Air Distribution System

AIRDISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMDESIGN
GoodDuctDesignIncreasesEfficiency
BUILDINGTECHNOLOGIESPROGRAM
OFFICEOFENERGYEFFICIENCYANDRENEWABLEENERGYU.S.DEPARTMENTOFENERGY
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TechnologyFactSheet
INTRODUCTION
Centralheatingandcoolingsystemsuseanair
distributionorductsystemtocirculateheated
and/orcooledairtoalltheconditionedrooms
inahouse.Properlydesignedductsystems
canmaintainuniformtemperatures
throughoutthehouse,efficientlyandquietly.
WHYDUCTDESIGNISIMPORTANT
Theefficiencyofairdistributionsystemshas
beenfoundtobe6075%orlessinmany
housesbecauseofinsufficientand/orpoorly
installedductinsulationandleaksintheduct
system.Properlydesignedandinstalledduct
systemscanhaveefficienciesof80%ormore
forlittleornoadditionalcost,potentially
savingahomeowner$50200ormoreperyear
inheatingandcoolingcosts.Moreover,
efficientductsystemdesignscanreduce
equipmentsize,furthersavingmoneyfornew
orreplacementequipment.
Ductsystemsthatleakand/ordonot
distributeairproperlythroughoutthehouse
maymakesomeroomstoohotandotherstoo
cold.Leakyandunbalancedductsystemsmay
forceconditionedairoutsideand
unconditionedairintothehouse.This
increasesheatingandcoolingcostsandmay
alsodrawhumidity,dust,moldspores,and
othercontaminantsintoahomefromtheattic,
crawlspace,orgarageandradongasfromthe
soil.Inextremecases,poorlydesignedand
installedductsystemscaninduce
backdraftingspillageoffluegasesfrom
combustionappliances(e.g.,furnace,water
heater,fireplace)intothelivingspace
primarilywhenatmosphericornaturaldraft
fluesareusedratherthanpowered
combustionsystems.
Ductsystemsthatareundersized,arepinched,
orhavenumerousbendsandturnsmaylead
tolowairflowratesandhighairvelocities.
Lowairflowratescausetheheatingand
coolingequipmenttooperateinefficiently.
Highairvelocitiesincreasenoise.
DUCTDESIGNOBJECTIVES
Theobjectivesofgoodductdesignare
occupantcomfort,properairdistribution,
economicalheatingandcoolingsystem
operation,andeconomicalductinstallation.
Theoutcomeoftheductdesignprocesswill
beaductsystem(supplyandreturnplenums,
ducts,fittings,boots,grilles,andregisters)
that
Providesconditionedairtomeetallroom
heatingandcoolingloads.
Isproperlysizedsothatthepressuredrop
acrosstheairhandleriswithinmanufacturer
anddesignspecifications.
Issealedtoprovideproperairflowandto
preventairfromenteringthehouseorduct
systemfrompollutedzones.
Hasbalancedsupplyandreturnairflowsto
maintainaneutralpressureinthehouse.
Minimizesductairtemperaturegainsor
lossesbetweentheairhandlerandsupply
outlets,andbetweenthereturnregisterand
airhandler.
Page 2
SUPPLYDUCTCONFIGURATIONS
SUPPLYDUCTSYSTEMS
Supplyductsdeliverairtothespacesthataretobe
conditioned.Thetwomostcommonsupplyductsystemsfor
residencesarethetrunkandbranchsystemandtheradial
systembecauseoftheirversatility,performance,andeconomy.
Thespiderandperimeterloopsystemsareotheroptions.
T
RUNKAND
RANCH
YSTEM
Inthetrunkandbranchsystem,alargemainsupplytrunkis
connecteddirectlytotheairhandleroritssupplyplenumand
servesasasupplyplenumoranextensiontothesupplyplenum.
Smallerbranchductsandrunoutsareconnectedtothetrunk.
Thetrunkandbranchsystemisadaptabletomosthouses,but
ithasmoreplaceswhereleakscanoccur.Itprovidesairflows
thatareeasilybalancedandcanbeeasilydesignedtobe
locatedinsidetheconditionedspaceofthehouse.
Thereareseveralvariationsofthetrunkandbranchsystem.An
extendedplenumsystemusesamainsupplytrunkthatisone
sizeandisthesimplestandmostpopulardesign.Thelengthof
thetrunkisusuallylimitedtoabout24feetbecauseotherwise
thevelocityoftheairinthetrunkgetstoolowandairflowinto
branchesandrunoutsclosetotheairhandlerbecomespoor.
Therefore,withacentrallylocatedairhandler,thisductsystem
canbeinstalledinhomesuptoapproximately50feetlong.A
reducingplenumsystemusesatrunkreductionperiodicallyto
maintainamoreuniformpressureandairvelocityinthetrunk,
whichimprovesairflowinbranchesandrunoutsclosertothe
airhandler.Similarly,areducingtrunksystemreducesthe
crosssectionalareaofthetrunkaftereverybranchductor
runout,butitisthemostcomplexsystemtodesign.
S
PIDER
YSTEM
Aspidersystemisamoredistinctvariationofthetrunkand
branchsystem.Largesupplytrunks(usuallylargediameter
flexibleducts)connectremotemixingboxestoasmall,central
supplyplenum.Smallerbranchductsorrunoutstakeairfromthe
remotemixingboxestotheindividualsupplyoutlets.Thissystem
isdifficulttolocatewithintheconditionedspaceofthehouse.
R
ADIAL
YSTEM
Inaradialsystem,thereisnomainsupplytrunk;branchducts
orrunoutsthatdeliverconditionedairtoindividualsupply
outletsareessentiallyconnecteddirectlytotheairhandler,
usuallyusingasmallsupplyplenum.Theshort,directduct
runsmaximizeairflow.Theradialsystemismostadaptableto
singlestoryhomes.Traditionally,thissystemisassociated
withanairhandlerthatiscentrallylocatedsothatductsare
arrangedinaradialpattern.However,symmetryisnot
mandatory,anddesignsusingparallelrunoutscanbe
designedsothatductrunsremainintheconditionedspace
(e.g.,installedaboveadroppedceiling).
P
ERIMETER
OOP
S
YSTEM
Aperimeterloopsystemusesaperimeterductfedfroma
centralsupplyplenumusingseveralfeederducts.Thissystem
istypicallylimitedtohousesbuiltonslabincoldclimatesand
ismoredifficulttodesignandinstall.
Spider
Radial
TrunkandBranch
PerimeterLoop
Page 3
DUCTMATERIALS
Airdistributionductsarecommonlyconstructedfromsheet
metal,rigidfiberglassductboard,orflexiblenonmetallicduct.
Selectionofductmaterialisbasedonprice,performance,and
installationrequirements.
Designsthatusethehousestructureorbuildingframing(e.g.,
buildingcavities,closets,raisedfloorairhandlerplenums,
platformreturns,wallstudspaces,pannedfloorjoists)as
supplyorreturnductscanberelativelyinexpensivetoinstall.
However,theyshouldbeavoidedbecausetheyaredifficultto
sealandcannotalwaysbeinsulated.Inaddition,becausesuch
systemstendtoberoughandhavemanytwistsandturns,itis
difficulttodesignthemsoastoensuregoodairdistribution.
Evenreturnplenumsbuiltunderastairwayorinacloset,for
example,shouldbeavoidedifacompletelyductedsystemis
possible.
S
HEET
ETAL
Sheetmetalisthemostcommonductmaterialandcanbeused
onmostallsupplyandreturnductapplications(forplenums,
trunks,branches,andrunouts).Sheetmetalductshavea
smoothinteriorsurfacethatofferstheleastresistancetoair
flow.Whenlocatedinanunconditionedspace,theymustbe
insulatedwitheitheraninteriorductlinerorexteriorinsulation.
Theymustalsobecarefullyandcompletelysealedduring
construction/installation,usingapprovedtapesorpreferably
mastic,becauseeachconnection,joint,andseamhaspotential
leakage.Screwsshouldbeusedtomechanicallyfastenall
joints.
RETURNAIRTECHNIQUES
Closedinteriordoorscreateareturnair
blockageinsystemswithonlyoneortwo
returns.Grillesthroughdoorsorwallsor
jumperductscanreducehousepressures
andimprovecirculation.
RETURNDUCTSYSTEMS
Returnductsremoveroomairanddeliveritbacktotheheating
andcoolingequipmentforfilteringandreconditioning.Return
ductsystemsaregenerallyclassifiedaseithercentralor
multipleroomreturn.
M
ULTIPLE
ROOM
ETURN
YSTEM
Amultipleroomreturnsystemisdesignedtoreturnairfrom
eachroomsuppliedwithconditionedair,especiallythosethat
canbeisolatedfromtherestofthehouse(exceptbathrooms
andperhapskitchensandmechanicalrooms).Whenproperly
designedandinstalled,thisistheultimatereturnductsystem
becauseitensuresthatairflowisreturnedfromallrooms
(evenwithdoorsclosed),minimizespressureimbalances,
improvesprivacy,andisquiet.However,designand
installationcostsofamultiroomreturnsystemaregenerally
higherthancostsforacentralreturnsystem,andhigher
frictionlossescanincreaseblowerrequirements.
C
ENTRAL
ETURN
YSTEM
Acentralreturnsystemconsistsofoneormorelargegrilles
locatedincentralareasofthehouse(e.g.,hallway,under
stairway)andoftenclosetotheairhandler.Inmultistory
houses,acentralreturnisoftenlocatedoneachfloor.To
ensureproperairflowfromallrooms,especiallywhendoors
areclosed,transfergrillesorjumperductsmustbeinstalledin
eachroom(undercuttinginteriordoorstoprovide1inchof
clearancetothefloorisusuallynotsufficientbyitself).
Transfergrillesarethroughthewallventsthatareoften
locatedabovetheinteriordoorframes,althoughtheycanbe
installedinafullwallcavitytoreducenoisetransmission.The
wallcavitymustbewellsealedtopreventairleakage.Jumper
ductsareshortductsroutedthroughtheceilingtominimize
noisetransfer.
Transfergrille
Jumperduct
Doorundercut
Wall
grille
Door
grille
Supplyair
Page 4
AIRDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMDESIGN
F
IBERGLASS
UCT
OARD
Fiberglassductboardisinsulatedandsealedaspartofits
construction.Itisusuallyusedtoformrectangularsupplyand
returntrunks,branches,andplenums,althoughitcanbeused
forrunoutsaswell.Connectionsshouldbemechanically
fastenedusingshiplaporVgroovejointsandstaplingand
sealedwithpressureactivatedtapesandmastic.Fiberglassduct
boardprovidesexcellentsoundattenuation,butitslongevityis
highlydependentonitsclosureandfasteningsystems.
F
LEXIBLE
ONMETALLIC
UCT
Flexiblenonmetallicduct(orflexduct)consistsofaductinner
linersupportedontheinsidebyahelixwirecoilandcovered
byblanketinsulationwithaflexiblevaporbarrierjacketonthe
outside.Flexductisoftenusedforrunouts,withmetalcollars
usedtoconnecttheflexibleducttosupplyplenums,trunks,
andbranchesconstructedfromsheetmetalorductboard.Flex
ductisalsocommonlyusedasareturnduct.Flexductis
factoryinsulatedandhasfewerductconnectionsandjoints.
However,theseconnectionsandjointsmustbemechanically
fastenedusingstrapsandsealedusingmastic.Flexductis
easilytorn,crushed,pinched,ordamagedduringinstallation.It
hasthehighestresistancetoairflow.Consequently,ifused,it
mustbeproperlyspecifiedandinstalled.
DUCTANDREGISTERLOCATIONS
Locatingtheairhandlerunitandairdistributionsysteminside
theconditionedspaceofthehouseisthebestwaytoimprove
ductsystemefficiencyandishighlyrecommended.Withthis
design,anyductleakagewillbetotheinsideofthehouse.It
willnotsignificantlyaffecttheenergyefficiencyoftheheating
andcoolingsystembecausetheconditionedairremainsinside
thehouse,althoughairdistributionmaysuffer.Also,ducts
locatedinsidetheconditionedspaceneedminimalinsulation
(inhotandhumidclimates),ifanyatall.Thecostofmoving
ductsintotheconditionedspacecanbeoffsetbysmaller
heatingandcoolingequipment,smallerandlessductwork,
reducedductinsulation,andloweroperatingcosts.
Thereareseveralmethodsforlocatingductsinsidethe
conditionedspace.
Placetheductsinafurreddownchasebelowtheceiling(e.g.,
droppedceilinginahallway),achasefurredupintheattic,or
othersuchchases.Thesechasesmustbespecially
constructed,airsealed,andinsulatedtoensuretheyarenot
connectedtounconditionedspaces.
Locateductsbetweenthefloorsofamultistoryhome(run
throughthefloortrussesorjoists).Theexteriorwallsofthese
floorcavitiesmustbeinsulatedandsealedtoensuretheyare
withintheconditionedspace.Holesinthecavityforwiring,
plumbing,etc.,mustbesealedtopreventairexchangewith
unconditionedspaces.
Locateductsinaspeciallyconstructedsealedandinsulated
crawlspace(wherethewallsofthecrawlspaceareinsulated
ratherthantheceiling).
Ductsshouldnotberuninexteriorwallsasameansofmoving
themintotheconditionedspacebecausethisreducesthe
