the moment of inertia relative to the centre of


mass IC as
EK =
IC =

1
1
IC 2 + M V V.
2
2

The moment of inertia IC is the polar moment of inertia


of the body.

mi ri2 ,

then the equation for angular momentum simplies


7.3
to[18]:1028

Newtons laws for planar movement

L = IC k.
The moment of inertia IC about an axis perpendicular to
the movement of the rigid system and through the centre
of mass is known as the polar moment of inertia.
For a given amount of angular momentum, a decrease in
the moment of inertia results in an increase in the angular velocity. Figure skaters can change their moment of
inertia by pulling in their arms. Thus, the angular velocity achieved by a skater with outstretched arms results in
a greater angular velocity when the arms are pulled in,
because of the reduced moment of inertia.

7.2

A 1920s John Deere tractor with the spoked ywheel on the engine. The large moment of inertia of the ywheel smooths the
operation of the tractor

Kinetic energy in planar movement

Newtons laws for a rigid system of N particles, Pi, i =


1,..., N, can be written in terms of a resultant force and
torque at a reference point R, to yield[14][17]

F=

mi Ai ,

i=1

=
This 1906 rotary shear uses the moment of inertia of two ywheels to store kinetic energy which when released is used to cut
metal stock (International Library of Technology, 1906).

(ri R) mi Ai ,
i=1

where r denotes the trajectory of each particle.

The kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the


The kinetic energy of a rigid system of particles moving acceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R
in the plane is given by[14][17]
and acceleration A of the reference particle as well as the
angular velocity vector and angular acceleration vector
of the rigid system of particles as,
n
n

1
1
EK =
(mi vi vi ) =
(mi (ri ti + V) (ri ti + V)) .
2 i=1
2 i=1
Ai = (ri R) + (ri R) + A.
This equation expands to yield three terms
For systems that are constrained to planar movement, the
angular velocity and angular acceleration vectors are directed
( n along
) k perpendicular to the plane of movement,
n
n

simplies this acceleration equation. In this case,


)
1 2 (
1which
2
EK =
mi ri (ti ti ) +V
mi ri ti +
mi VV.
acceleration vectors can be simplied by introducing
2 i=1
2the i=1
i=1
the unit vectors e from the reference point R to a point
Let the reference point be the centre of mass C of the r and the unit vectors t = k e , so
system so the second term becomes zero, and introduce
the moment of inertia IC so the kinetic energy is given
by[18]:1084
Ai = (ri ti ) 2 (ri ei ) + A.
(

8 THE INERTIA MATRIX FOR SPATIAL MOVEMENT OF A RIGID BODY

This yields the resultant torque on the system as


N

(
[
])
=
[mi ri ei ] (ri ti ) 2 (ri ei ) + A
i=1

(
=

)
mi ri2

(
k +

)
mi ri ei

A,

L=

(mi ri vi ) =

i=1

(mi ri ( ri )) =

i=1

(mi ri

i=1

where the terms containing VR sum to zero by denition


of the centre of mass.

To dene the inertia matrix, let us rst note that a skewsymmetric matrix [B] could be constructed from a vector
where e e = 0, and e t = k is the unit vector perpen- b that performs the cross product operation, such that
dicular to the plane for all of the particles P .
i=1

i=1

Use the centre of mass C as the reference point and dene the moment of inertia relative to the centre of mass [B]y = b y.
IC , then the equation for the resultant torque simplies
This matrix [B] has the components of b = (b, b ,b ) as
to[18]:1029
its elements, in the form
= IC k.

0
The parameter IC is the polar moment of inertia of the [B] = bz
moving body.
by

The inertia matrix for spatial


movement of a rigid body

bz
0
bx

by
bx .
0

Now construct the skew-symmetric matrix [r]= [r-C]


obtained from the relative position vector r=r - C, and
use this skew-symmetric matrix to dene,

( n
)

The scalar moments of inertia appear as elements in a ma2


L=
mi [ri ] = [IC ],
trix when a system of particles is assembled into a rigid
i=1
body that moves in three-dimensional space. This inertia matrix appears in the calculation of the angular mo- where [IC ] dened by
mentum, kinetic energy and resultant torque of the rigid
system of particles.[3][4][5][6][25]
n

