Orientation of discontinuities

The first step in the investigation of discontinuities in a foundation is to

analyze their orientation and identify sets of discontinuities, or single
discontinuities, that could form potentially unstable
blocks of rock. Information on discontinuity orientation may be obtained
from such sources as
surface and underground mapping, diamond drill core and geophysics, and
it is necessary to combine this data into a system that is readily amenable
to analysis. This analysis is facilitated by the use of a simple and
unambiguous method of expressing the orientation of a fracture. The
recommended terminology for orientation is the dip and dip direction which
are defined as follows and shown schematically in Fig. 2.3.
1. Dip is the maximum inclination of a discontinuity to the horizontal
(angle ?).
2. Dip direction or dip azimuth is the direction of the horizontal trace
of the line of dip, measured clockwise from north (angle a).
As will be demonstrated in Section 2.3, the dip/dip direction system
facilitates field mapping and the
plotting of stereonets, and the analysis of discontinuity orientation data.
Strike, which is an alternative means of defining the orientation of a plane,
is the trace of the
intersection of an inclined plane with a horizontal reference plane.
The strike is at right angles to the dip direction of the inclined plane. The
relationship between the strike
and the dip direction is illustrated in Fig. 2.3(b) where the plane has a strike
of N60E and a dip of 30SE. In terms of dip and dip direction, the orientation
of the plane is 30/150 which is considered to be a simpler nomenclature. By
always writing the dip as two digits and the dip direction as three digits, e.g.
090 for 90, there can be no confusion as to which set of figures refers to
which measurement. Strike and dip measurements can be readily converted
into dip and dip direction measurements if this mapping system is preferred.
In defining the orientation of a line, the terms plunge and trend are used.
The plunge is the dip of the line, with a positive plunge being below the
horizontal and a negative plunge being above the horizontal. The trend is
the direction of the horizontal projection of the line measured clockwise
from north, and it corresponds to the dip direction of a plane.
Discontinuity mapping is carried out with a geological compass, of which
there are several different types. The Brunton compass is widely available,
but has a disadvantage in that measurement of the dip and dip direction
require separate operations. Also, it is designed to measure strike rather
than dip direction; this requires that a conversion be made which can be a
possible source of error. There are a number of compasses specifically
designed for structural mapping which allow dip and dip direction to be
measured simultaneously; these compasses are manufactured by the
Breihthaupt Company and the Freiberg Company, both in Germany, and the

Showa Sokki Company in Japan. A particular feature of these structural

compasses is their ability to map a discontinuity accurately when only a
small portion of a plane is exposed. In these circumstances it can be difficult
to determine the true dip, as opposed to the apparent dip which is always a
flatter angle. The true dip can be visualized by rolling a ball down the plane:
the ball will roll down the line of mximum inclination which corresponds to
the true dip of the plane.
Figure 2.4 shows the operation of a structural compass; the lid is placed on
the discontinuity surface and the body of the compass is leveled using the
spirit level before reading the dip direction on the 360 compass scale, and
the dip on a scale on the hinge. The orientation of overhanging surfaces can
also be measured by placing the partially closed compass lid on the
discontinuity surface and making the readings in the usual way.

Figure 2.3 Terminology defining

discontinuity orientation (dip and dip
direction): (a) isometric view; and (b)
plan view.

Stereographic projection

The analysis of structural geology orientation measurements requires a convenient method of handling
three-dimensional data. Fortunately the stereographic projection, which is used extensively in the fields of
cartography, navigation and crystallography, is ideally suited to geological applications. The stereographic
projection is a procedure for mapping data located on the surface of a sphere on to a horizontal plane, and
can be used for the analysis of the orientation of planes, lines and forces (Donn and Shimmer, 1958;
Phillips, 1972; Goodman, 1976; Hoek and Bray; 1981).
There are several different types of stereographic projections, but the one most suitable for geological

applications is the equal area net, or Lambert projection, which is also used by geographers to represent
the spherical shape of the Earth on a flat surface. In structural geology, a point or line on the sphere
representing the dip and dip direction of a discontinuity can be projected on to a horizontal surface. In this
way an analysis of threedimensional data can be carried out in two dimensions. An important property of
the equal rea projection is that any solid angle on the surface of the reference sphere is projected as an
equal area on to a horizontal surface. One of the applications of this property is in the contouring of pole
populations to find the orientation of sets of discontinuities as described in Section 2.3.2.
The principle of the projection method is illustrated in Fig. 2.5. The basic element of the pro-jection is a
reference sphere which is oriented in space, usually with respect to true north. When a plane
(discontinuity) is centered in the reference sphere, the intersection between the plane and the surface
of the sphere is a circle which is commonly known as a great circle (Fig. 2.5(a)). The orientation of the
great circle is a unique representation of the orientation of the plane. The upper and lower halves
of the sphere give identical information and in engineering applications the usual procedure is to
use the lower half of the sphere only. The projection is known, therefore, as a lower hemisphere
projection. Note that this pro- jection technique only examines the orientation of planes and there is
no information on their position in space. That is, it is assumed that all the planes pass through the center
of the reference sphere. If the stereographic projection identified a plane on which the foundation could
slide, its location on the geological map would have to be examined to determine if it intersected the
foundation.

Figure 2.4 Photograph of structural compass measuring dip and dip

direction of discontinuity surface.