amountofinsulationthatcanbeappliedtotheductandthe
wallitself.
Asupplyoutletispositionedtomixconditionedairwithroomair
andisresponsibleformostoftheairmovementwithinaroom.
Occupantcomfortrequiresthatsupplyregisterlocationsbe
carefullyselectedforeachroom.Incoldclimates,perimeterfloor
outletsthatblanketportionsoftheexteriorwall(usually
windows)withsupplyairaregenerallypreferred.However,in
todaysbetterinsulatedhomes,theneedtolocateoutletsnear
DUCTSINSIDECONDITIONEDSPACE
Page 5
theperimeterwhereheatlossoccursisbecomingless
important.Inhotclimates,ceilingdiffusersorhighwalloutlets
thatdischargeairparalleltotheceilingaretypicallyinstalled.In
moderateclimates,outletlocationislesscritical.Outletlocations
nearinteriorwallscansignificantlyreduceductlengths
(decreasingcosts),thermallosses(ifductsarelocatedoutside
theconditionedspace),andblowerrequirements.Toprevent
supplyairfrombeingsweptdirectlyupbykitchen,bathroom,or
otherexhaustfans,thedistancebetweensupplyregistersand
exhaustventsshouldbekeptaslargeaspossible.
Thelocationofthereturnregisterhasonlyasecondaryeffect
onroomairmotion.However,returnscanhelpdefeat
stratificationandimprovemixingofroomairiftheyareplaced
highwhencoolingisthedominantspaceconditioningneed
andlowwhenheatingisdominant.Inmultistoryhomeswith
bothheatingandcooling,upperlevelreturnsshouldbeplaced
highandlowerlevelreturnsshouldbeplacedlow.Otherwise,
thelocationofthereturnregistercanbedeterminedbywhat
willminimizeductruns,improveaircirculationandmixingof
supplyair,andimpactotherconsiderationssuchasaesthetics.
DUCTDESIGNMETHOD
Theairdistributionsystemshouldbedesignedatthesametime
thehouseplansarebeingdeveloped,followingtheprocedures
intheAirConditioningContractorsofAmericas(ACCAs)
ManualD:ResidentialDuctSystems.Planninglocationsfor
ductwork,structuralframing,plumbing,andelectricalwiring
simultaneouslyavoidsconflictsbetweenthesesystems.
Thefollowingeightstepsshouldbefollowedinthedesignof
anairdistributionsystemtoensureefficiencyandcomfort:
1.Selectthegeneraltypeofheatingandcoolingequipment
(e.g.,furnace,heatpump,airconditioner).Theheatingand
coolingequipmentshouldbeselectedbasedonoccupant
preferences,availabilityofdifferentfuels(e.g.,naturalgas,
electricity),installationcosts,andoperatingcosts.
2.Selectthegeneraltypeofairdistributionsystem(supplyand
returnductsystems).Thegeneraldesignsandductmaterials
forthesupplyandreturnductsystemsshouldbeselected
afterconsideringthetypeofequipmentselectedandits
location,thelocalclimate,thearchitecturalandstructural
featuresofthehouse,zoningrequirements,andinstallation
andoperatingcosts.ACCAsManualG:Selectionof
DistributionSystemsandManualRS:Comfort,AirQuality,and
EfficiencybyDesigncanassistinthisselection.
3.Calculatethedesignheatingandcoolingloadsofeachroom
ofthehouseandtheloadsthatareassociatedwiththeentire
houseusingACCAsManualJ:ResidentialLoadCalculation
(eighthedition).Roomloadsareusedtodeterminetheairflow
neededforeachroom,andthehouseloadsareusedtosize
andselectspecificheatingandcoolingequipmentmodels.
4.Sizeandselectthespecificmodelsoftheheatingandcooling
equipmentusingACCAsManualS:ResidentialEquipment
Selection.Thisprecedestheductsizingcalculationsbecause,
inresidentialapplications,theblower(fan)dataoftheselected
equipmentestablishtheductdesigncriteria.Inaddition,
identifyanycomponentordevice(e.g.,filter,humidifier,
electricresistanceheater,coolingcoil)thatwasnotincluded
whentheblowerdataandtheirassociatedpressuredrops
weredeveloped.
5.Developascaledrawingorroughsketchoftheairdistribution
systemshowingthelocationoftheairhandlingequipment,
supplyoutlets,returnopenings,loadsandairflowrates
associatedwitheachsupplyandreturnregister,locationof
ductruns,lengthsofstraightductruns,fittingtypes,and
equivalentlengthsofthefittings.Besuretoaccountforthe
directionofjoists,roofhips,andotherpotentialobstructions
suchastwostoryfoyersorrooms.
6.Determinethesizeofalltheductsbasedontheroomloads,
blowerdata,pressuredropsofadditionalcomponentsor
devices,andequivalentductlengthsfollowingtheprocedures
inACCAsManualD:ResidentialDuctSystems.Severalduct
layoutsmayneedtobeexaminedbeforereachingafinaldesign.
7.Selectandsizetheairdistributionsystemdevices(return
grillesandsupplyairdiffusers,grilles,andregisters)using
ACCAsManualT:AirDistributionBasicsforResidentialand
SmallCommercialBuildings.Thesemustbeselectedto
maintainairvelocitiesbelowvaluesthatwillcausenoisebut,
inthecaseofsupplyoutlets,sufficientlyhighsothatairis
disbursedtoexteriorwallsorceilingsasdesired.
8.Selecttheinsulationlevelsfortheductsysteminaccordance
withthe2000InternationalEnergyConservationCode.
Page 6
Formoreinformation,contact:
EnergyEfficiencyand
RenewableEnergy
Clearinghouse(EREC)
1800DOE3732
www.eere.energy.gov
OrvisittheBuildingTechnologies
ProgramWebsiteat
www.buildings.gov
OrrefertoABuildersGuideto
ResidentialHVACSystems
NAHBResearchCenter
8006388556
www.nahbrc.org
OrrefertotheResidentialDuct
Design:APracticalHandbook
(ReportCU7391)
ElectricPowerResearchInstitute
8003133774press2
www.epri.com
Writtenandpreparedforthe
U.S.DepartmentofEnergyby:
SouthfaceEnergyInstitute
4048723549
www.southface.org
U.S.DepartmentofEnergys
OakRidgeNationalLaboratory
BuildingsTechnologyCenter
8655745206,www.ornl.gov/btc
ManualsD,G,J,RS,S,andT
canbeobtainedfromthe
AirConditioningContractors
ofAmerica
1712NewHampshireAve.,NW,
Washington,DC20009
2024839370,www.acca.org
TheInternationalEnergy
ConservationCodecanbe
obtainedfromtheInternational
CodeCouncil,7039314533
www.intlcode.org
NOTICE:NeithertheUnitedStates
governmentnoranyagency
thereof,noranyoftheiremployees,
makesanywarranty,expressor
implied,orassumesanylegalliabil
ityorresponsibilityfortheaccu
racy,completeness,
orusefulnessofanyinformation,
apparatus,product,orprocessdis
closed.Theviewsandopinionsof
authorsexpressedhereindonot
necessarilystateorreflectthoseof
theUnitedStatesgovernmentor
anyagencythereof.
Printedwitharenewablesourceinkonpapercontainingatleast
50%wastepaper,including20%postconsumerwaste.
March2003DOE/GO1020020782
DESIGNRECOMMENDATIONSAND
KEYDESIGNELEMENTS
IndesigningtheairdistributionusingACCAs
ManualD:ResidentialDuctSystems,consider
thefollowingrecommendationsbefore
finalizingthedesign:
Designtheairdistributionsystemtobe
locatedinsidetheconditionedspaceofthe
housetothegreatestextentpossible.Donot
locateductsinexteriorwalls.
Theentireairdistributionsystemshouldbe
hardducted,includingreturns
(i.e.,buildingcavities,closets,raisedfloorair
handlerplenums,platformreturns,wallstud
spaces,pannedfloorjoists,etc.,shouldnot
beused).
Intwostoryandverylargehouses,consider
usingtwoormoreseparateheatingand
coolingsystems,eachwithitsownduct
system.Intwostoryhomes,forexample,
upperstoriestendtogainmoreheatin
summerandlosemoreheatinwinter,sothe
bestcomfortandperformanceisoften
achievedbyusingseparatesystemsforthe
upperandlowerstories.
Considersupplyoutletlocationsnearinterior
wallstoreduceductlengths.
Locatesupplyoutletsasfarawayfrom
exhaustventsaspossibleinbathroomsand
kitchenstopreventsupplyairfrombeing
sweptdirectlyupbytheexhaustfans.
Considerinstallingvolumedamperslocated
atthetakeoffendoftheductratherthanat
thesupplyregistertofacilitatemanual
balancingofthesystemafterinstallation.
Volumedampersshouldhaveameansof
fixingthepositionofthedamperaftertheair
distributionsystemisbalanced.
Whenusingacentralreturnsystem,include
(a)areturnoneachlevelofamultistory
house,(b)aspecificationtoinstalltransfer
grillesorjumperductsineachroomwitha
door(undercuttinginteriordoorstoallow
1inchofclearancetothefloorisusuallynot
sufficient),and(c)ifatallpossible,areturn
inallroomswithdoorsthatrequiretwoor
moresupplyducts.
Specifyhigherductinsulationlevelsinducts
locatedoutsidetheconditionedspacethan
thosespecifiedbythe2000International
EnergyConservationCode,especiallywhen
variablespeedairhandlingequipmentis
beingused.Lowerairflowsprovidedby
variablespeedheatingandcoolingsystems
toimproveoperatingefficiencyincreasethe
residenttimeofairwithintheairdistribution
system,whichinturnincreasesthermal
lossesinthewinterandthermalgainsinthe
summer.Atticinsulationplacedoverducts
helpswhereitispossible.
Specifythatallductjointsmustbe
mechanicallyfastenedandsealedpriorto
insulationtopreventairleakage,preferably
withmasticandfiberglassmesh.Consider
testingofductsusingaductblowerto
ensurethattheairdistributionsystemis
tight,especiallyifductsareunavoidably
locatedinanunconditionedspace.Atypical
requirementisthatductleakage(measured
usingaductblowerinunitsofcubicfeetper
minutewhentheductsarepressurizedto
25Pascals)shouldnotexceed5%ofthe
systemairflowrate.
Air Distribution
By: Robert J. Tsal, Ph.D. and Geoffrey C. Bell, PE
Energy Efficiency and Air Distribution
Air distribution through a laboratory is critical to the facility's safety and energy efficiency;
nonetheless, air distribution systems are typically treated as an afterthought in the design process.
Small ductwork is often routed circuitously, resulting in significant energy waste. In addition, the
system air velocity is usually selected by rule-of-thumb and its noise impact is addressed afterward.
However, the design of an energy-efficient air distribution system should be an iterative process,
facilitated with the "T-Method," which incorporates life-cycle cost. A key to saving energy is to reduce
the friction loss of the air distribution system by using large-diameter, round ductwork, efficient
fittings, lower coil and filter face velocities, and energy-efficient noise attenuators. [Houghton, et al,
1992]
Air distribution components typically used in the research laboratory include:
Air handler with fan,
Cooling/heating coils,
Air filters,
Sound attenuators,
Ductwork or plenums,
Variable air volume (VAV) terminals or air balancing devices,
Duct fittings,
Fire and smoke protection devices (supply side only), and
Fume hoods, biological safety cabinets, or other exhaust devices. [Naughton, "HVAC Systems Part
1," 1990]
Laboratory cleanrooms require special consideration because of the need to move large, laminar
volumes of air for contaminant removal. For cleanrooms, energy efficiency is increased with efficient
ductwork design and lower face velocities for coils, dampers, and filters. Naughton, in "HVAC
Systems for Semiconductor Cleanrooms - Part 1" (1990) notes that,
When hundreds of thousands of cfm are involved, the reduction in fan static pressure of just 0.1 in.
WC (24.9 Pa) can result in $7,200 per year of savings for a 10,000 ft2 (929m2) clean room. In
addition to fan horsepower savings, each 0.1 in WC (24.9 Pa) will also produce 3.9 tons (13.7 kW) of
air-conditioning savings due to the reduced fan heat load.
More:
Ductwork Design Fundamentals
Low-velocity Duct Design
Ductwork System Effect
Ductwork Pressure Balancing
Ductwork Air Leakage
Duct Construction and Leakage
Duct Leakage and Laboratory Isolation
Ductwork Material and Construction
Ductwork Layout Recommendations
Duct Shape Considerations
Duct Fittings
Duct Fittings and Economics
Duct Insulation Guidance

