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Basic strength training and conditioning (S&C) principles underlie program design. These
principles can be applied to all training programs in numerous ways. Ultimately,
progression is a long-term goal associated with many S&C practitioners. The advantage
of S&C is that there are many ways to design effective programs. Many programs can
work effectively provided that guidelines are followed. This is a critical concept for S&C
students to understand as one may become bombarded with a spectrum of training
advice. This chapter focuses on the three key principles of progressive overload,
specificity, individualization , reversibility and variation .
PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD
Progressive overload principle states that human body has no need to become
stronger or more conditioned unless it is forced to meet higher physical demands. The
lack of progressive overload in a program is a leading factor for stagnant progress. The
use of progressive overload can overcome accommodation. Accommodation is the
staleness resulting from a lack in change in the training program . Adaptations to a
training program take place within a few weeks. Proper manipulation of acute program
variables alters the training stimulus, and if the stimulus exceeds the individuals
conditioning threshold, then further improvements in muscular fitness can take place.
There are several ways to introduce progressive overload during
S&C. The following sections discuss resistance training (RT); flexibility; speed, power, and
agility; and aerobic
training (AT).
.
RESISTANCE TRAINING
Progressive overload can be incorporated into RT programs in many ways. These include
1. The resistance/loading may be increased. The athlete may train with a higher
relative percentage of his or her one-repetition maximum (1 RM) or use greater
absolute loading within a constant repetition scheme. For example, during weeks 13,
the athlete uses 70% of 1 RM for several structural exercises. During weeks 4 and 5,
75% of 1 RM is used. During weeks 68, 80% of 1 RM is used. This example applies
when a true 1 RM is known for structural exercises and the loading is calculated by
taking the 1 RM and multiplying it by 0.70 (and by 0.75 and 0.80, respectively). For
an absolute loading example: during weeks 1 and 2, the athlete lifts 220 lb in the
bench press for 8 reps. During weeks 3 and 4, the athlete adds weight and performs
the bench press with 225 lb for 8 reps (5 lb is added while repetition number stays
the same).
2. Repetitions may be added to current workload. For example (812 RM loading zone
where the athlete performs a range [812] of reps for an exercise), during weeks 1 and 2,
the athlete lifts 220 lb in the bench
press for 3 sets of 8 reps. During weeks 3 and 4, the athlete maintains loading at 220 lb
but performs 3 sets
of 10 reps. During weeks 5 and 6, the athlete increases rep number to 12 for 3 sets with
220 lb. Once 3 sets
of 12 reps are performed over two successive workouts, the athlete adds weight and
performs 8 reps and
repeats the cycle.
3. Lifting velocity with submaximal loads may be increased to increase the neural
response once technique
is mastered. The intent is to lift the weight as fast as possible. Because force = mass
acceleration,
increasing rep velocity (while mass remains constant) results in higher peak force and
greater strength enhancement.
4. Rest intervals may be lengthened to enable greater loading. In combination with
previous strategies,
lengthening the rest interval will enable more recovery in between sets to tolerate
heavier loading. For
endurance and hypertrophy training, the rest interval could be reduced, decreasing
recovery in between sets.
5. Training volume may be increased within reasonable limits (2%5%) or varied to
accommodate heavier
loads . From beginner to intermediate training, small increases in volume can enhance
RT. However, with further progression it is the variation of volume and intensity that
becomes most important in program design.
6. Other supramaximal-loading training techniques may be introduced. For example,
techniques such as forced repetitions, heavy negatives, partial repetitions in the
strongest area of the range of motion (ROM), and
variable-resistance devices can be used to load either a segment of the ROM or a muscle
action with greater
than 100% of 1 RM. These techniques should only be used sparingly by experienced
individuals.
FLEXIBILITY
For flexibility training, the intensity, volume, duration, and frequency can be increased for
progressive overload.
