rowsNavigateStudyGuide

Cultural Materialism (Literary Masterpieces, Volume 16)

Inhispopularworks,Cows,Pigs,WarsandWitchesandCannibalsandKings:TheOriginsofCultures,
MarvinHarrisestablishedhimselfasthemajorspokesmanfortheculturalmaterialistapproachto
anthropology.InCulturalMaterialism,heoutlinestheprinciplesofhisanthropologicalpracticeand
compareshisapproachtoalternativemethodologiesinanthropologyinordertomakeacasethat
culturalmaterialismleadstobetterscientifictheoriesaboutthecausesofsocioculturalphenomenathan
anyoftherivalstrategiesthatarecurrentlyavailable.Althoughprimarilyaddressedtotheprofessional
anthropologicalcommunity,Harrisworkwillappealtoalmostanyreaderseriouslyconcernedwiththe
studyofcultures.
ThepointofdepartureforculturalmaterialismisKarlMarxsstatementthatthemodeofproductionin
materiallifedeterminesthegeneralcharacterofthesocial,political,andspiritualprocessesoflife.Itis
nottheconsciousnessofmenthatdeterminestheirexistence,butonthecontrary,theirsocialexistence
determinestheirconsciousness.AlthoughacknowledginghisdebttoMarx,HarrismodifiesMarxs
basicprincipleinsomeimportantwaystomakeitsufficientlyinclusivetodescribeallaspectsofcultural
phenomena.Fundamentally,herejectstheideaofdialecticalcontradictionscentraltodialectical
materialisminfavorofamoreempiricalandscientificanalysisofsystemicinteractionsbetween
thoughtandbehavior.Philosophically,Harrispointsout,dialecticalmaterialismispredicatedon
Hegelianprincipleswhilehisownculturalmaterialismderivesfromtheepistomologicalassumptions
ofDavidHumeandtheBritishempiricistsassumptionsthatledtoDarwin,Spencer,Tylor,Morgan,
Frazer,Boas,andthebirthofanthropologyasanacademicdiscipline.
Marxalsofailed,accordingtoHarris,togiveequalattentiontothemodeofreproductionashedidtothe
modeofproduction,eventhoughthesetwoaspectsofcultureareequalasshapingpowers.Norwas
Marxawareofthemodernanthropologicaldistinctionsbetweenemicaspectsofculture,inwhichthe
nativeinformantofferstheultimatecriteriaforjudgingtheadequacyofanthropologicalobservations,
andeticapproaches,whichmakethescientificobserverthebestjudgeofculturalphenomena.Simply
put,theemicapproachstudiesacultureonitsowntermswhileeticapproachesstudyculturesfrom
theoutsideusingscientificprinciples.Frequently,eticoperationsinvolvethemeasurementand
juxtapositionofactivitiesandeventsthatnativeinformantsmayfindinappropriateormeaningless.
Harrisstressestheseparatestudyofemicandeticaspectsofculturebecause:researchstrategiesthatfail
todistinguishbetweenmentalandbehaviorstreameventsandbetweenemicandeticoperationscannot
developcoherentnetworksoftheoriesembracingthecausesofsocioculturaldifferencesandsimilarities.
Andapriori,onecansaythatthoseresearchstrategiesthatconfinethemselvesexclusivelytoemicsor
exclusivelytoeticsdonotmeetthegeneralcriteriaforanaimorientedsocialscienceaseffectivelyas
thosewhichembracebothpointsofview.
UsinghiselaboratedMarxistperspectiveandtheeticemicdistinctions,Harrisarrivesattheuniversal
culturalprincipleswhichshapetheculturalmaterialistapproachtoanthropologicalresearch:Tobegin
with,eachsocietymustcopewiththeproblemsofproductionbehaviorallysatisfyingminimal
requirementsforsubsistencehencetheremustbeaneticbehavioralmodeofproduction.Second,each
societymustbehaviorallycopewiththeproblemofreproductionavoidingdestructiveincreasesor
decreasesinpopulationsizehencetheremustbeaneticbehavioralmodeofreproduction.Third,each
societymustcopewiththenecessityofmaintainingsecureandorderlybehavioralrelationshipsamong
itsconstituentgroupsandwithothersocieties.