An important application of the inertia matrix and New- [IC ] =


mi [ri ]2 ,
tons laws of motion is the analysis of a spinning top. This
i=1
is discussed in the article on gyroscopic precession. A
is the symmetric inertia matrix of the rigid system of parmore detailed presentation can be found in the article on
ticles measured relative to the centre of mass C.
Eulers equations of motion.
Let the system of particles Pi, i = 1,..., n be located at the
coordinates r with velocities v relative to a xed refer- 8.2 Kinetic energy
ence frame. For a (possibly moving) reference point R,
The kinetic energy of a rigid system of particles can be
the relative positions are
formulated in terms of the centre of mass and a matrix of
mass moments of inertia of the system. Let the system
of particles Pi, i = 1,...,n be located at the coordinates r
ri = ri R
with velocities v, then the kinetic energy is[3][6]
and the (absolute) velocities are
vi = ri + VR

1
1
(mi vi vi ) =
(mi ( ri + VC ) ( ri + VC )
2 i=1
2 i=1
n

EK =

where is the angular velocity of the system, and VR is


the velocity of R.
where r= r-C is the position vector of a particle relative
to the centre of mass.

8.1

Angular momentum

This equation expands to yield three terms

If the reference point R in the assembly, or body, is chon


n

1
sen as the centre of mass C, then its angular momentum E = 1
(m
(

r
)

r
))+
(mi VC ( ri ))+
i
i
i
K
[3][6]
2 i=1
2i
takes the form,
i=1

8.4

Parallel axis theorem

The second term in this equation is zero because C is


the centre of mass. Introduce the skew-symmetric matrix [r] so the kinetic energy becomes
Thus, the resultant torque on the rigid system of particles
is given by
( n
)
n
1
1
EK =
(mi ([ri ]) ([ri ]))+
mi VC VC .
2 i=1
2 i=1
= [IC ] + [IC ],
( n
)
n
where [IC] is the inertia matrix relative to the centre of

)
1 (
1
EK =
mi ( T [ri ]T [ri ]) +
mi VC V
C.
mass.
2 i=1
2 i=1
( n
( n
)
)

1
1
EK =
mi [ri ]2 +
mi VC VC . 8.4 Parallel axis theorem
2
2
i=1
i=1

Thus, the kinetic energy of the rigid system of particles Main article: Parallel axis theorem
is given by
The inertia matrix of a body depends on the choice of the
reference point. There is a useful relationship between
1
1
the inertia matrix relative to the centre of mass C and the
EK = [IC ] + M V2C .
2
2
inertia matrix relative to another point R. This relationwhere [IC] is the inertia matrix relative to the centre of ship is called the parallel axis theorem.[3][6]
mass and M is the total mass.
Consider the inertia matrix [IR] obtained for a rigid system of particles measured relative to a reference point R,
given by
8.3 Resultant torque
The inertia matrix appears in the application of Newtons
n

second law to a rigid assembly of particles. The resultant [I ] =


mi [ri R]2 .
R
torque on this system is,[3][6]
i=1
Let C be the centre of mass of the rigid system, then
=

((ri R) (mi ai )) ,

i=1

R = (R C) + C = d + C,
where a is the acceleration of the particle P. The
kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the ac- where d is the vector from the centre of mass C to the refceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R and erence point R. Use this equation to compute the inertia
acceleration A of the reference point, as well as the an- matrix,
gular velocity vector and angular acceleration vector
of the rigid system as,
n

[IR ] =
mi [ri C d]2 .
i=1

ai = (ri R) + (ri R) + AR .

Expand this equation to obtain

Use the centre of mass C as the reference point, and introduce the skew-symmetric matrix [r]=[r-C] to represent
the cross product (r - C)x, to obtain

(
[IR ] =

(
=

)
mi [ri ]2

(
+

i=1

) ( n
)
( n

mi [ri C] +
mi [ri C] [d]+[d]
mi [ri

i=1

)
mi [ri ]2

i=1

The calculation uses the identity

ri ( ( ri )) + (( ri ) ri ) = 0,

i=1

The rst term is the inertia matrix [IC] relative to the centre of mass. The second and third terms are zero by definition of the centre of mass C. And the last term is the
total mass of the system multiplied by the square of the
skew-symmetric matrix [d] constructed from d.
The result is the parallel axis theorem,

obtained from the Jacobi identity for the triple cross product as shown in the proof below:
[IR ] = [IC ] M [d]2 ,

i=1

10

10 THE INERTIA TENSOR

where d is the vector from the centre of mass C to the


reference point R.
Note on the minus sign: By using the skew symmetric
matrix of position vectors relative to the reference point,
the inertia matrix of each particle has the form m[r]2 ,
which is similar to the mr2 that appears in planar movement. However, to make this to work out correctly a minus sign is needed. This minus sign can be absorbed into
the term m[r]T [r], if desired, by using the skew-symmetry
property of [r].

