Small intestine

The soupy mixture called chyme spurts from the stomach through a sphincter into
the small intestine. An adult s small intestine is about 23 feet long and is divid
ed into three sections: the first 10 to 12 inches form the duodenum; the next 10
feet form the jejunum; and the final 12 feet form the ileum.Three pairs of sali
vary glands parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual secrete saliva into the mouth. The
saliva contains an enzyme called amylase, which digests starch molecules into s
maller molecules of the disaccharide maltose.
During chewing, the tongue moves food about and manipulates it into a mass calle
d a bolus. The bolus is pushed back into the pharynx (throat) and is forced thro
ugh the opening to the esophagus.
The stomach is an expandable pouch located high in the abdominal cavity. Layers
of stomach muscle contract and churn the bolus of food with gastric juices to fo
rm a soupy liquid called chyme.
The stomach stores food and prepares it for further digestion. In addition, the
stomach plays a role in protein digestion. Gastric glands called chief cells sec
rete pepsinogen. Pepsinogen is converted to the enzyme pepsin in the presence of
hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by parietal cells in the stoma
ch lining. The pepsin then digests large proteins into smaller proteins called p
eptides. To protect the stomach lining from the acid, a third type of cell secre
tes mucus that lines the stomach cavity. An overabundance of acid due to mucus f
ailure may lead to an ulcer.
Most chemical digestion takes place in the duodenum. In this region, enzymes dig
est nutrients into simpler forms that can be absorbed. Intestinal enzymes are su
pplemented by enzymes from the pancreas, a large, glandular organ near the stoma
ch. In addition, bile enters the small intestine from the gallbladder to assist
in fat digestion.
The enzymes functioning in carbohydrate digestion include
maltase (for maltose), sucrase (for sucrose), and lactase
s, the principal enzyme is lipase. Before lipase can act,
fat must be broken into smaller droplets by bile. Bile is
gments, and cholesterol that is produced by the liver and
der, a saclike structure underneath the liver.

amylase (for starch),

(for lactose). For fat
the large globules of
a mixture of salts, pi
stored in the gallblad

Protein digestion is accomplished by several enzymes, including two pancreatic e

nzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin. Peptides are broken into smaller peptides, and
peptidases reduce the enzymes to amino acids. Nucleases digest nucleic acids in
to nucleotides in the small intestine also.
Large intestine
The small intestine joins the large intestine in the lower-right abdomen of the
body. The two organs meet at a blind sac called the cecum and a small fingerlike
organ called the appendix.
Liver
The liver has an important function in processing the products of human digestio
n. For example, cells of the liver remove excess glucose from the bloodstream an
d convert the glucose to a polymer called glycogen for storage.
The liver also functions in amino acid metabolism. In a process called deaminati

on, it converts some amino acids to compounds that can be used in energy metabol
ism. In doing so, the liver removes the amino groups from amino acids and uses t
he amino groups to produce urea. Urea is removed from the body in the urine (see
Chapter 26). Fats are processed into two-carbon units that can enter the Krebs
cycle for energy metabolism. The liver also stores vitamins and minerals, forms
many blood proteins, synthesizes cholesterol, and produces bile for fat digestio
n.