Sinceculturalmaterialistsbelievedisordertobemostlikelytoresultfromeconomicprocesseswhich
allocatelaboranddistributematerialproducts,onemayinfertheuniversalexistenceofeticbehavioral
domesticeconomiesandeticbehavioralpoliticaleconomies.Finally,thereisaneticbehavioral
superstructurewhichencompassesactsbasedonspeechandsymbolicprocesses.Asfurthersimplified

byHarris,thissystemlumpsthemodesofproductionandreproductiontogetherastheinfrastructureofa
culturewhilethedomesticandpoliticaleconomytogethermakeitsstructure.Theinfrastructureand
structurecombinewiththebehavioralsuperstructureintoaninterdependenttripartiteschemeofsocial
organization.
Theseeticaspectsofcultureareparalleledbycomparableemiccomponents,butthelatterareoflesser
importancetoculturalmaterialismthantheformer.Thisrelativeimportanceisbasedonatheoryof
infrastructuraldeterminismwhichstatesthattheeticinfrastructure(modesofproductionand
reproduction)generallydeterminesasocietyseticstructure(politicalanddomesticeconomy)whichin
turndeterminesitsemicbehavioralandmentalsuperstructure.
HarrismostimportantdeparturefromclassicalMarxistprinciplesishisinsistenceonequalstatusfor
modesofreproductionwiththoseofproduction.ForHarris,Thereisnomoreimportantaspectof
productionthanreproductiontheproductionofhumanbeings,andthefailuretoaccordthe
developmentofthetechnologyofpopulationcontrolacentralroleintheevolutionofculturedoesgreat
damagetothecredibilityofbothclassicalandnewwaveMarxistprinciplesandtheories.Inaddressing
thequestionsofwhypopulationsincrease,Harrisdemonstratestheimportanceofreproductionby
arguingthatincreasesoftechnologicalcapabilityfrequentlyhavenotbeenutilizedtosavelaboror
reducetheamountoftimerequiredtogainbasicsubsistence,butratherareputtoincreasingtheenergy
throughout,whichinturnhasnotbeenusedtoimprovelivingstandardsbuttoproduceadditional
children,oftenwiththeeffectofdecreasingthequalityoflife.Suchseeminglyperversebehavior,
Harrisargues,canbestbeaccountedforbyallowingreproductionequalforcewithproductioninshaping
culturaldirections.
Culturalmaterialismhasbeenparticularlysubjecttothecriticismthatitsubordinatesthehumancapacity
forthoughttomechanicallydeterministicsocialforces.Inresponse,Harrisarguesthat:inassertingthe
primacyofthebehavioralinfrastructureoverthementalandemicsuperstructure,culturalmaterialismis
notaddressingthequestionofhowtechnologicalinventionsandotherkindsofcreativeinnovations
originateinindividualsbutratherhowsuchinnovationscometoassumeamaterialsocialexistenceand
howtheycometoexertaninfluenceonsocialproductionandsocialreproduction.
Consciousthought,hesuggests,isimportantinhelpingpeoplecharttheirindividualpathsthroughthe
socialmaze,butthemazeitselfisdeterminedbymaterialconditions.AsSchopenhauerputit,Wewant
whatwewill,butwedontwillwhatwewant.
Inanexamplewhichincorporateselementsofideology,domesticorganization,andmodesof
production,Harriscomparesthesuccessofthecurrentwomensmovementtotherelativelyslight
changesinthesocialsystemwroughtbytheyouthrebellionofthe1960s.Althoughfueledbyastrong
revolutionary,anticapitalistsentiment,theideasofthelattermovementhadabsolutelynoeffectupon
thestructureandinfrastructureofU.S.capitalism,andeventheirsurvivalandpropagationwithinthe
superstructurenowseemsdoubtfulexceptinsofarastheyenhancetheprofitabilityofcorporationsthat
sellrecordsandclothes.Thewomensmovement,ontheotherhand,thoughithasusedconsciousness
raisingasatoolforliberatingwomen,hasalsobenefitedfromimportantchangesinthe
infrastructure:Onecannotarguethatpoliticalideologicalstrugglebywomenwasresponsibleforthevast
shiftsintechnology,production,demandforcheaplabor,riseofcities,andincreasedcostofrearing
childrenwhichprovidethefunctionalinfrastructuralconditionsuponwhichthepropagationand
amplificationofmodernfeministpoliticalideologicalstruggleispremised.