Ductwork Sizing
Computerized Ductwork Simulation
Ductwork Optimization
Economic Duct Optimization for California Laboratories
Displacement Air Flow
Cleanroom Air Distribution
CleanroomsPressurized Plenum vs. Ducted Designs

Various methods and computer programs can be used to simulate airflow through a duct system.
However, simulation methods can only model ductwork systems. No simulation method by itself
produces an optimized air distribution system and no "standard" optimization program currently
exists. [Scott, 1986]
The ASHRAE Handbook recommends the T-Method, which allows a user to select duct sizes and fan
pressure, for duct simulation and "generalized" optimization that minimizes life-cycle cost. This
design technique was incorporated into the 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook. The T-method
integrates the life-cycle cost of the air distribution systemfirst-cost, energy cost, and hours of
operationinto the analysis of ductwork and fan selection. The system total pressure is optimally
derived while costs are minimized. According to Shepard et al. (1995), "the size and the energy use
of the fan can be about 45 to 75 percent smaller with [the] T-method" than with the conventional
"equal friction" sizing method. However, acceptance of the T-method has not been widespread
because hand calculation of the results is time-consuming. [Shepard et al., 1995; Tsal, 1995]
Quality duct design can be achieved only by using a comprehensive computer simulation program. A
comprehensive simulation program allows an engineer to model changing cross sections; closing and
opening dampers; removing, adding, and modifying fittings and duct-mounted equipment; selecting
different diffusers; and changing fans or motors. A good computer program adjusts the fan-system
operating point and shows new airflow quantities, velocities, pressure profiles, and how they differ
from a preceding design. In other words, a comprehensive computer simulation program allows
design engineers to model "what-if" in order to design laboratory environments that are as energyefficient and flexible as possible. Ideally, a simulation program is user-friendly, window-driven, and
capable of calculating supply, exhaust, and return systems using ducts of any shape. A
comprehensive simulation program requires an extensive library of fittings and duct roughness.
Finally, a good simulation program performs air balancing based on mass flow rate rather than on
volumetric flow. The program should provide an opportunity to model control dampers, and
fire/smoke dampers, and it should help evaluate and improve ductwork layout. [Tsal, 1999] [T-DUCT,
1994]
More:
Existing Duct Simulation Methods
T-Method Computerized Duct Simulation
T-Method Ductwork Simulation Program
T-Method Capabilities
Duct Fittings
The resistance of duct fittings must be determined carefully so air flow at outlets will be the same as
called for in the building design. The DFDB [ASHRAE, 1994] lists the dynamic loss coefficient, C, for
228 duct fittings. When more than one type of fitting can be used equally, the fitting with the smaller
loss coefficient should be chosen. However, a higher-pressure-loss fitting may be desirable if the
fitting is located in a branch near a fan or helps provide pressure balancing. Specific examples of
fitting performance based on energy consumption are provided elsewhere in this chapter.
More:
Branch take offs
Elbows
Dampers
Diffusers
Stack discharge fittings
Branch take offs