Intensity refers to the ROM of the stretch, as higherintensity stretching expands joint
ROM and poses more
discomfort to the individual. Volume (number of reps) and duration (length of each
stretch) can be increased
with progression. Lastly, the frequency of stretching can increase with progression.
AEROBIC ENDURANCE
To progressively overload an AT program, one may increase volume, duration, and
intensity and decrease
rest intervals. Volume and duration are altered by increasing the distance covered or the
length of the exercise
bouts. Intensity can be increased modestly by exercising at faster rates, adding
resistance, and exercising uphill. It is important to note that intensity cannot increase
greatly or the workout can become anaerobic. Interval training can be used to exercise at
higher intensities. Decreasing rest intervals in between bouts increases the continuity of
exercise and is effective for increasing aerobic endurance.
SPECIFICITY
The principle of specificity entails that all training adaptations are specific to the
stimulus applied. Although nonspecific improvements take place, most improvements will
take place specific to the stimuli. Training adaptations are specific to the muscle actions
involved, velocity of movement and rate of force development (RFD), ROM, muscle
groups trained, energy metabolism, movement pattern, and intensity/volume of training .
Specificity becomes most evident during progression to more advanced RT as many
studies have shown a multitude of transfer training effects in untrained and moderately
trained individuals.
MUSCLE ACTION
RT with eccentric (ECC), concentric (CON), and isometric (ISOM) actions increases muscle
strength. Much
of the strength gains are specific to the type of muscle action trained . Training with CON
muscle actions
yields the greatest increases in CON muscle strength. However, some transferred training
effects occur.
When comparing ISOM to dynamic RT, ISOM training can increase dynamic strength
(especially when
multiple joint angles are trained) and dynamic training can increase ISOM muscle
strength . Dynamic
muscle strength increases are greatest when ECC actions are included . Because most
training programs include
CON and ECC muscle actions, strength will increase mostly in these muscle actions.
Although ISOM strength
may increase (as there are ISOM actions present during dynamic RT), the most effective
way to increase ISOM
strength is through specific ISOM training at various joint angles.
VELOCITY OF MOVEMENT
Velocity specificity indicates that greatest strength increases take place at or near the
training velocity. Some
carryover effects to nontrained velocities may occur as well as carryover velocity effects
between muscle actions (ISOM training can increase ISOM RFD and dynamic movement
velocity) . Research has focused on isokinetic RT where velocity specificity is seen plus
some carryover above and below the training velocity .
Collectively, these studies show training at a moderate velocity (180240 per second)
produces the greatest
strength increases across all testing velocities . RT with dynamic muscle actions
demonstrates specificity
and carryover increases to other nontrained lifting velocities. The greatest carryover
effects are seen in
untrained or moderately trained individuals. Advanced trainees benefit greatly from
training at a velocity specific to their needs. Strength/power athletes benefit most from
high-velocity movements (or the intent to maximally accelerate the load)
.
RANGE OF MOTION
Adaptations to training take place predominantly in those muscle groups that were
trained . Ideally,
training will target all major muscle groups. Nevertheless, some areas may be untrained
or trained submaximally. Adaptations to training can only take place when muscle group
specific exercises are performed. Training all major muscle groups is important for
attaining muscle balance, reducing injuries, and optimizing performance.
ENERGY METABOLISM
Adaptations to training are specific to the energy system involvement. Energy systems
adapt mostly by increasing enzyme activity or substrate storage/usage . The interaction
between volume, intensity, repetition velocity, and rest-interval length is critical to
eliciting acute metabolic responses that target different energy systems. Although all
metabolic systems are actively engaged, one may predominate based on the training
stimulus. Much of the energy demands of resistance exercise are met by the ATP-PC and
glycolytic metabolic pathways. Anaerobic glycolysis becomes increasingly important
during intense, long-duration sets and when short rest intervals are used.
MOVEMENT PATTERNS
Although a transfer of training effect may occur and is desired when it comes to
performing motor skills,
specificity in program design relates to movement patterns. Adaptations are specific to
the types of movement
patterns used during training. Examples of the movement patterns examined include free
weights versus
machines, open- versus closed-chain kinetic exercises, unilateral versus bilateral training,
and movementspecific
training.