Theseexamplesarenotrandomlychosen.Harrisisathisbestusingthetoolsofculturalmaterialismto
tracetheevolutionofpoliticalunitsfromthemostprimitiveprestatesocietiestoavarietyofmore
complexsociopoliticalsystems.Attheheartoftheculturalmaterialisttheoreticalcorpusisasetof
theoriesdealingwiththeoriginoftheprincipalvarietiesofprestatesocieties,theoriginofsexism,
classes,castes,andthestate,andtheoriginoftheprincipalvarietiesofstatelevelsystems.Lookingat
thedevelopedcountries,andespeciallytheUnitedStates,asthepopulationdeclinesbecauseofthehigh
costofrearingchildrenandtheminimallongtermbenefitstotheirparents,Harrisarrivesatableak
picture:IntheUnitedStatesthisishappeningatthesametimethatresourcesarebeingdepletedand
domesticcapitalisflowingoverseasatanincreasingrateinsearchofcheaplabor,leadingtoinflation

andthenecessityforhavingtwowageearnerspermiddleclassfamily.Fromthiswegetquiteplausibly
thegenerationgap,theflamboyantredefinitionofsexroles,delayedmarriages,shackingup,
communes,homosexualcouples,andonepersonfamilies.Andfromthegeneralclosingdownofthe
Americandream,whichwasfoundedontherapeofthepreviouslyunexploitedresourcesofanentire
continent,wegettherevivalofreligiousfundamentalism,astrology,andsalvationinorfromouter
space.
Tothiscatalogofresultsofadecayinginfrastructure,Harrisaddsasafinalideologicalproduct...the
growingcommitmentofthesocialsciencestoresearchstrategieswhosefunctionitistomystify
socioculturalphenomenabydirectingattentionawayfromtheeticbehavioralinfrastructuralcauses.
MorethanhalfofCulturalMaterialismisdevotedtoacomparisonofHarristheorieswiththoseofsuch
othermajorschoolsofanthropologyassociobiology,dialecticalmaterialism,structuralism,structural
Marxism,psychologicalandcognitiveidealism,eclecticism,andobscurantism.Underlyingthese
comparisons,whichassertthesuperiorabilityofculturalismmaterialismtoaccountforthecausesof
complexsocioculturalphenomena,isHarrissincereconvictionthat,ifsolutionsaretobefoundto
complexsocialproblems,theywillbearrivedatthroughscientificanalysisandobjectiveunderstanding
ofhowcultureswork.Thetimeisripe,Harrismaintains,toreplacetheincohateandunconscious
paradigmsunderwhoseauspicesmostanthropologistsconducttheirresearchwithexplicitdescriptions
ofbasicobjectives,rules,andassumptions.
Harrisskepticismtowardunscientificapproachestoculturestudyreflectshisconvictionthat,while
everyeffortshouldbemadetounderstandthethinkingofotherpeoples,wecannotstopatthat
understanding.Itisimperativethatwereservetherightnottobelievetheirexplanations.Mostofallwe
mustreservetherightnottobelieverulingclassexplanations.ThoughsaidinregardtotheAztec,
Harriswouldmaintainthesameprincipleinregardtothestudyofanyculture,includingourown.Ifit
beanthropologytostruggleagainstthemystificationofthecausesofinequalityandexploitation,he
writes,longliveanthropology.
ItisinHarrisconcernwiththepoliticaldimensionsofculturewhichleadtoexploitationandinjustice
thatweseeunderhisownscientificobjectivitytheimageofatruehumanistwhosesearchfortruthisan
expressionofloveformankind.Toerectabarrierbetweentruthandloveistowantonlydegradeand
limithumannature,hewrites.CulturalMaterialismerectsnosuchbarrier.