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This article is about the mass moment of inertia of a rotating object. For area moment of inertia in beam bending,
see second moment of area.
The moment of inertia, otherwise known as the an-
gular mass or rotational inertia, of a rigid body determines the torque needed for a desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis. It depends on the bodys mass
distribution and the axis chosen, with larger moments requiring more torque to change the bodys rotation. It is an
extensive (additive) property: the moment of inertia of a
composite system is the sum of the moments of inertia of
its component subsystems (all taken about the same axis).
One of its denitions is the second moment
of mass with
respect to distance from an axis r, I = Q r2 dm , integrating over the entire mass Q .
3 SIMPLE PENDULUM
Denition
3 Simple pendulum
3
by gravity. Mathematically, the moment of inertia of the
pendulum is the ratio of the torque due to gravity about
the pivot of a pendulum to its angular acceleration about
that pivot point. For a simple pendulum this is found to be
the product of the mass of the particle m with the square
of its distance r to the pivot, that is
I = mr2 .
This can be shown as follows: The force of gravity on the
mass of a simple pendulum generates a torque = r F
around the axis perpendicular to the plane of the pendulum movement. Here r is the distance vector perpendicular to and from the force to the torque axis. Here F is
the tangential component of the net force on the mass.
Associated with this torque is an angular acceleration,
, of the string and mass around this axis. Since the mass
is constrained to a circle the tangential acceleration of the Pendulums used in Mendenhall gravimeter apparatus, from 1897
mass is a = r . Since F = ma the torque equation scientic journal. The portable gravimeter developed in 1890
becomes:
by Thomas C. Mendenhall provided the most accurate relative
measurements of the local gravitational eld of the Earth.
= r F = r (m r) = (mr2 ) = Ie,
where e is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the
pendulum. (The second to the last step occurs because
of the BAC-CAB rule using the fact that is always perpendicular to r.) The quantity I = mr2 is the moment of
inertia of this single mass around the pivot point.
1
1
1
mv v = (mr2 ) 2 = I 2 .
2
2
2
This shows that the quantity I = mr2 is how mass combines with the shape of a body to dene rotational inertia.
The moment of inertia of an arbitrarily shaped body is
the sum of the values mr2 for all of the elements of mass
in the body.
Compound pendulum
IP =
mgr
mgrt2
,
=
n2
4 2
where t is the period (duration) of oscillation (usually averaged over multiple periods).
The moment of inertia of the body about its centre of
mass, IC , is then calculated using the parallel axis theorem to be
IC = IP mr2 ,
A compound pendulum is a body formed from an assem- where m is the mass of the body and r is the distance
bly of particles of continuous shape that rotates rigidly from the pivot point P to the centre of mass C .
K=
4.1
IC
.
m
Center of oscillation
g
=
L
Four objects with identical masses and radii racing down a plane
while rolling without slipping. From back to front: spherical shell
(red), solid sphere (orange), cylindrical ring (green) and solid
cylinder (blue). The time for each object to reach the nishing
line depends on their moment of inertia. (OGV version)
mgr
,
IP
The moment of inertia about an axis of a body is calculated by summing mr2 for every particle in the body,
where r is the perpendicular distance to the specied axis.
or
To see how moment of inertia arises in the study of the
movement of an extended body, it is convenient to consider a rigid assembly of point masses. (This equation
IP
g
L= 2 =
.
can be used for axes that are not principal axes provided
n
mr
that it is understood that this does not fully describe the
The seconds pendulum, which provides the tick and moment of inertia.[21] )
tock of a grandfather clock, takes one second to swing
Consider the kinetic energy of an assembly of N masses
from side-to-side. This is a period of two seconds, or a
m that lie at the distances r from the pivot point
natural frequency of radians/second for the pendulum.
P, which is the nearest point on the axis of rotation.
In this case, the distance to the center of oscillation, L ,
It is the sum of the kinetic energy of the individual
can be computed to be
masses,[17]:516517[18]:10841085 [18]:12961300
n =
L=
g
9.81 m/s2
=
= 0.99 m.
n2
(3.14 rad/s)2
EK =
N (
1
i=1
)
mi vi vi
N (
1
i=1
)
2
mi (ri )
N
1 2
=
mi ri2 .
