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Concepts of Fitness and Conditioning

Basic strength training and conditioning (S&C) principles underlie program design. These
principles can be applied to all training programs in numerous ways. Ultimately,
progression is a long-term goal associated with many S&C practitioners. The advantage
of S&C is that there are many ways to design effective programs. Many programs can
work effectively provided that guidelines are followed. This is a critical concept for S&C
students to understand as one may become bombarded with a spectrum of training
advice. This chapter focuses on the three key principles of progressive overload,
specificity, individualization , reversibility and variation .

PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD
Progressive overload principle states that human body has no need to become
stronger or more conditioned unless it is forced to meet higher physical demands. The
lack of progressive overload in a program is a leading factor for stagnant progress. The
use of progressive overload can overcome accommodation. Accommodation is the
staleness resulting from a lack in change in the training program . Adaptations to a
training program take place within a few weeks. Proper manipulation of acute program
variables alters the training stimulus, and if the stimulus exceeds the individuals
conditioning threshold, then further improvements in muscular fitness can take place.
There are several ways to introduce progressive overload during
S&C. The following sections discuss resistance training (RT); flexibility; speed, power, and
agility; and aerobic
training (AT).
.

RESISTANCE TRAINING
Progressive overload can be incorporated into RT programs in many ways. These include
1. The resistance/loading may be increased. The athlete may train with a higher
relative percentage of his or her one-repetition maximum (1 RM) or use greater
absolute loading within a constant repetition scheme. For example, during weeks 13,
the athlete uses 70% of 1 RM for several structural exercises. During weeks 4 and 5,
75% of 1 RM is used. During weeks 68, 80% of 1 RM is used. This example applies
when a true 1 RM is known for structural exercises and the loading is calculated by
taking the 1 RM and multiplying it by 0.70 (and by 0.75 and 0.80, respectively). For
an absolute loading example: during weeks 1 and 2, the athlete lifts 220 lb in the
bench press for 8 reps. During weeks 3 and 4, the athlete adds weight and performs
the bench press with 225 lb for 8 reps (5 lb is added while repetition number stays
the same).
2. Repetitions may be added to current workload. For example (812 RM loading zone
where the athlete performs a range [812] of reps for an exercise), during weeks 1 and 2,
the athlete lifts 220 lb in the bench
press for 3 sets of 8 reps. During weeks 3 and 4, the athlete maintains loading at 220 lb
but performs 3 sets
of 10 reps. During weeks 5 and 6, the athlete increases rep number to 12 for 3 sets with
220 lb. Once 3 sets
of 12 reps are performed over two successive workouts, the athlete adds weight and
performs 8 reps and
repeats the cycle.
3. Lifting velocity with submaximal loads may be increased to increase the neural
response once technique
is mastered. The intent is to lift the weight as fast as possible. Because force = mass
acceleration,
increasing rep velocity (while mass remains constant) results in higher peak force and
greater strength enhancement.
4. Rest intervals may be lengthened to enable greater loading. In combination with
previous strategies,

lengthening the rest interval will enable more recovery in between sets to tolerate
heavier loading. For
endurance and hypertrophy training, the rest interval could be reduced, decreasing
recovery in between sets.
5. Training volume may be increased within reasonable limits (2%5%) or varied to
accommodate heavier
loads . From beginner to intermediate training, small increases in volume can enhance
RT. However, with further progression it is the variation of volume and intensity that
becomes most important in program design.
6. Other supramaximal-loading training techniques may be introduced. For example,
techniques such as forced repetitions, heavy negatives, partial repetitions in the
strongest area of the range of motion (ROM), and
variable-resistance devices can be used to load either a segment of the ROM or a muscle
action with greater
than 100% of 1 RM. These techniques should only be used sparingly by experienced
individuals.

FLEXIBILITY
For flexibility training, the intensity, volume, duration, and frequency can be increased for
progressive overload.
Intensity refers to the ROM of the stretch, as higherintensity stretching expands joint
ROM and poses more
discomfort to the individual. Volume (number of reps) and duration (length of each
stretch) can be increased
with progression. Lastly, the frequency of stretching can increase with progression.

POWER, SPEED, AND AGILITY


Similar to RT, intensity, volume (and frequency), and rest intervals can be altered for
progressive overload.
For plyometric, speed, and agility drills, more complex exercises can be introduced,
resistance may be used or
increased, longer or higher jumps or throws (drills that require greater power) may be
used to increase intensity
Intensity also increases as athletes increase their speed, jumping ability, power, and
agility. Volume may be increased within reasonable limits as conditioning improves.
However, caution must be used as volume and intensity are inversely related so proper
recovery in between workouts is mandatory. Rest intervals can be manipulated to target
power specifically or high-intensity endurance.