The inertia matrix and the scalar


moment of inertia around an arbitrary axis

(S(S(ri )))S(S(ri )) = (S(S(ri )))S(S(ri )),


where the dot and the cross products have been interchanged. Expand the cross products to compute

(ri ) S (S (ri )) = S [ri ][ri ]S,


where [r] is the skew symmetric matrix obtained from
the vector r=r-R.
Thus, the moment of inertia around the line L through R
in the direction S is obtained from the calculation

IL =
The scalar moment of inertia, IL, of a body about a specied axis whose direction is specied by the unit vector S or
and passes through the body at a point R is as follows:[6]
[
IL = S

2
mi |r
i | =

i=1

IL = S (

mi [ri ]2 S = S [IR ]S = ST [IR ]S,

mi S [ri ]2 S,

i=1

mi [ri ]2 )S = S [IR ]S = ST [IR ]S,

i=1

i=1

where [IR] is the moment of inertia matrix of the system


where [IR] is the moment of inertia matrix of the system relative to the reference point R.
relative to the reference point R.
This shows that the inertia matrix can be used to calcuThis is derived as follows. Let a rigid assembly of N late the moment of inertia of a body around any specied
particles, Pi, i = 1,...,N, have coordinates r. Choose R rotation axis in the body.
as a reference point and compute the moment of inertia
around an axis L dened by the unit vector S through the
reference point R. The moment of inertia of the system 10 The inertia tensor
around this line L=R+tS is computed by determining the
perpendicular vector from this axis to the particle P given The inertia matrix is often described as the inertia tenby
sor, which consists of the same moments of inertia and
products of inertia about the three coordinate axes.[6][23]
The inertia tensor is constructed from the nine component
T
r
=
(r

R)

(S

(r

R))S
=
[[I]

[SS
]](r
),
tensors, (the symbol is the tensor product)
i
i
i
i
where [I] is the identity matrix and [S ST ] is the outer
product matrix formed from the unit vector S along the e e , i, j = 1, 2, 3,
i
j
line L.
To relate this scalar moment of inertia to the inertia ma- where e, i=1,2,3 are the three orthogonal unit vectors
trix of the body, introduce the skew-symmetric matrix [S] dening the inertial frame in which the body moves. Using this basis the inertia tensor is given by
such that [S]y=S x y, then we have the identity

[S]2 = [I] [SST ],


which relies on the fact that S is a unit vector.
The magnitude squared of the perpendicular vector is

I=

3
3

Iij ei ej .

i=1 j=1

This tensor is of degree two because the component tensors are each constructed from two basis vectors. In this
form the inertia tensor is also called the inertia binor.

2
2
2
For a rigid system of particles Pk, k = 1,...,N each of mass
|r
i | = ([S] (ri ))([S] (ri )) = S[ri ][ri ]S.
m with position coordinates r =(x , y , z ), the inertia
The simplication of this equation uses the identity
tensor is given by

10.1

I=

Identities for a skew-symmetric matrix

11

10.1 Identities for a skew-symmetric matrix


mk ((rk rk )E rk rk ),

To compute moment of inertia of a mass around an axis,


the perpendicular vector from the mass to the axis is
needed. If the axis L is dened by the unit vector S
through the reference point R, then the perpendicular
vector from the line L to the point r is given by

k=1

where E is the identity tensor

E = e1 e1 + e2 e2 + e3 e3 .
The inertia tensor for a continuous body is given by

T
r
i = (ri R) (S (ri R))S = [[I] [SS ]](ri ),

where [I] is the identity matrix and [S ST ] is the outer


product matrix formed from the unit vector S along the
I=
(r) ((r r) E r r) dV,
line L. Recall that skew-symmetric matrix [S] is conQ
structed so that [S]y=S x y. The matrix [I-SST ] in this
equation subtracts the component of r=r-R that is parwhere r denes the coordinates of a point in the body
allel to S.
and (r) is the mass density at that point. The integral is
taken over the volume V of the body. The inertia tensor The previous sections show that in computing the moment
of inertia matrix this operator yields a similar operator
is symmetric because I = I .
using the components of the vector r that is
Alternatively it can also be written in terms of the hat
operator as:

[I|r|2 rrT ].

(r)(
r)2 dV,

I=

It is helpful to keep the following identities in mind to


compare the equations that dene the inertia tensor and
the inertia matrix.