2
i=1
IP =
mi ri2 .
i=1
Thus, moment of inertia is a physical property that comThe moment of inertia of complex systems such as a vehi- bines the mass and distribution of the particles around the
cle or airplane around its vertical axis can be measured by rotation axis. Notice that rotation about dierent axes of
suspending the system from three points to form a trilar the same body yield dierent moments of inertia.
pendulum. A trilar pendulum is a platform supported The moment of inertia of a continuous body rotating
by three wires designed to oscillate in torsion around its about a specied axis is calculated in the same way, exvertical centroidal axis.[19] The period of oscillation of cept with innitely many point particles. Thus the limits
the trilar pendulum yields the moment of inertia of the of summation are removed, and the sum is written as folsystem.[20]
lows:
6.1
IP =
mi ri2
(x, y, z) r dV
IP =
Q
2 R
R4
mR2
axes.[22] The stresses in a beam are calculated using the
IC,disc =
r2 dV =
r2 sr dr d = 2s
=
,
second moment of the cross-sectional area around either
4
2
0
0
Q
the x-axis or y-axis depending on the load.
where m = R2 s is its mass.
6.1
/2
x3
x dV =
x s dx = s
3 /2
/2
As one
example,
consider the moment of inertia of
( more
)
3
sphere
3of constant
m2 density about an axis through
s
a
solid
+
=
,
=
8 of mass.
8
12 is determined by summing the
its3centre
This
moments of inertia of the thin discs that form the sphere.
If the surface of the ball is dened by the equation[18]:1301
IC,rod =
Q
/2
ri = ri R,
vi = (ri R) + V,
vi = ri ti + V,
i = 1, . . . , n.
IC,ball =
r(z)4 dz =
(R2 z 2 )2 dz
from the geometric properties of the cross product. For
R 2
R 2
this reason, in this section on planar movement the an(
) R
2 2 3 1 5
4
gular velocity and accelerations of the body are vectors
=
R z R z + z
2
3
5
perpendicular to the ground plane, and the cross product
R
)
(
operations are the same as used for the study of spatial
2 1
R5
= 1 +
rigid body movement.
3 5
=
2mR2
,
5
[mi (ri R) vi ]
If a mechanical system is constrained to move parallel
i=1
n
to a xed plane, then the rotation of a body in the sys
tem occurs around an axis k perpendicular to this plane.
=
[mi ri ei (ri ti + V)]
In this case, the moment of inertia of the mass in this
i=1
[ n
]
[ n
]
system is a scalar known as the polar moment of iner
2
=
mi ri k +
(mi ri ei ) V.
tia. The denition of the polar moment of inertia can be
i=1
i=1
obtained by considering momentum, kinetic energy and
Newtons laws for the planar movement of a rigid system Use the centre of mass C as the reference point so
of particles.[14][17][23][24]
L=
ri ei = ri C,
n
i=1
(mi ri ei ) = 0,
7.3
1
1
IC 2 + M V V.
2
2
mi ri2 ,
L = IC k.
The moment of inertia IC about an axis perpendicular to
the movement of the rigid system and through the centre
of mass is known as the polar moment of inertia.
For a given amount of angular momentum, a decrease in
the moment of inertia results in an increase in the angular velocity. Figure skaters can change their moment of
inertia by pulling in their arms. Thus, the angular velocity achieved by a skater with outstretched arms results in
a greater angular velocity when the arms are pulled in,
because of the reduced moment of inertia.
7.2
A 1920s John Deere tractor with the spoked ywheel on the engine. The large moment of inertia of the ywheel smooths the
operation of the tractor
F=
mi Ai ,
i=1
=
This 1906 rotary shear uses the moment of inertia of two ywheels to store kinetic energy which when released is used to cut
metal stock (International Library of Technology, 1906).
(ri R) mi Ai ,
i=1
1
1
EK =
(mi vi vi ) =
(mi (ri ti + V) (ri ti + V)) .
2 i=1
2 i=1
Ai = (ri R) + (ri R) + A.