AEROBIC ENDURANCE
To progressively overload an AT program, one may increase volume, duration, and
intensity and decrease
rest intervals. Volume and duration are altered by increasing the distance covered or the
length of the exercise
bouts. Intensity can be increased modestly by exercising at faster rates, adding
resistance, and exercising uphill. It is important to note that intensity cannot increase
greatly or the workout can become anaerobic. Interval training can be used to exercise at
higher intensities. Decreasing rest intervals in between bouts increases the continuity of
exercise and is effective for increasing aerobic endurance.

SPECIFICITY
The principle of specificity entails that all training adaptations are specific to the
stimulus applied. Although nonspecific improvements take place, most improvements will
take place specific to the stimuli. Training adaptations are specific to the muscle actions
involved, velocity of movement and rate of force development (RFD), ROM, muscle
groups trained, energy metabolism, movement pattern, and intensity/volume of training .
Specificity becomes most evident during progression to more advanced RT as many
studies have shown a multitude of transfer training effects in untrained and moderately
trained individuals.

This transfer of training effect applies to


Strength carryover from unilateral training (to the opposite limb)
Strength carryover from the trained muscle action to a nontrained action Strength
carryover from limited ROM training to other areas of the ROM or full ROM
Strength carryover from one velocity to another velocity
Motor performance (jumping ability, sprint speed, and sport-specific movements)
improvements resulting from RT.

MUSCLE ACTION
RT with eccentric (ECC), concentric (CON), and isometric (ISOM) actions increases muscle
strength. Much
of the strength gains are specific to the type of muscle action trained . Training with CON
muscle actions
yields the greatest increases in CON muscle strength. However, some transferred training
effects occur.
When comparing ISOM to dynamic RT, ISOM training can increase dynamic strength
(especially when
multiple joint angles are trained) and dynamic training can increase ISOM muscle
strength . Dynamic
muscle strength increases are greatest when ECC actions are included . Because most
training programs include
CON and ECC muscle actions, strength will increase mostly in these muscle actions.
Although ISOM strength
may increase (as there are ISOM actions present during dynamic RT), the most effective
way to increase ISOM
strength is through specific ISOM training at various joint angles.

VELOCITY OF MOVEMENT
Velocity specificity indicates that greatest strength increases take place at or near the
training velocity. Some
carryover effects to nontrained velocities may occur as well as carryover velocity effects
between muscle actions (ISOM training can increase ISOM RFD and dynamic movement
velocity) . Research has focused on isokinetic RT where velocity specificity is seen plus
some carryover above and below the training velocity .
Collectively, these studies show training at a moderate velocity (180240 per second)
produces the greatest
strength increases across all testing velocities . RT with dynamic muscle actions
demonstrates specificity
and carryover increases to other nontrained lifting velocities. The greatest carryover
effects are seen in
untrained or moderately trained individuals. Advanced trainees benefit greatly from
training at a velocity specific to their needs. Strength/power athletes benefit most from
high-velocity movements (or the intent to maximally accelerate the load)
.

RANGE OF MOTION

Specificity of ROM is seen during limited-ROM dynamic, isokinetic, or ISOM training.


Dynamic limited-ROM
training can increase strength in the trained ROM, with some carryover increases
throughout full ROM . ISOM-training strength increases are specific to the joint angles
trained (angular specificity) but may carry over to
2030 of the trained angle (19). The magnitude of carryover is greatest at joint
angles at greater muscle lengths. These studies show the importance of training in a full
ROM for maximal improvements. There are some exceptions to where dynamic partial
ROM repetitions may be beneficial. However, RT is most effective when repetitions are
performed in a full ROM. For ISOM training, it is recommended that multiple joint angles
are trained corresponding to full joint ROM.

MUSCLE GROUPS TRAINED

Adaptations to training take place predominantly in those muscle groups that were
trained . Ideally,
training will target all major muscle groups. Nevertheless, some areas may be untrained
or trained submaximally. Adaptations to training can only take place when muscle group
specific exercises are performed. Training all major muscle groups is important for
attaining muscle balance, reducing injuries, and optimizing performance.