Connecting a straight duct to the side of a trunk duct is similar to connecting a branch take off; a
dynamic loss is experienced when the air must turn 90. Devices to reduce this dynamic loss include
splitter dampers, extractors, scoops, cones, elbows, and 45 and radiused tap-ins. Listed in order of
improving performance; a basic straight 90 take off falls in the middle of the list with C=1.2.
Splitter dampers, extractors, and scoops are counterproductive; a 45 tap in is both economical and
efficient (C=0.7). Coefficients will vary with area ratios and velocity ratios.
Elbows
Elbow types range from mitered to long radius. Long radiused elbows are most efficient. An elbow
with a centerline radius (r/D or r/W) of 1.5 is very efficient (C=0.19) and should be used in cases
where duct air velocity is 13 m/s (2,500 fpm) or higher. A standard radiused elbow (r/D of 1.0) is
more economical and only slightly less efficient (C=0.23); it is generally preferred. Sometimes only a
mitered elbow (C=1.15) will fit into the space provided. In this case, a turning vane will reduce
pressure losses if properly installed. However, a turning vane should not be used in a transitional
(drop check) elbow or an elbow with an angle other than 90. Accurate turning vane installation is
critical to performance, so factory-made or carefully fabricated shop units are necessary. Improperly
installed turning vanes can be counterproductive. A double thickness turning vane is more costly and
its performance is much poorer than that of a single vane; however, a double thickness vane is
required when spanning 0.9 m (3 ft) or more because of structural needs. Turning vanes have been
known to become dislodged and have substantially blocked airflow because of seismic disturbance.
There are almost always alternatives to the mitered elbow and vane combination. A very short
radiused elbow with a single fully radiused vane (C=0.43) is often a good compromise. [Rozell,
1974]
Dampers
A typical HVAC system contains numerous dampers. Many dampers are installed to maintain airflow
balance but could be eliminated if different design principles were used. Most dampers are designed
to restrict or stop airflow. These include flow-control, balancing, economizer, back-draft, face and
bypass, and splitter dampers.
The rule of thumb for splitter dampers is: never use them. Another device will always work better.
Their biggest problem is a ripple effect on system balance if the splitter moves. Balancing dampers
should always be loose fitting in order to restrict but not stop air flow. A 25-mm (1") clearance
around the closed balancing damper and duct is usually acceptable and very easy to install. Other
dampers are built to stop airflow and should be factory manufactured so that performance data are
available. Opposed blade dampers, the best choice for airflow are effective only through the center
one-third of the 90 travel. At low angles, their dampening effect is negligible, and at high angles,
flow rates change too rapidly compared to the angular displacement or travel of the damper.
Dampers can be a source of noise, particularly if a system is poorly balanced. Computer modeling is
recommended for studying these damper effects.
Dampers must be installed in places where airflow needs to be controlled and/or blocked. Dampers
located directly behind an outlet tend to be noisy. A better location is in the final branch near the
connection to the trunk duct. Wherever a balancing or volume damper is located, it should be
accessible. Lay-in ceiling tiles provide good access; in a fixed ceiling, an access door is needed.
Dampers should not be installed in hood exhaust systems even if the exhaust duct passes through a
firewall. Use the UL approved alternative -- a properly supported, heavy-gauge steel, unobstructed
duct.
Dampers have to withstand the maximum static pressure in a system. The maximum static pressure
is the maximum that can be experienced in a system, not simply the pressure introduced by the fan
during normal operation. Maximum static pressure usually occurs when all dampers in a system are
closed except those on one flow path. Simulation computer modeling (T-Duct, 1994) can calculate
maximum conditions.
Diffusers
A duct diffuser is different from a room outlet. A duct diffuser is an expansion of duct size where the
duct takes in or discharges air to a large space (usually the atmosphere). A stack discharge diffuser
with a 14 included angle that doubles the duct area at the discharge reduces the C from 1.00 to
0.33. The performance of a vertical air inlet with a conical cap (C=1.2) can be improved by installing
a 1.0D - 1.25D cone diffuser on the inlet end of the duct (C=0.3). Fan discharge diffusers and other
connections are discussed elsewhere in this Section.
Stack discharge fittings

The purpose of a stack discharge fitting is to keep rain out of a discharge stack. Although commonly
used, cone caps have negative effects on the exhaust airflow path. Placing an inverted cone inside a
cone cap helps somewhat but not usually enough. A vertical stack head (Figure 3) 25 mm (1") larger
in diameter than the stack and four diameters long is recommended. It keeps almost 100% of rain
out (rain usually falls at an angle) at virtually no dynamic loss other than that caused by the velocity
head, C=1.0. Stack discharge diffusers are discussed below.
Figure 7.3
Duct Fittings and Economics

Clearly, if two fittings can be used interchangeably and their performance is equal but one costs less
to install than the other, then the less costly fitting has better economic performance. However, the
choice is rarely this simple. Some specific examples of economic considerations installation and
performance of in duct fittings are:
More:
Transitions
Filter-Bank Connections
Flexible duct
Transitions
Transitions are usually placed in a trunk or branch duct following a tap-in or branch because the
airflow rate is reduced. An expanding transition at the fan discharge is usually used to reduce the
main trunk velocity and its associated pressure drop. The least expensive transition maintains three
sides straight while changing the fourth side. The changing of two or more sides presents both a
layout and an installation challenge. Automated fitting fabricating machines have reduced the
magnitude of this problem but it still exists. Ideally, a change in one dimension on one side in a onesection transition should create no more than a 5 angle (C=0.02).
Typically, large changes in duct size occur in connections from a filter bank to a duct trunk. Building a
tapered connection in a length of less than 1.2 m (4 ft) (Figure 4) causes sharply angled (60) sides
in a four-sided connection, C=0.85 (C varies with angle and area ratio). To improve construction
economy, while reducing pressure drop, install a plenum box on the filter bank, and add a cone,
C=0.085, or bell mouth, C=0.03, for the duct entry (Figure 5).
Figure 7.4
Typically, large changes in duct size occur in connections from a filter bank to a duct trunk. Building a
tapered connection in a length of less than 1.2 m (4 ft) (Figure 4) causes sharply angled (60) sides
in a four-sided connection, C=0.85 (C varies with angle and area ratio). To improve construction
economy, while reducing pressure drop, install a plenum box on the filter bank, and add a cone,
C=0.085, or bell mouth, C=0.03, for the duct entry (Figure 5).
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Flexible duct
Ceiling outlets need to be well coordinated with duct locations to prevent excessive offsets in duct
drops. Using flexible duct for the drop relieves contractors of the fear of missing an outlet with a
duct-run centerline. Additionally, most ceiling outlets can be equipped with a round collar for
connection to a flexible duct. If a flexible duct is to be run horizontally through a confined space to
an outlet, a small box with a round collar facing the flexible duct can be provided; however, outlet
performance will be compromised. Flexible duct lengths should be limited to 2 m (6 ft) and sharp
bends should be avoided.
Duct Insulation Guidance

Insulation is applied to ductwork to enhance thermal performance and prevent condensation and
dripping. Duct thermal performance needs enhancement since air transported through a supply duct
is at a temperature different than that of the surroundings. Insulation reduces the rate of thermal
loss to those surroundings. Without insulation, the air would need extra heating or cooling in order to
arrive at the design supply air temperature. Return air ducts only need to be insulated if they pass
through environments that adversely affect the return air temperature. Exhaust air ducts normally do
not need insulation. Supply air ducts may be left un-insulated if they run exposed through the space
being conditioned; this arrangement also reduces system first cost.
Insulation prevents condensation and dripping from ducts. Un-insulated cold air ducts very often
have surface temperatures below the local dew point. At this temperature, condensate will form and
eventually drip off, causing an uncontrolled accumulation of moisture on the outside surface of the
duct. Duct insulation eliminates the formation of condensate and consequently prevents rusting and
staining.
Extra heating (or cooling) energy required to compensate for reduced thermal performance of uninsulated duct has a negative effect on the HVAC system's life-cycle cost. Therefore, duct insulation
always presents an optimization problem. Since insulated duct costs much more than un-insulated,
the recommended air velocity becomes a key factor in optimization. For instance, a higher air
velocity reduces duct surface area and thus insulation cost.
Because of the relatively small temperature differences between supply air ducts and the spaces
through which they ductwork are routed, a one-inch-thick fiberglass blanket is almost always
sufficient. Insulation should be wrapped around the duct's exterior. A protective cover with a vapor
barrier such as an aluminum foil, referred to as FKS, should be included in insulation specifications.
Care must be exercised to protect exterior insulation integrity where insulation comes in contact with
hangers, supports, and other structural members. Interior duct insulation (lining) should not be used
in laboratory or cleanroom applications because the insulation tends to entrain microscopic particles
into the airflow.
Special consideration must be given to ducts exposed to weather. Lagging materials or heavy metal
covers over the insulation are commonly used to protect ductwork. A life-cycle cost analysis may be
necessary to determine optimum insulation thickness when ducts encounter temperature extremes.
Ductwork Sizing
A large number of different duct sizing methods use arbitrary initial parameters based on engineering
experience. These parameters are either initial velocity or pressure loss per unit of length. Two of the
most widely used duct sizing methods, presented in the ASHRAE 2001 Fundamentals Handbook
[ASHRAE, 2001], are the Equal Friction and the Static Regain methods.
The static regain ductwork design method has been the choice of engineers for many years even
though it is more difficult and time-consuming than the equal friction technique. Static regain
designs have been attributed to yielding more balanced systems that have better flow characteristics
than equal friction systems. However, the equal friction method can provide equally efficient designs
when experienced engineers use careful initial design assumptions.
A correctly sized duct system appropriately distributes design airflows throughout the facility. Sizing
the duct system requires selecting all duct cross sections to result in a pressure-balanced system for
the facility. Because there are practically an unlimited number of duct sizes and arrangements that
will satisfy a facility's design air-flow requirements, sizing duct is still an art. The mathematical
technique of "numerical analysis" incorporates iteration procedures that can provide a solution to
duct-sizing problems. However, the solution is "constrained" by the "initial guess" which is provided
by design engineers based on their individual experience. Also, it is important to remember that
manual duct design methods, such as Equal Friction or Static Regain, do not minimize system lifecycle cost.
More:
Pressure Balancing
Duct oversizing
Iteration Process
Initial guess
Existing Duct Sizing Methods
Pressure Balancing
According to the ASHRAE 2001 Fundamentals Handbook [ASHRAE, 2001], an engineer should after
the initial sizing, "calculate the total pressure loss for all duct sections, then resize sections to
balance pressure losses at each junction." The handbook does not explain a pressure balancing
procedure. However, an experienced engineer can calculate and design a duct system that satisfies
duct design requirements. Regardless of the method used, it is necessary to check duct systems for
pressure balancing because an unbalanced system will not perform as intended. Typically, an
imbalance results from higher than expected air flow in branch duct runs. For energy, economic, and
noise considerations, it is generally advisable to reduce high air flows in ductwork by making ducts
smaller rather than relying on dampers or orifices.
Duct oversizing
In a typical design process, ductwork size is minimized. In an integrated system design process that
uses the concept of "right sizing", ductwork "oversizing" can be justified. Relatively small duct sizes
require larger pressure drops and more fan energy than larger duct sizes. Therefore, for instance,
extending a duct plenum makes a larger but effective lower-pressure distribution system. In
addition, the end of a critical duct path run should be slightly oversized to keep velocity and pressure
losses lower. It is usually more cost effective to maintain a duct size to the next branch or take-off
rather than installing a fitting that would only reduce the trunk by 50 mm (2 inches). Another place
where oversizing comes into play is noise elimination. In general, lower velocities prevent rumbling
or whistles that would otherwise require energy-consuming sound attenuators to eliminate.
Iteration Process
Efficient duct sizing is only performed through iterations because of the non-linear hydraulic
characteristics of ducts caused by the interactions of pressures, flows, and cross-sectional areas.
Unfortunately, existing duct-sizing methods do not explain how to perform iterations. The most
difficult and important part of the calculation is that iteration leads to convergence that results in
solutions for all variables in the equations.
Initial guess
The first step of any mathematical iteration procedure is known as the "initial guess." This is where
initial values of unknown variables are selected. For HVAC applications, existing duct-sizing methods
have established guidelines for initial guesses. Major unknown variables are duct cross-sectional
areas and fan pressure. Duct-sizing methods search for duct cross sections by using arbitrary data,
based on "engineering experience." These include assigned pressure losses per 100 ft of length for
the system's longest branch according to the Equal Friction Method. Sometimes an initial guess is
based on a table in which diameters correspond to flow rates, or on the following formula [Coad,
1985]:
Diameter = 0.85 (Flow)0.4
The initial guess is the starting point for a duct size calculation. Iteration is then conducted for crosssectional areas that will satisfy all system requirements including design airflow, pressure balancing,
velocity ranges, and geometrical constraints. Existing sizing methods are arranged to calculate based
on an "initial guess."
Existing Duct Sizing Methods