This equation expands to yield three terms
For systems that are constrained to planar movement, the
angular velocity and angular acceleration vectors are directed
( n along
) k perpendicular to the plane of movement,
n
n
(
[
])
=
[mi ri ei ] (ri ti ) 2 (ri ei ) + A
i=1
(
=
)
mi ri2
(
k +
)
mi ri ei
A,
L=
(mi ri vi ) =
i=1
(mi ri ( ri )) =
i=1
(mi ri
i=1
To dene the inertia matrix, let us rst note that a skewsymmetric matrix [B] could be constructed from a vector
where e e = 0, and e t = k is the unit vector perpen- b that performs the cross product operation, such that
dicular to the plane for all of the particles P .
i=1
i=1
Use the centre of mass C as the reference point and dene the moment of inertia relative to the centre of mass [B]y = b y.
IC , then the equation for the resultant torque simplies
This matrix [B] has the components of b = (b, b ,b ) as
to[18]:1029
its elements, in the form
= IC k.
0
The parameter IC is the polar moment of inertia of the [B] = bz
moving body.
by
bz
0
bx
by
bx .
0
( n
)
1
1
(mi vi vi ) =
(mi ( ri + VC ) ( ri + VC )
2 i=1
2 i=1
n
EK =
8.1
Angular momentum
1
sen as the centre of mass C, then its angular momentum E = 1
(m
(
r
)
r
))+
(mi VC ( ri ))+
i
i
i
K
[3][6]
2 i=1
2i
takes the form,
i=1
8.4
)
1 (
1
EK =
mi ( T [ri ]T [ri ]) +
mi VC V
C.
mass.
2 i=1
2 i=1
( n
( n
)
)
1
1
EK =
mi [ri ]2 +
mi VC VC . 8.4 Parallel axis theorem
2
2
i=1
i=1
Thus, the kinetic energy of the rigid system of particles Main article: Parallel axis theorem
is given by
The inertia matrix of a body depends on the choice of the
reference point. There is a useful relationship between
1
1
the inertia matrix relative to the centre of mass C and the
EK = [IC ] + M V2C .
2
2
inertia matrix relative to another point R. This relationwhere [IC] is the inertia matrix relative to the centre of ship is called the parallel axis theorem.[3][6]
mass and M is the total mass.
Consider the inertia matrix [IR] obtained for a rigid system of particles measured relative to a reference point R,
given by
8.3 Resultant torque
The inertia matrix appears in the application of Newtons
n
((ri R) (mi ai )) ,
i=1
R = (R C) + C = d + C,
where a is the acceleration of the particle P. The
kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the ac- where d is the vector from the centre of mass C to the refceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R and erence point R. Use this equation to compute the inertia
acceleration A of the reference point, as well as the an- matrix,
gular velocity vector and angular acceleration vector
of the rigid system as,
n
[IR ] =
mi [ri C d]2 .
i=1
ai = (ri R) + (ri R) + AR .
Use the centre of mass C as the reference point, and introduce the skew-symmetric matrix [r]=[r-C] to represent
the cross product (r - C)x, to obtain
(
[IR ] =
(
=
)
mi [ri ]2
(
+
i=1
) ( n
)
( n
mi [ri C] +
mi [ri C] [d]+[d]
mi [ri
i=1
)
mi [ri ]2
i=1
ri ( ( ri )) + (( ri ) ri ) = 0,
i=1
The rst term is the inertia matrix [IC] relative to the centre of mass. The second and third terms are zero by definition of the centre of mass C. And the last term is the
total mass of the system multiplied by the square of the
skew-symmetric matrix [d] constructed from d.
The result is the parallel axis theorem,
obtained from the Jacobi identity for the triple cross product as shown in the proof below:
[IR ] = [IC ] M [d]2 ,
i=1
10
IL =
The scalar moment of inertia, IL, of a body about a specied axis whose direction is specied by the unit vector S or
and passes through the body at a point R is as follows:[6]
[
IL = S
2
mi |r
i | =
i=1
IL = S (
mi S [ri ]2 S,
i=1
i=1
i=1
R)
(S
(r
R))S
=
[[I]
[SS
]](r
),
tensors, (the symbol is the tensor product)
i
i
i
i
where [I] is the identity matrix and [S ST ] is the outer
product matrix formed from the unit vector S along the e e , i, j = 1, 2, 3,
i
j
line L.