ENERGY METABOLISM
Adaptations to training are specific to the energy system involvement. Energy systems
adapt mostly by increasing enzyme activity or substrate storage/usage . The interaction
between volume, intensity, repetition velocity, and rest-interval length is critical to
eliciting acute metabolic responses that target different energy systems. Although all
metabolic systems are actively engaged, one may predominate based on the training
stimulus. Much of the energy demands of resistance exercise are met by the ATP-PC and
glycolytic metabolic pathways. Anaerobic glycolysis becomes increasingly important
during intense, long-duration sets and when short rest intervals are used.

MOVEMENT PATTERNS

Although a transfer of training effect may occur and is desired when it comes to
performing motor skills,
specificity in program design relates to movement patterns. Adaptations are specific to
the types of movement
patterns used during training. Examples of the movement patterns examined include free
weights versus
machines, open- versus closed-chain kinetic exercises, unilateral versus bilateral training,
and movementspecific
training.
FREE WEIGHTS VERSUS MACHINES
Specificity of adaptations is seen during training with free weights and machines.
Although both are effective
for increasing muscle strength, it is difficult to state which modality favors greater
strength increases.
The testing device is critical as free-weight training leads to greater improvements on
free-weight tests and machine training results in greater performance on machine tests .
When a neutral testing device is used,
strength improvement from free weights and machines are similar . Free-weight training
appears more
applicable to motor skill enhancement, e.g., vertical jump performance.
Open- Versus Closed-Chain Kinetic Exercises
A closed-chain kinetic exercise is one where the distal segments are fixed (leg press,
squat, deadlift), while an open-chain kinetic exercise (leg extension, leg curl) enables
the distal segment to freely move against loading. Many closed-chain exercises stress
multiple joints, while many open-chain exercises are single joint. Moderate to- high
relationships between closed-chain exercise and vertical/long jump performance have
been shown indicating that performance in closed-chain exercises is strongly related to
various motor performance skills.
Unilateral Versus Bilateral Training
Unilaterally or bilaterally (one vs. two arms or legs) performed exercises affect the
neuromuscular adaptations
to training. Cross education refers to strength gained in the nontrained limb during
unilateral training. The strength increase in the untrained limb may range as high as 22%
(mean increase = 8%) and is thought to occur predominately via neural adaptations .
Bilateral deficit refers to the strength produced by both limbs contracting bilaterally,
which is smaller than the sum of the limbs contracting unilaterally. Unilateral training
(although it increases bilateral strength) contributes to a greater bilateral deficit, whereas
bilateral training reduces the bilateral deficit . Specificity is observed as unilateral RT
results in better performance of unilateral tasks than bilateral training . Athletes involved
in sports where unilateral strength and power are important and those with glaring
weakness on the opposite side may benefit from unilateral training. Unilateral exercises
require greater balance and stability. For example, performing a one-arm incline

dumbbell press (with only one dumbbell) requires the trunk muscles to contract intensely
to offset the torque produced by unilateral loading and enable the athlete to maintain
proper posture throughout the exercise. Optimal training may involve the inclusion of
both bilateral and unilateral exercises with the ratio of bilateral to unilateral contractions
based on the needs of the sport. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has
recommended the inclusion of both into RT programs targeting progression .
Movement-Specific Training
Movement-specific training entails the use of exercises that train specific movements.
The intent is to improve motor performance through RT and to provide a link between
muscular strength gained through traditional RT and movement-specific strength.
Training consists of multiplanar movements, sometimes performed in unstable
environments to enhance stabilizer-muscle function with various pieces of equipment
such as bands, medicine balls, dumbbells, stability balls, kettle bells, ropes, and other
devices.
Overweight/Underweight Implements

A common training tool among athletes is to perform sport-specific exercises against a


resistance, e.g., overweight implements. Overweight implements allow theathlete to
overload a sport-specific motion, thereby
eliciting a resisted motor pattern similar to the motion itself. It is thought that the
overload enhances the
neural response possibly via potentiation and that the enhanced neural responses lead to
greater power
development with subsequent training. Training with overweight implements targets the
force component
of the force-velocity relationship. Underweight implements have been used primarily by
throwing athletes.
Underweight implements target the velocity component of the force-velocity relationship
where athletes
mimic the motor skill by throwing an object lighter than the ball used for the sport. For
throwing athletes,
studies have supported the use of over- and underweight implement training to enhance
throwing velocity
and it has been suggested that the implement used be 5%20% of normal load for
throwing athletes (10).
Overweight implements are used for any motor skill but have mostly been studied during
overarm throwing in baseball and handball players. Some examples include using a
chute, sled, or weighted vest during sprinting
and jumping, swinging weighted bats, and using bands during a motor skill. Overweight
and underweight
implements should be used in conjunction with normal training as the velocity used with
heavier implements
may be slower.