The traditional duct sizing methods are Equal Friction and Static Regain [ASHRAE, 2001]. Both
methods were developed as expedient practical procedures and neither addresses optimization.
Available computer programs are simply automated versions of these manual procedures.
The Equal Friction method creates an "initial guess" for duct sizing by establishing a constant
pressure loss per unit of duct length. A number of sources recommend using 25 Pa (0.1 in. WG)
pressure loss per 30 m (100 ft) total length. This length is selected for the "critical path," which is
the longest branch in an air distribution system. It is assumed that the longest run will have the
highest sum of total pressure loss. However, the longest run is not necessarily the run with the
greatest friction loss, however, because shorter runs may have more elbows, fittings, and other flow
restrictions. The procedure for using the Equal Friction method for duct design, including system
balancing, follows:
Step 1. Select the "critical path" as the longest branch between fan and terminal outlets.
Step 2.Assign total pressure losses to each section of the "critical path" as the recommended
pressure loss per unit of length multiplied by the actual section length.
Step 3. Calculate cross sections for the "critical path" using previously assigned total pressure losses,
and correct these if necessary in order to satisfy velocity and geometrical constraints. Pressure loss
in junctions cannot be calculated until branched cross sections are assigned. At this time, the
pressure loss in junctions can be ignored; a constant pressure loss can be assumed for any junction,
or the same cross sections can be used in branches as in trunk ducts.
Step 4.Sum the pressure losses in the "critical path" and select a fan so that fan total pressure is
close to the sum of total pressure losses in the critical path. This pressure is called the "root
pressure." At this step the root pressure is the same as the fan pressure. If the selected fan does not
satisfy the pressure requirement, change the assigned pressure loss per unit length and repeat the
process from Step 2.
Step 5.Assign a total pressure at each node of the critical path. To achieve pressure balancing, node
pressures must be dissipated in corresponding branch sections.
Step 6. Exclude sections that belong to the critical path and select the longest branch from the
remaining sections. This will be the new critical path and the node pressure is its root pressure.
Step 7.Calculate the total pressure loss per unit length of the new branch as its root pressure divided
by its length. This pressure loss should be larger than the initial pressure loss per unit length
assumed for the main critical path in Step 2.
Step 8.Repeat the calculation process for the new critical path, starting from Step 2.
Step 9.Continue this process until cross sections are calculated for all sections.
The engineer should achieve pressure balancing by selecting proper duct cross-sections rather than
by using dampers.
Note that during such a calculation process, the pressure loss in the "critical path," which is already
calculated, will change because of the change of cross sections in the branches of junctions. A major
problem in this process is to satisfy the noise and geometry criteria. For example, a short section
located close to the fan must be balanced with the long "critical path." Often, this can only be done
by dampening flow. However, this creates noise caused by high velocities in the damper.
Occasionally, lowering fan pressure can prevent noise, but more often it indicates that the layout of
the system must be modified.
The Static Regain method of duct sizing is based on Bernoulli's equation, which states that when a
reduction of velocities takes place, a conversion of dynamic pressure into static pressure occurs. This
is used as the major principle for sizing the ducts so that the increase in static pressure at each
branch offsets the friction loss in the succeeding section of the duct. The static pressure should then
be the same before each terminal and at each branch. This method provides a convenient means of
designing a long duct run with several take offs so that the same static pressure exists at the
entrance to each branch, outlet, or terminal take off. The Static Regain method applies to supply
systems only. This method is also based on an arbitrary parameter, which is the velocity for the root
section. The ASHRAE 2001 Fundamentals Handbook, Chapter 34, Table 10 [ASHRAE, 2001] gives
the suggested range of velocities based on "engineering experience." When energy cost is high and
installed ductwork cost is low, a lower initial air velocity is most economical. For lower energy costs
and high duct costs, higher air velocity is most economical.
Like the Equal Friction method, the Static Regain method requires iterations. The major difference
between the Static Regain and Equal Friction methods is that one uses the ratio of pressure loss to
the length, and, in the other, the succeeding cross section is selected as a function of previously
established air velocities at junctions:
(Pressure loss)1-2 = [(Velocity)12 - (Velocity)22] x (Density) / 2
Both methods are based on an initial guess.
The Static Regain method has been shown to have a number of deficiencies [Tsal and Behls, 1988].
The method has been partially modified [Brooks,1995] to compensate for some of these problems.
Popular traditional duct design methods, including Equal Friction and Static Regain [ASHRAE, 1997],
provide engineers with design tools. However, these methods involve some engineering judgment
and extensive manual recalculations, so air distribution systems designed by different engineers for
identical situations will turn out to have different fans, duct sizes, costs, and overall system energy
demands.
Tsal and Behls (1986) conducted a comprehensive analysis of existing duct-sizing methods . This
analysis shows that these methods, after a number of iterations, can select cross sections that
deliver the designed amount of flow to terminals; these methods cannot, however, select the most
economically efficient design.
A large number of duct-sizing computer programs are available commercially. Most are based on
manual sizing techniques. One example, the DUCTSIZE computer program developed by Elite
Software, can size a duct system up to 500 sections using the Equal Friction, Static Regain, or
Constant Velocity techniques. Ducts can be round, rectangular, or flat oval. DUCTSIZE calculates
noise levels and required attenuation and presents a list of required materials. In addition, input
data can be taken directly from a duct drawing file created by AutoCAD.

Various methods and computer programs can be used to simulate airflow through a duct system.
However, simulation methods can only model ductwork systems. No simulation method by itself
produces an optimized air distribution system and no "standard" optimization program currently
exists. [Scott, 1986]
The ASHRAE Handbook recommends the T-Method, which allows a user to select duct sizes and fan
pressure, for duct simulation and "generalized" optimization that minimizes life-cycle cost. This
design technique was incorporated into the 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook. The T-method
integrates the life-cycle cost of the air distribution systemfirst-cost, energy cost, and hours of
operationinto the analysis of ductwork and fan selection. The system total pressure is optimally
derived while costs are minimized. According to Shepard et al. (1995), "the size and the energy use
of the fan can be about 45 to 75 percent smaller with [the] T-method" than with the conventional
"equal friction" sizing method. However, acceptance of the T-method has not been widespread
because hand calculation of the results is time-consuming. [Shepard et al., 1995; Tsal, 1995]
Quality duct design can be achieved only by using a comprehensive computer simulation program. A
comprehensive simulation program allows an engineer to model changing cross sections; closing and
opening dampers; removing, adding, and modifying fittings and duct-mounted equipment; selecting
different diffusers; and changing fans or motors. A good computer program adjusts the fan-system
operating point and shows new airflow quantities, velocities, pressure profiles, and how they differ
from a preceding design. In other words, a comprehensive computer simulation program allows
design engineers to model "what-if" in order to design laboratory environments that are as energyefficient and flexible as possible. Ideally, a simulation program is user-friendly, window-driven, and
capable of calculating supply, exhaust, and return systems using ducts of any shape. A
comprehensive simulation program requires an extensive library of fittings and duct roughness.
Finally, a good simulation program performs air balancing based on mass flow rate rather than on
volumetric flow. The program should provide an opportunity to model control dampers, and
fire/smoke dampers, and it should help evaluate and improve ductwork layout. [Tsal, 1999] [T-DUCT,
1994]
More:

There are a few numerical methods for calculating flow distribution in a duct system. The oldest
method, called the equivalent nozzles method, was developed in Germany at the end of the 19th
century by Bless [Lobaev, 1959]. The intent of this method is to replace the resistance of the
ductwork with the equivalent resistance of a nozzle. The method is based on the quadratic law of
resistance.
Kamenev (1938) developed the unit flow method. This method assumes flow through the terminal
section is equal to one unit of flow. This method, as well as the equivalent nozzle method, is used in
cases of quadratic law friction, which applies only when duct velocity is greater than 70 m/s (13,700
fpm). This velocity is impractical for HVAC ducts.
Butakov (1949) ref165 developed the duct characteristics method. Butakov [Butakov, 1949]used
the old friction coefficient formula developed by Bless and substituted it into the Darcy-Weisbach
equation. An important shortcoming of this method is that the use of Bless's formula results in
pressure losses that differ by 20 percent from those found with the more accurate Colebrook (1938)
ref168 or Altshul-Tsal [ASHRAE, 2001] equations.
Lobaev (1959) developed the equivalent resistance method that can be used for duct sizing and
system simulation. This is the one of the best analytical methods for duct optimization.
Tsal and Shor (1967) used the steepest descent method for duct simulation and implemented it in
a computer program. The descent step is normalized at each iteration as a function of maximum
gradient-vector. The computer program calculates the flow distribution in branches; corrects to the
fan operating point in the case of a change of flow; and calculates the required brake horsepower.
Major applications include industrial exhaust systems that convey dust and where dampers are
prohibited.
Tsal and Chechik (1968) developed the algorithm for the dynamic programming method for flow
distribution . This method is more difficult to implement than the steepest descent method, but,
unlike some other methods, it has no convergence problems.
The Newton-Raphson method was first used for network simulation by Stoecker, et al. (1974)
ref205 for simulating central chilled-water systems and Gregory et al. (1975) ref181 for duct
systems; the method was later translated into a computer code called TVENT1P. The main purpose
of this program is the dynamic modeling of a duct system for tornado conditions using an electrical
system analog for the airflow system in order to simulate the system's dynamics. TVENT1P uses only
fixed resistance coefficients. After each iteration, the program must be interrupted; then, Ccoefficients based on output flows must be recalculated and used as input data for the next iteration.
Revised C-coefficients have to be calculated manually for all junctions, transitions, and elbows when
the C-coefficients are a function of flow, velocity, or Reynolds number.
The well-known Equal Friction and Static Regain methods cannot simulate airflow.