FREE WEIGHTS VERSUS MACHINES
Specificity of adaptations is seen during training with free weights and machines.
Although both are effective
for increasing muscle strength, it is difficult to state which modality favors greater
strength increases.
The testing device is critical as free-weight training leads to greater improvements on
free-weight tests and machine training results in greater performance on machine tests .
When a neutral testing device is used,
strength improvement from free weights and machines are similar . Free-weight training
appears more
applicable to motor skill enhancement, e.g., vertical jump performance.
Open- Versus Closed-Chain Kinetic Exercises
A closed-chain kinetic exercise is one where the distal segments are fixed (leg press,
squat, deadlift), while an open-chain kinetic exercise (leg extension, leg curl) enables
the distal segment to freely move against loading. Many closed-chain exercises stress
multiple joints, while many open-chain exercises are single joint. Moderate to- high
relationships between closed-chain exercise and vertical/long jump performance have
been shown indicating that performance in closed-chain exercises is strongly related to
various motor performance skills.
Unilateral Versus Bilateral Training
Unilaterally or bilaterally (one vs. two arms or legs) performed exercises affect the
neuromuscular adaptations
to training. Cross education refers to strength gained in the nontrained limb during
unilateral training. The strength increase in the untrained limb may range as high as 22%
(mean increase = 8%) and is thought to occur predominately via neural adaptations .
Bilateral deficit refers to the strength produced by both limbs contracting bilaterally,
which is smaller than the sum of the limbs contracting unilaterally. Unilateral training
(although it increases bilateral strength) contributes to a greater bilateral deficit, whereas
bilateral training reduces the bilateral deficit . Specificity is observed as unilateral RT
results in better performance of unilateral tasks than bilateral training . Athletes involved
in sports where unilateral strength and power are important and those with glaring
weakness on the opposite side may benefit from unilateral training. Unilateral exercises
require greater balance and stability. For example, performing a one-arm incline
dumbbell press (with only one dumbbell) requires the trunk muscles to contract intensely
to offset the torque produced by unilateral loading and enable the athlete to maintain
proper posture throughout the exercise. Optimal training may involve the inclusion of
both bilateral and unilateral exercises with the ratio of bilateral to unilateral contractions
based on the needs of the sport. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has
recommended the inclusion of both into RT programs targeting progression .
Movement-Specific Training
Movement-specific training entails the use of exercises that train specific movements.
The intent is to improve motor performance through RT and to provide a link between
muscular strength gained through traditional RT and movement-specific strength.
Training consists of multiplanar movements, sometimes performed in unstable
environments to enhance stabilizer-muscle function with various pieces of equipment
such as bands, medicine balls, dumbbells, stability balls, kettle bells, ropes, and other
devices.
Overweight/Underweight Implements
VARIATION
Training variation requires alterations in one or more program variables over time to
keep the stimulus optimal. Because the human body adapts rapidly to stress, variation is
critical for subsequent adaptations to take
place. Studies show the systematic variation of volume and intensity is most effective for
long-term progression
as compared to programs that did not alter any program variable . Workouts can be
varied in infinite ways.
The S&C practitioner should think of each design characteristic as a tool in the proverbial
tool box which provides a wide array of strategies for progression. Many ways exist to
increase strength so the trainer benefits
by including several methods of variation into program design. Training philosophies that
support minimal variation will have limited effectiveness.
INDIVIDUALIZATION
All individuals respond differently to training despite following the same training
program. Genetics, training status, nutritional intake, and the program itself play
substantial roles in the level of adaptation. One needs to be aware of individual response
patterns and the need for variation if the response is minimal. The most effective
programs are those designed to meet individual needs. This can oftentimes be difficult
especially if one is training several athletes at once. When practical, program
individualization is beneficial for progression.