VARIATION
Training variation requires alterations in one or more program variables over time to
keep the stimulus optimal. Because the human body adapts rapidly to stress, variation is
critical for subsequent adaptations to take
place. Studies show the systematic variation of volume and intensity is most effective for
long-term progression
as compared to programs that did not alter any program variable . Workouts can be
varied in infinite ways.
The S&C practitioner should think of each design characteristic as a tool in the proverbial
tool box which provides a wide array of strategies for progression. Many ways exist to
increase strength so the trainer benefits
by including several methods of variation into program design. Training philosophies that
support minimal variation will have limited effectiveness.

PROGRESSION AND PROGRAM DESIGN


TRAINING STATUS AND PROGRESSION
Training status dictates the pattern of progression for a fitness component. Training
status reflects a continuum
of adaptations such that fitness level, training experience, and genetic endowment each
make a contribution. The
largest rates of strength improvement occur in untrained individuals as the window of
adaptation is greatest during this time. Resistance-trained individuals show a slower rate
of progression. In a position stand published
by the ACSM in 2002 (1), >150 studies were reviewed and showed strength increases of
40% in untrained individuals
20% in moderately trained individuals
16% in trained individuals
10% in advanced individuals
2% in elite athletes
These studies ranged from 4 weeks to over 2 years in duration, and the training
programs and testing procedures
varied greatly. It is very difficult if not impossible to accurately classify an individual as
trained or moderately trained because each classification comprises an interaction
between fitness level and years of experience, e.g., some individuals with many years of
experience possess less strength than some with limited experience and vice versa.
However, one can see that progression becomes more difficult as ones conditioning
improves. Similar results were shown where untrained individuals responded most
favorably while less increases were seen in trained individuals . Although these studies
have focused on muscle strength, the same can be said about any fitness variable. The
difficulty in strength progression occurs within as little as several months of training.
Each improvement brings the individual closer to his or he genetic limit. Short-term
studies (<16 weeks) show that the majority of strength increases take place within the
first 48 weeks . The rate and magnitude of progression decrease with higher levels of
conditioning. Plateaus occur as individuals get closer to their genetic ceiling and it
becomes more difficult to improve (principle of diminishing returns). Training programs
need to incorporate progressive overload, specificity, and variation to progress to a
higher level.

GENERAL-TO-SPECIFIC MODEL OF PROGRESSION


Because untrained individuals respond favorably to any training program, less-specific or
general program design is all that is needed initially. There is no need for complexity at
this stage as most programs will work. This initial phase is characterized by learning
proper technique and building a conditioning base for progressive training. The ACSM has
recommended general program structures to start . However, resistance-trained
individuals show a slower rate of progression and demonstrate a cyclical pattern to their
training .Training cycles provide greater opportunities for variation, and variation is
needed in program design. Training progression occurs in an orderly manner from a
general, or less-specific, program design initially to a more specific design with higher
levels of training . Advanced training targeting progression is more complex and requires
great variation specific to training goals

INDIVIDUALIZATION

All individuals respond differently to training despite following the same training
program. Genetics, training status, nutritional intake, and the program itself play
substantial roles in the level of adaptation. One needs to be aware of individual response
patterns and the need for variation if the response is minimal. The most effective
programs are those designed to meet individual needs. This can oftentimes be difficult
especially if one is training several athletes at once. When practical, program
individualization is beneficial for progression.

DETRAINING (PRINCIPLE OF REVERSIBILITY)

Detraining is the complete cessation of training or substantial reduction in frequency,


volume, or intensity that
results in performance reductions and a loss of some of the beneficial physiological
adaptations associated with
training. The length of the detraining period and the training status of the individual
dictate the magnitude of
performance loss. Performance reductions may occur in as little as 2 weeks, and possibly
sooner in trained athletes. In recreationally trained men, muscle strength may be
reduced within 4 weeks of detraining whereas other research shows very little change in
strength during the first 6 weeks detraining . In trained individuals, detraining may result
in greater losses in muscle power than strength . Strength reductions are related to
neural mechanisms initially with atrophy of skeletal muscle predominating as the
detraining period extends. Detraining leads to other physiological changes such as
muscle fiber (IIa to IIx) transitions , reduced anaerobic substrate concentrations, and
enzyme activity . Interestingly, the level of muscle strength, even after detraining, is
rarely lower than pretraining levels showing that training has a residual effect when it is
discontinued. However, when the individual returns to training, the rate of strength
acquisition is high .

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