The objective of duct simulation is to model airflows by obtaining pressure balancing [Tsal, et
al.1990]. The system simulation solution is obtained when the total pressure loss for each system
path is equal to the fan total pressure. The following requirements must be satisfied:
Kirchoff's first law. For each node, the mass flow in and out must be equal.
Pressure balancing. The total pressure loss in each pathmust be equal to the fan total
pressure. In other words, for any node the total pressure losses for all paths must be the
same.
Fan and system characteristics. Available fan pressure and flow depend on the fan
characteristic curve. Fan flow and pressure must match the system flow rate and resistance.
The T-Method computerized duct simulation determines the flow within each section of a duct
system for known duct sizes and fan characteristics. The T-Method duct simulation is based on the
same tee-staging idea as Dynamic Programming [Bellman 1957 ref159; Tsal and Chechik, 1968].
The T-Method incorporates the following major procedures:
System condensing. The branched tree system is condensed into a single imaginary duct
section with identical hydraulic characteristics and the same life-cycle cost as the entire
system.
Selection of an operating point. The actual system flow and pressure are determined by
locating the intersection of the fan and system curves.
System expansion. The condensed imaginary duct section is expanded into the original flow
distribution system with appropriate airflow rates. The expansion procedure distributes the
fan airflow throughout the system's sections. Unlike the condensing procedure, the expansion
procedure starts at the root section where the fan is located and continues in the direction of
the outlets.
To simulate a combined supply-return system, the distribution of the pressure losses between
subsystems must be found. The T-Method can find the distribution by first condensing each
subsystem separately and then expanding both condensed sub-roots, which are interpreted as two
sections (supply and return) connected in series. [Farajian, et al, 1992]

The commercially available T-Method simulation program, T-Duct, consists of four major parts: an
interactive window-driven preprocessor, a calculation processor, a numerical/graphical postprocessor, and a database of fittings. The program calculates the actual airflow distribution
throughout a system, adjusts the fan operating point, and checks the brake horsepower of the
existing fan. The program output also shows the percent airflow difference between design and
actual performance for each duct section, so the user can determine the need for corrective action.
[T-Duct Program, 1994]
The program's interactive preprocessor accepts a wide variety of data, particularly for fittings and
duct-mounted equipment. It presents only fittings suitable for a particular duct section and can
display fittings on the screen. A full range of browse, edit, copy, move, erase, and error-detection
techniques saves time for inputting identical sections or branches. The program can automatically
convert data among three unit systems (SI, Inch-Pound, and Metric), and it has many help screens.
The processor is an iterative procedure. Iterations allow for matching the fitting and equipment
local resistance coefficients with the actual airflows for each section of the duct. The convergence is
very efficient, usually requiring few iterations.
The post-processor is partially interactive. It shows the actual operating point on fan and system
curves, total and static pressures, and sectional and fitting data, including actual airflows and air
velocities. The post-processor allows for correcting cross-sections, closing or opening dampers, and
changing fan characteristics. Calculations can be repeated without leaving the program.
The Data Base has a number of libraries containing fittings and duct-mounted equipment from the
ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook [ASHRAE, 1997], the "HVAC Systems - Duct Design" [SMACNA,
1990], and various other sources.
The T-Method has a number of advantages compared to other simulation methods:
It
It
It
It
It
It
uses similar techniques for duct optimization and simulation,

is appropriate for any duct shape, material, and air density,
is appropriate for supply, return, and exhaust systems,
recognizes variable C-coefficients,
can accommodate any fan characteristic curve, and
has an efficient convergence process.
The best way to perform duct calculations for laboratories is by using an appropriate computer
program such as T-Duct.
Another example that illustrates the T-Method's capability is a simulation of the example in the
Fundamentals Handbook Chapter, "Duct Design" [ASHRAE, 2001]. The example was analyzed to
determine the airflow rates when system dampers are fully opened. Drastic differences were
discovered where airflows changed from 23% to 37% compared to the original system design [Tsal,
et al., 1990]. System analysis can also be done for situations such as partially occupied buildings, so
engineers and contractors can predict flow distribution, locate dampers, and save energy by
balancing the system, repositioning dampers and adjusting fan speed. The results of the simulation
calculations are flow rate and pressure resistance of each section of duct, pressure at each node, and
an operating point on the fan performance curve. The T-Method for duct simulation has also been
used to analyze systems with: (1) fans working in parallel when one fan is shut down, and (2) a VAV
system working in the minimum and maximum flow regimes.
Duct system simulation is needed in several situations for HVAC designs, including:
Analyzing air-flow redistribution in a multiple-fan system when one or more fans shut down,
Analyzing pressure differences between adjacent confined spaces in a nuclear facility when a
DBA occurs,
Analyzing air-flow distribution in a VAV system when there is terminal box flow diversity,
Analyzing air flow redistribution resulting from modifications to the HVAC system,
Analyzing system air flow for partially occupied laboratories,
Determining the need for fan or motor replacement during retrofitting of an air distribution
system,
Analyzing smoke control system performance during a fire when some fire/smoke dampers
close and others remain open,
Analyzing pneumatic conveying systems and manifolds,
Analyzing the influence of a change in damper blade angle on air flow at existing terminal
outlets,
Finding the operating point on the fan performance curve when duct size or damper blades
angles are changed,
Connecting additional terminal outlets to an existing system,
Analyzing the possibility for damper-generated noise,
Determining the maximum static pressure that can be experienced by dampers when all
system dampers are closed except one.
Ductwork Optimization
Inefficient ductwork system design results in either wasted energy or installation of excessive
ductwork. One could theoretically design a particular ductwork system as large as subway tunnels or
as small as cocktail straws. A subway-tunnel system's cost is extremely high but energy cost is
minimal. A cocktail-straw system's energy cost is extremely high but construction cost is minimal.
Somewhere in between the tunnel and the straw is the optimum system and duct size.
A duct optimization method determines duct sizes and selects a fan that minimizes system life-cycle
cost. Optimization can compare system costs for different fan pressures. Data variables needed for
optimization include: initial cost, energy cost, operating time period, escalation rate, and interest
rate. According to Tsal and Behls (1986) the three major optimization objectives for a ductwork
system are:
1)Optimum total fan pressure. This is the operating point on a fan's curve that assures that a
system supplies the necessary airflow to each terminal at a minimum life-cycle cost.
2)Optimum duct velocity ratio. This is the ratio between air velocities in all sections of a ductwork
system that satisfies the requirements for minimum life- cycle cost. A further explanation of this ratio
is presented in the referenced work by Tsal and Behls (1986).
3)System pressure balancing. The pressure provided by a system fan which delivers airflow to
each outlet, is dissipated by ductwork and fittings. The best way to attain design airflow to each
outlet is by pressure balancing through changing duct sizes rather than using dampers or other
devices.
Dean and Ratzenberger [Dean, et al., 1985 ref171] compare a "not optimum" duct design, created
using the Equal Friction method, with a computerized optimum design. The computer program
selects optimum duct sizes, helps improve ductwork layout, and fits superior-performing round ducts
into tight spaces in addition to maximizing the use of round ducts throughout the system. It selects
all trunk duct diameters, fittings, and terminal boxes with run-out fittings in order to obtain
approximately equal pressures at all terminal boxes for design load conditions. The computer
program analyzes both the air handling system and exhaust/return ductwork in combination. When
compared, the computerized design had substantially lower: first cost, operating cost, and noise level
than the Equal Friction method design.
More:
Duct Optimization Principles
Existing Tree-Network Optimization Methods
T-Method Duct Optimization
Optimization Calculation Forms
Economical Analysis From Beta Software
Duct Optimization Principles