To relate this scalar moment of inertia to the inertia ma- where e, i=1,2,3 are the three orthogonal unit vectors
trix of the body, introduce the skew-symmetric matrix [S] dening the inertial frame in which the body moves. Using this basis the inertia tensor is given by
such that [S]y=S x y, then we have the identity
I=
3
3
Iij ei ej .
i=1 j=1
This tensor is of degree two because the component tensors are each constructed from two basis vectors. In this
form the inertia tensor is also called the inertia binor.
2
2
2
For a rigid system of particles Pk, k = 1,...,N each of mass
|r
i | = ([S] (ri ))([S] (ri )) = S[ri ][ri ]S.
m with position coordinates r =(x , y , z ), the inertia
The simplication of this equation uses the identity
tensor is given by
10.1
I=
11
k=1
E = e1 e1 + e2 e2 + e3 e3 .
The inertia tensor for a continuous body is given by
T
r
i = (ri R) (S (ri R))S = [[I] [SS ]](ri ),
[I|r|2 rrT ].
(r)(
r)2 dV,
I=
2 2
0 z y
y + z2
xy
xz
2
0 x = yx
x2 + z 2
yz .
where the dot product is taken with the corresponding el- [R] = z
2
y x
0
zx
zy
x + y2
ements in the component tensors. A product of inertia
term such as I12 is obtained by the computation
This can be viewed as another way of computing the perpendicular distance from an axis to a point, because the
matrix formed by the outer product [R RT ] yields the
I12 = e1 I e2 ,
identify
and can be interpreted as the moment of inertia around
the x-axis when the object rotates around the y-axis.
2
x + y2 + z2
The components of tensors of degree two can be assem- [R]2 = |R|2 [I][RRT ] =
0
bled into a matrix. For the inertia tensor this matrix is
0
given by,
where [I] is the 3x3 identity matrix.
I11
[I] = I21
I31
I12
I22
I32
I13
Ixx
I23 = Iyx
I33
Izx
Ixy
Iyy
Izy
Ixz
Iyz .
Izz
0
x2 + y 2 + z 2
0
|R|2 = R R = tr[RRT ],
0
0
x2 + y 2 + z
12
11
11
The use of the inertia matrix in Newtons second law assumes its components are computed relative to axes parallel to the inertial frame and not relative to a body-xed
reference frame.[6][23] This means that as the body moves
the components of the inertia matrix change with time. In
contrast, the components of the inertia matrix measured
in a body-xed frame are constant.
11.1
I1 x2 + I2 y 2 + I3 z 2 = 1,
11.2
Principal axes
x2
y2
z2
2+
2+
2 = 1,
(1/ I1 )
(1/ I2 )
(1/ I3 )
Measured in the body frame the inertia matrix is a constant real symmetric matrix. A real symmetric matrix has to see that the semi-principal diameters of this ellipsoid
the eigendecomposition into the product of a rotation ma- are given by
trix [Q] and a diagonal matrix [], given by
[ICB ] = [Q][][QT ],
where
I1
[] = 0
0
0
I2
0
0
0 .
I3
1
a= ,
I1
1
b= ,
I2
1
c= .
I3
T
2 T
2
The columns of the rotation matrix [Q] dene the direc- x []x = |x| n []n = |x| In = 1.
tions of the principal axes of the body, and the constants
I1 , I2 and I3 are called the principal moments of iner- Thus, the magnitude of a point x in the direction n on the
tia. This result was rst shown by J. J. Sylvester (1852), inertia ellipsoid is
and is a form of Sylvesters law of inertia.[26][27]
13
12
See also
Central moment
[13] Tipler, Paul A. (1999). Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics. Macmillan. p. 304. ISBN 1572594918.
Rotational energy
Stretch rule
[14] Paul, Burton (June 1979). Kinematics and Dynamics of Planar Machinery. Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780135160626.
Tire balance
13
References
Addison-
[28] Mason, Matthew T. (2001). Mechanics of Robotics Manipulation. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13396-8. Retrieved November 21, 2014.
14
14
14
External links
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