The inertia tensor can be used in the same way as the


inertia matrix to compute the scalar moment of inertia Let [R] be the skew symmetric matrix associated with the
position vector R=(x, y, z), then the product in the inertia
about an arbitrary axis in the direction n,
matrix becomes
In = n I n,

2 2

0 z y
y + z2
xy
xz
2

0 x = yx
x2 + z 2
yz .
where the dot product is taken with the corresponding el- [R] = z
2
y x
0
zx
zy
x + y2
ements in the component tensors. A product of inertia
term such as I12 is obtained by the computation
This can be viewed as another way of computing the perpendicular distance from an axis to a point, because the
matrix formed by the outer product [R RT ] yields the
I12 = e1 I e2 ,
identify
and can be interpreted as the moment of inertia around
the x-axis when the object rotates around the y-axis.

2
x + y2 + z2
The components of tensors of degree two can be assem- [R]2 = |R|2 [I][RRT ] =
0
bled into a matrix. For the inertia tensor this matrix is
0
given by,
where [I] is the 3x3 identity matrix.

I11
[I] = I21
I31

I12
I22
I32


I13
Ixx
I23 = Iyx
I33
Izx

Ixy
Iyy
Izy

Ixz
Iyz .
Izz

0
x2 + y 2 + z 2
0

Also notice, that

|R|2 = R R = tr[RRT ],

It is common in rigid body mechanics to use notation that


explicitly identies the x, y, and z axes, such as I and I , where tr denotes the sum of the diagonal elements of the
outer product matrix, known as its trace.
for the components of the inertia tensor.

0
0
x2 + y 2 + z

12

11

11

THE INERTIA MATRIX IN DIFFERENT REFERENCE FRAMES

The inertia matrix in dierent 11.3 Inertia of an ellipsoid


reference frames

The use of the inertia matrix in Newtons second law assumes its components are computed relative to axes parallel to the inertial frame and not relative to a body-xed
reference frame.[6][23] This means that as the body moves
the components of the inertia matrix change with time. In
contrast, the components of the inertia matrix measured
in a body-xed frame are constant.

11.1

Body frame inertia matrix

An ellipsoid with the semi-principal diameters labelled a, b, and

Let the body frame inertia matrix relative to the centre of c.


mass be denoted [ICB ], and dene the orientation of the
The moment of inertia matrix in body-frame coordinates
body frame relative to the inertial frame by the rotation
is a quadratic form that denes a surface in the body called
matrix [A], such that,
Poinsots ellipsoid.[28] Let [] be the inertia matrix relative to the centre of mass aligned with the principal axes,
then the surface
x = [A]y,
where vectors y in the body xed coordinate frame have
T
coordinates x in the inertial frame. Then, the inertia ma- x []x = 1,
trix of the body measured in the inertial frame is given
or
by

[IC ] = [A][ICB ][AT ].

I1 x2 + I2 y 2 + I3 z 2 = 1,

denes an ellipsoid in the body frame. Write this equation


Notice that [A] changes as the body moves, while [ICB ]
in the form,
remains constant.

11.2

Principal axes

x2
y2
z2
2+
2+
2 = 1,
(1/ I1 )
(1/ I2 )
(1/ I3 )

Measured in the body frame the inertia matrix is a constant real symmetric matrix. A real symmetric matrix has to see that the semi-principal diameters of this ellipsoid
the eigendecomposition into the product of a rotation ma- are given by
trix [Q] and a diagonal matrix [], given by

[ICB ] = [Q][][QT ],
where

I1
[] = 0
0

0
I2
0

0
0 .
I3

1
a= ,
I1

1
b= ,
I2

1
c= .
I3

Let a point x on this ellipsoid be dened in terms of its


magnitude and direction, x=|x|n, where n is a unit vector. Then the relationship presented above, between the
inertia matrix and the scalar moment of inertia I around
an axis in the direction n, yields

T
2 T
2
The columns of the rotation matrix [Q] dene the direc- x []x = |x| n []n = |x| In = 1.
tions of the principal axes of the body, and the constants
I1 , I2 and I3 are called the principal moments of iner- Thus, the magnitude of a point x in the direction n on the
tia. This result was rst shown by J. J. Sylvester (1852), inertia ellipsoid is
and is a form of Sylvesters law of inertia.[26][27]

For bodies with constant density an axis of rotational


1
|x| = .
symmetry is a principal axis.
In

13

12

See also

[11] Breithaupt, Jim (2000). New Understanding Physics for


Advanced Level. Nelson Thomas. p. 64. ISBN
0748743146.

Central moment

[12] Crowell, Benjamin (2003). Conservation Laws. Light and


Matter. p. 107. ISBN 0970467028.

Instant centre of rotation


List of moments of inertia

[13] Tipler, Paul A. (1999). Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics. Macmillan. p. 304. ISBN 1572594918.

Rotational energy
Stretch rule

[14] Paul, Burton (June 1979). Kinematics and Dynamics of Planar Machinery. Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780135160626.