Mathematical programming states that any optimization problem can be defined as a process of
minimization or maximization of an objective function in a space restricted by constraints. [Fox,
1971]
The objective function for duct optimization is the life-cycle cost, which is given by:
Life-cycle cost = (First year energy cost) (PWEF) + (Initial cost)
where,
PWEF is the present worth escalation factor.
The PWEF is:
PWEF = x 100%
where,
AER= annual escalation rate
AIR = annual interest rate
a= amortization period, years.
First year energy cost is determined by:
Energy cost = x (Fan Pressure)
Laboratory electrical unit energy cost depends on local industrial retail prices of electricity, including
demand charges and consumption costs. The unit energy cost or electrical energy retail prices for all
U.S. electric utilities can be obtained from Electric Sales and Revenue [EIA, 1995]. The costs are
adjusted for 500-kW demand for industrial consumers, which includes laboratories. Data for the
annual escalation rate (AER) are predicted by Utility Costs Forecasting [EIA, 1985 ref176] and Data
Research Utility Costs Forecasting [Data Resources, Inc., 1985 ref170]. The accuracy of any
calculation cannot be greater than the accuracy of the input data. Economic data are good only for
current periods and cannot predict situations such as oil embargoes or Persian Gulf crises. Therefore,
precise economic data are not needed for duct design. If the annual interest rate (AIR) is unknown,
an interest rate of 6% can be used. If the amortization period (a) is unknown, 10 years can be used.
The initial cost includes the cost of ducts and HVAC equipment. The duct cost is presented as a
function of the cost per unit area of duct surface, adjusted for straight ducts and fittings.
Installed duct prices are available from "Mechanical Cost Data" [Means, 1997]. These values are
based upon a typical system layout, 25% of which is fittings. Duct costs include material, shop labor,
field labor, shop drawings, shipping, and a 35% markup on costs for overhead and profit. Labor is
figured at $26.50 per hour. More accurate optimization can be obtained by separating the cost of
straight ducts from the cost of fittings. Cost data for fittings are also available from "Mechanical Cost
Data" [Means, 1997].
The main equipment included in the objective function is a system's central air-handling unit. The
pressure loss of duct-mounted equipment (coils, silencers, terminal control boxes) is included in the
duct sections where this equipment is located.
An important factor in duct optimization is the cost of space required by ducts and equipment. This
cost can be ignored if the space cannot be otherwise utilized. However, if saved space could be
utilized, its cost must be included in the objective function. Including this additional cost could lead
to reducing the size of ducts and thus increasing energy consumption.
Electrical energy retail prices vary widely. The maximum difference in electric energy costs between
industrial customers in Saint Paul City, Alaska (50.66 c/kWh) and Douglas County, Washington state
(1.62 c/kWh) is a factor of 31 to 1. Costs for ductwork range from $12.02 per square foot for 10gauge galvanized iron to $3.10 per square foot for 26-gauge spiral ducts, a ratio of 3.9 to 1
(Wendes, 1986). Combining the two ratios yields a potential factor of 122 to 1 depending on locale
and type of ductwork. Because of the electrical energy and ductwork price variations, there is a great
potential for reducing the life-cycle cost of different duct systems.
It is important in duct optimization to satisfy all necessary constraints. A detailed explanation of
each constraint can be found in Tsal and Adler (1987). The constraints are:
Kirchoff's first law. For each node, the mass flow rate "in" is equal to the mass flow rate
"out."
Pressure balancing. The total pressure loss in each path must be equal to the fan total
pressure. In other words, for any node the total pressure loss for each path is the same.
Nominal duct sizes. Each diameter of a round duct or height and width of a rectangular
duct is rounded to the near nominal lower or upper size. Nominal duct sizes normally depend
on manufacturers' standard increments. Ducts are available in 1-inch diameter increments to
20-inches and 2-inch increments for sizes larger than 20-inches Standard sizes can differ by
country.
Air velocity restriction. This is an acoustic (ductwork regenerated noise) or particle
conveyance limitation.
Pre-selected sizes. Duct diameters, heights, and/or widths can be pre-selected.
Construction restrictions. Architectural space limitations may restrict duct sizes.
Equipment. Central air-handling units and duct-mounted equipment must be selected from
those produced by industry.
Existing Tree-Network Optimization Methods

Many analytical and numerical methods for pipe and duct optimization have been developed during
the last century. A comprehensive survey of existing numerical duct optimization methods was
conducted by Tsal and Adler (1987). The first optimization method was developed by Grashoff in
1875 for a single pipeline. Several of the calculation procedures for duct optimization attempt to
minimize total cost by establishing optimum velocities or friction rates. These procedures are based
on the classical calculus minimization technique of setting the first derivative to zero in order to find
the diameter of the pipe or duct or to determine air velocity.
The classical method of optimization for multi-path district heating systems was first applied by
Shifrinson (1937) ref198 and for multi-path duct systems by Lobaev (1959) ref190. These
techniques are impractical for manual calculation. According to Tsal and Adler (1987), analytical
approaches can be effectively used only to identify trends in system behavior. A comprehensive
analysis of a multi-path duct system was published by Bouwman (1982) ref162.
Computer-aided numerical optimization methods are divided into two categories, discrete
methods, (coordinate descent, dynamic programming, and T-Method) and continuous methods
(penalty function, Lagrange multipliers, reduced gradient, and quadratic search).
The coordinate descent method is the most common technique for duct optimization [Tsal and
Chechik, 1968]. A number of different techniques are based on this method for selecting initial
conditions, searching for the next duct section to be changed, and "freezing" selected diameters.
Dynamic programming is one of the most powerful methods for multi-path tree network
optimization [Tsal and Chechik, 1968]. The penalty function method transforms constrained
problems into non-constrained problems, by adding penalty coefficients to the objective function.
This method has been applied to different networks by Tsal and Chechik (1968). Another way to
directly optimize a network is by the Lagrange multipliers method [Zanfirov, 1933 ref223;
Bertschi ref161, 1969; Kovaric, 1971 ref187; Stoecker et al., 1971]. The modified Lagrange
multipliers method has been applied for network optimization by Murtagh (1972) ref194. The
reduced gradient method [Arklin and Shitzer, 1979 ref151] is one of the best computerizedtechniques for application to rectangular duct optimization. It performs nonlinear optimization with
equality constraints and then applies the Newton-Raphson technique to find an optimum solution. A
technique called quadratic search was introduced for a concave problem optimization by Leah et
al. (1987) ref189. It was applied for chilled water system optimization.
Many of these methods can find the minimum of an unconstrained concave problem, but most fail to
yield a solution that can be successfully used in practice. In general, the objective function is not
uniformly concave. An example in Tsal and Adler (1987) explains this phenomenon. There is no
analytical or numerical method that can easily find the global minimum and satisfy all duct system
constraints.
T-Method Duct Optimization

An advanced duct design optimization technique based on the T-Method is being developed by Tsal,
Behls, and Mangel through cooperative research with ASHRAE [Tsal et al., 1986]. The economic
analysis of the example from the Duct Design chapter of the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook(2001)
re152 showed that significant initial or operating cost reductions are obtainable. In addition, the
three requirements for optimized designs -- optimum fan selection, pressure balancing, and optimum
sectional velocity ratios [Tsal and Adler, 1987] -- are satisfied by the T-method.
The T-Method's advantages over other optimization methods are:
It
It
It
It
It
It
It
It
It
is appropriate for any duct shape and material;

is appropriate for supply, return, exhaust, and combined supply-return systems;
eliminates critical path selection;
acknowledges constraints (velocity and space limitations, pre-selected or maximum sizes);
includes pressure balancing;
rounds to nominal duct sizes;
selects optimum fan and motor or central air-handling unit;
optimizes the design for a pre-selected fan; and
has an efficient convergence process.
The T-Method has been expanded and found to be capable of optimizing duct systems with air
leakage [Tsal et. al., 1998]. The T-Method incorporates the following major procedures:
1)System condensing: Condensing a branched tree system into a single imaginary duct section
with identical hydraulic characteristics and the same life-cycle cost as the entire system.
2)Air-handling unit selection: Selecting an optimal fan and establishing optimal system pressure
loss.
3) System expansion: Expanding the condensed imaginary duct section into the original system
with optimal distribution of pressure selected in step 2.
The T-Method demonstrates that two duct sections connected in series can be condensed into
a single imaginary duct section. The imaginary section will have the same: flow, pressure loss sum,
and initial cost, as the individual sections. The T-Method shows that K-coefficients, the hydraulics
characteristics of each section (which depend on flows, sizes, lengths and fittings) must satisfy the
following:
K1-2 = ( K10.833 + K20.833 )1.2
Similarly, two duct sections connected in parallel can be condensed into an imaginary duct
section that has the same pressure loss as individual sections, the sum of their flows, and the sum of
their initial costs. The relationship between K-coefficients must satisfy the following:
K1-2 = K1 + K2
The T-Method identifies a duct tree system as a sequential number of sections connected in series
and in parallel. In a tree system, all individual sections can be condensed into a single imaginary
duct section. This process is performed numerically by a recursive procedure that starts from
terminals and moves from tee to tee until it hits the root. This movement from tee to tee is the
source of the T-method's name.
Most decisions about selecting an air-handling unit will fit into one of the following three categories.
Case 1. The optimum fan pressure is calculated using the classical method where the first derivative
is made to equal zero. Once the desired fan pressure and flow are known, the fan can be selected
from a catalog.
Case 2. A number of central air-handling units or fans with motors are being considered. The cost of
each fan and motor, the total fan pressure, and coefficients of efficiency are known. A comparison is
made of life-cycle costs of the system equipped with each fan. The optimum fan is then selected at
minimum cost.
Case 3. Fan and motor are pre-selected based on necessary fan pressure.
In the T-method an expansion procedure distributes available fan pressure throughout the system
sections. Unlike the condensing procedure, the expansion procedure starts at the root section and
continues in the direction of the terminals.
An important advantage of the T-Method is that it can handle constrained optimization processes
including non-linearity and integer duct-size rounding. Rounding means selecting a lower or higher
nominal duct size. If the lower nominal size is selected, the initial cost decreases, but the pressure
loss increases and may cause fan pressure to increase. If the upper nominal size is selected, the
initial cost increases but the section pressure loss decreases. This saved pressure means a smaller
nominal size can be used in the next sections in the duct network. Therefore, size rounding is also
relevant to optimization. The T-Method contains a procedure that predicts the influence of the initial
cost of different duct sizes for both a specific duct section and the remaining system. The rounding
procedure is efficient but complicates the calculations. For manual calculation, a simplified procedure
called the 1/3 boundary procedure is recommended. For this procedure, if a choice is to be made
between two commercially available duct sizes where duct "A" is smaller than duct "B," the size
difference between A and B is first divided into thirds. Then, if the calculated size is less than A +
1/3, duct A is chosen. If the calculated size is equal to or greater than A + 1/3, duct B is chosen.
However, the 1/3 boundary procedure is just a rough approach. If the lower size is selected for a
long duct with many local resistances, the pressure loss in the corresponding path may exceed the
fan pressure capability. A final advantage of the T-Method shows that it can optimize a duct system
with air leakage [Tsal et. al., 1998REFERENCES: Distribution Systems].
All existing analytical and numerical duct design methods except dynamic programming are
iterative [Tsal and Adler, 1987]. The T-Method is iterative but relatively simple; it is also able to
select the optimum pressure for each system section while incorporating pressure balancing. Many
parameters such as C-coefficients for junctions and transitions depend on duct size and are not
known at the beginning of the calculation process; they have to be defined during the iterations. The
T-Method converges efficiently. Usually, five iterations are sufficient to obtain the optimum solution
with a high degree of accuracy.
To optimize a combined supply-return system, the distribution of the pressure losses between
the supply and return subsystems must be optimized. The T-Method does this by first condensing
each of the subsystems. Next, both condensed sub-roots are interpreted as two sections connected
in series and a condensed root section is substituted for them. Then, a fan and motor or central airhandling unit is selected, and the pressure is distributed for the supply and return subsystem as in
an expansion procedure. The T-Method can optimize both the supply and return subsystems as one
system.
Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Architectural