Tire balance

13

[15] Walker, David Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl (2005).


Fundamentals of physics (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
ISBN 9780471216438.

References

[1] Mach, Ernst (1919). The Science of Mechanics. pp. 173


187. Retrieved November 21, 2014.
[2] Euler, Leonhard (1765). Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum: Ex primis nostrae cognitionis principiis stabilita et ad omnes motus, qui in huiusmodi corpora cadere possunt, accommodata [The theory of motion
of solid or rigid bodies: established from rst principles of
our knowledge and appropriate for all motions which can
occur in such bodies] (in Latin). Rostock and Greifswald
(Germany): A. F. Rse. p. 166. ISBN 978-1-4297-42818. From page 166: Denitio 7. 422. Momentum inertiae corporis respectu eujuspiam axis est summa omnium
productorum, quae oriuntur, si singula corporis elementa
per quadrata distantiarum suarum ab axe multiplicentur.
(Denition 7. 422. A bodys moment of inertia with respect to any axis is the sum of all of the products, which
arise, if the individual elements of the body are multiplied
by the square of their distances from the axis.)
[3] Marion, JB; Thornton, ST (1995). Classical dynamics
of particles & systems (4th ed.). Thomson. ISBN 0-03097302-3.
[4] Symon, KR (1971). Mechanics (3rd ed.).
Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07392-7.

Addison-

[5] Tenenbaum, RA (2004). Fundamentals of Applied Dynamics. Springer. ISBN 0-387-00887-X.


[6] Kane, T. R.; Levinson, D. A. (1985). Dynamics, Theory
and Applications. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[7] Winn, Will (2010). Introduction to Understandable
Physics: Volume I - Mechanics. AuthorHouse. p. 10.10.
ISBN 1449063330.
[8] Wolfram, Stephen (2014).
Spinning Ice Skater.
Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Mathematica, Inc. Retrieved September 30, 2014. External link in |work=
(help)

[16] French, A.P. (1971). Vibrations and waves. Boca Raton,


FL: CRC Press. ISBN 9780748744473.
[17] Uicker, John J.; Pennock, Gordon R.; Shigley, Joseph E.
(2010). Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (4th ed.).
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195371239.
[18] Beer, Ferdinand P.; E. Russell Johnston, Jr., Phillip J.
Cornwell (2010). Vector mechanics for engineers: Dynamics (9th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780077295493. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors=
(help)
[19] H. Williams, Measuring the inertia tensor, presented at
the IMA Mathematics 2007 Conference.
[20] Gracey, William, The experimental determination of the
moments of inertia of airplanes by a simplied compoundpendulum method, NACA Technical Note No. 1629,
1948
[21] In that situation this moment of inertia only describes how
a torque applied along that axis causes a rotation about that
axis. But, torques not aligned along a principal axis will
also cause rotations about other axes.
[22] Walter D. Pilkey, Analysis and Design of Elastic Beams:
Computational Methods, John Wiley, 2002.
[23] Goldstein, H. (1980). Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.).
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02918-9.
[24] L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Mechanics, Vol 1. 2nd
Ed., Pergamon Press, 1969.
[25] L. W. Tsai, Robot Analysis: The mechanics of serial and
parallel manipulators, John-Wiley, NY, 1999.
[26] Sylvester, J J (1852). A demonstration of the theorem that every homogeneous quadratic polynomial is
reducible by real orthogonal substitutions to the form
of a sum of positive and negative squares (PDF).
Philosophical Magazine (Ser. 4) 4 (23): 138142.
doi:10.1080/14786445208647087. Retrieved June 27,
2008.

[9] Fullerton, Dan (2011). Honors Physics Essentials. Silly


Beagle Productions. pp. 142143. ISBN 0983563330.

[27] Norman, C.W. (1986). Undergraduate algebra. Oxford


University Press. pp. 360361. ISBN 0-19-853248-2.

[10] Hokin, Samuel (2014). Figure Skating Spins. The


Physics of Everyday Stu. bsharp.org website. Retrieved
September 30, 2014. External link in |publisher= (help)

[28] Mason, Matthew T. (2001). Mechanics of Robotics Manipulation. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13396-8. Retrieved November 21, 2014.

14

14

14

External links

Angular momentum and rigid-body rotation in two


and three dimensions
Lecture notes on rigid-body rotation and moments
of inertia
The moment of inertia tensor
An introductory lesson on moment of inertia: keeping a vertical pole not falling down (Java simulation)
Tutorial on nding moments of inertia, with problems and solutions on various basic shapes
Notes on mechanics of manipulation: the angular
inertia tensor

EXTERNAL LINKS

15

15
15.1

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