Programming
Modern research facilities provide usable space for laboratories, laboratory support areas, offices,
and interactive spaces for formal and informal gatherings. The special equipment and environments
required for research make these facilities complex and expensive to build and operate. Complying
with building codes and considering building standards are part of the architectural programming
process. The research organization priorities will set the tone for the incorporation of the energyefficiency measures (EEMs) for the facility. It is important that the facility be able to accommodate
changes in use by including flexibility in the original design. However, the facility's near-term energy
use must not be overlooked even though the facility may plan for larger system capacity in the
future. Architectural arrangements that provide laboratory isolation can result in energy efficiency
benefits by using a design concept that includes modular degrees of isolation for the required
controlled environments. The modular research laboratory provides an opportunity to arrange the
environmental conditioning systems efficiently. Utility service coordination, by providing orderly
pathways and routing, will reduce energy use by streamlining their layout and configuration.
Minienvironments can reduce energy consumption greatly with their ability to confine energy-intense
environments to small volumes.
Codes
Energy Efficiency and Codes
While it is a fact that codes and energy efficiency are inexorably linked, the codes have few
requirements that affect the facility's energy efficiency directly. Recommended standards (see below)
have a greater influence on the energy consumption of the laboratory facility. The building standards
that apply to all occupancies throughout the state of California appear in the California Code of
Regulations and the California Health and Safety Code. Laboratory facilities, per the Uniform Building
Code (UBC), typically fall into one of three classifications; B, H-8, or H-7.
The occupancy classification is the key to any impacts of a building standard on the facility's energy
efficiency. The energy engineer rarely will have a say in the determination of the facility's UBC
classification. However, the indirect benefits of a less stringent classification can reduce energy
consumption, e.g., by allowing the recirculation of air within a laboratory rather than requiring 100%
outside air at all times. Therefore, the energy engineer should study the requirements of each
classification to be familiar with their potential energy impacts and relate these findings to the
project design team. For a general evaluation of codes and building energy-efficiency programs, see
Lee, 1997.
More:
California Health and Safety Code
Uniform Building Code
Uniform Fire Code
California Code of Regulations
Research laboratories exist to provide the precise environmental conditions required for research.
These conditions require sophisticated, expensive, energy-intensive HVAC systems. Laboratories
typically consume 300,000 to 400,000 BTUs per square foot per year or more, six to 10 times the
number of BTUs consumed in a typical office building. However, energy consumption and operating
costs can be reduced through "right sizing," choosing the most efficient and cost effective
combinations of equipment and equipment sizes as well as managing the laboratory load, all to
achieve energy efficiency. A comprehensive example of incorporating right-sizing techniques is
provided in a report by Wrons (1998)ref324 on Sandia National Laboratories' Process and
Environmental Technology Laboratory (PETL) located in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Right sizing is an
iterative process; although new techniques are developed continuously, the basic elements are:
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis,
Conditioning System Capacity Analysis,
Diversity Analysis, and
Load Management Analysis. [Cooper, 1994]
Life-cycle cost analysis
Energy intensive environmental conditioning systems have high operational and first costs.
Therefore, it is very important for the energy engineer to consider the optimum mix of operational
and first costs to determine the system's life-cycle cost. Life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis accounts for all
costs incurred for the HVAC system from installation through a chosen period of time, usually 20
years. Life-cycle cost analysis is a "yard stick" to measure the relative benefits of the choices
available to the design team. When an energy-efficiency measure (EEM) happens to have the lowest
first cost, an LCC analysis is not necessary.
Conditioning system capacity analysis
Estimating the conditioning capacity necessary for a laboratory includes a myriad of choices to
determine the laboratory's HVAC system type and size. To make these choices intelligently, the
engineer must understand the variability of the laboratory facility's load profile. Airflow rate through
the facility is a subject of considerable debate that is primarily driven by the air change rate per hour
(ACH) and the design fume hood face velocity.
Diversity analysis
Diversity analysis in a laboratory ventilation system accounts for the fact that not all laboratory
spaces or fume hoods are operated at 100 percent, 24 hours per day. The larger the facility, the
smaller the probability of simultaneous use of all available capacity. Studies and practical experience
have shown that, for large laboratories with many fume hoods, at least 20 to 30 percent are closed
or only partially used at any one time. Therefore, HVAC systems can be sized for 70 to 80 percent of
peak ventilation capacity. Sizing the HVAC system at 70 percent of peak load decreases operational
and first costs, gives better system control, increases system stability, and reduces mechanical space
requirements. Taking advantage of diversity is particularly valuable when retrofitting existing facilities
where available space is limited. Therefore, it is very important to consider diversity when sizing a
large laboratory HVAC system. Small, single-room laboratories should always be sized for full 100
percent capacity without downsizing. [Lentz and Smith, 1989; Cooper, 1994]
Load management analysis
A comprehensive analysis of the laboratory loads should include an interview between the
researchers and the energy engineer. Such interviews often produce unexpected results and
increased energy efficiency; identification of equipment and occupancy schedules helps clarify
system capacity needs, and, in some cases, reveals that demand-controlled ventilation is a viable
option.
Finally, control is the single most important design variable in an HVAC system that meets a
laboratory's exacting environmental requirements. The control scheme must address temperatures
as well as safe ventilation and stable control of building pressures, duct static pressures, and air
migration patterns. An in-depth examination of control systems is presented in Chapter 4. [Lentz,
and Smith, 1989]
Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Direct Digital

Control
The overall impact of a DDC system upon the energy efficiency of a research laboratory is
considerable and includes a broad range of positive benefits. Some impacts have a direct energy
influence, e.g., precise temperature control, while others have indirect energy consequences, e.g.,
consumption reporting. While the structure/architecture of the DDC system is very important, the
energy engineer should give greater consideration to the operator interface, called the
Person/Machine Interface (PMI). There are particular advantages that the distributed DDC system
has over a pneumatic system and individual controllers. The building of a comprehensive sequence of
operations is the first step in the implementation of the laboratory Energy Monitoring and Control
System (EMCS). Depending upon budget and scope constraints, a DDC system can provide the core
of a growing, flexible system that can provide Total Laboratory Energy Management (TLEM) which is
further described in Section 4.4, below. A highlighting of DDC advantages and benefits follows:
Centralized User Interface
Dynamic, Precise Facility Control
Coordination of Facility Systems Operation
Speed and Reliability from Computational Power
Optimizing Facility Diversity
Durability and Flexibility
Troubleshooting/Easing of maintenance
Trending and History Data Logging
Customized Energy Reporting
Direct Digital Control (DDC) Advantages

Energy Efficiency and DDC Advantages
DDC EMCSs replace conventional pneumatic or electromechanical HVAC control systems with
equipment capable of performing not only control but energy management and system diagnostic
functions in the environment of a centralized computer network. An EMCS accepts analog, discrete,
and digital input from remote sensors and devices, processes the data, and then controls remote
mechanical equipment. An EMCS inherently has more accurate control because it reduces the drift,
maintenance and recalibration problems common with pneumatic control systems. Additionally, an
EMCS can make all facilities function more efficiently when the gathered data are compiled into
useful, pertinent reports. Quality control, production, research, and maintenance will all benefit from
the increased information flow when it is properly managed. [Ruys, 1990]
Compared to conventional control systems, DDC offers the following advantages:
Control Precision,
Systems Coordination,
Optimum Start,
Diversity Analyses,
Retrofit Identification,
System Load Tracking,
Monitoring and Maintenance Information,
Trend Information and History data, and
Energy Reporting.
More:
DDC vs. conventional pneumatic controls
DDC control integration
Monitoring and maintenance
Reporting
Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Laboratory

Supply Systems
Energy engineers designing laboratory supply systems now have numerous opportunities for better
contamination control and energy efficiency than in the past. More than 60 percent of the energy
consumed by a conventional lab or cleanroom is used to circulate air and to supply heating, cooling,
humidity, and clean air, so energy-efficient designs can result in substantial savings. Generally,
annual supply system energy costs are ranked from highest to lowest as follows:
Cooling/Chillers,
Fan energy,
Humidification, and
Heating.
In the case of cleanrooms, the energy consumed by humidification and heating varies depending on
climatic conditions and can shift from season to season. In large, specialized cleanrooms (Class 1000
and cleaner), the largest amount of energy, aside from that used for manufacturing equipment, is to
supply vertical unidirectional air flow.
This chapter looks at four areas of supply systems that should be considered for energy efficiency:
Plant Devices,
Air Systems,
Air-Handling Units, and
Energy Recovery.
We analyze these categories separately; however, design decisions for one category affect the energy
use of the others, so the cumulative effects of interactions among them must be considered.
[Takenami et al., 1989; Brown, 1990; Naughton, 1990a; Naughton, 1990b]
Air Systems
Energy Efficiency and Air Systems
The HVAC Air System can be considered the "lungs" of the facility. Many major energy-using
components are necessary to provide the desired environment. As in the cases of chillers and boilers,
energy savings can be realized in air-handling by modularizing these systems. We examine energy
efficiency by reviewing major system requirements for laboratory and cleanroom environments.
[Charneux, 2001]
VAV systems
Laboratory-type facilities benefit especially from VAV systems. VAV systems reduce both operating
energy costs and capital costs. By continuously adjusting to match the environmental conditioning
required by the facility, VAV systems save operating energy. When diversity or varying loads are
taken into account, the additional first cost of VAV systems can have life-cycle paybacks, including
operational energy savings, in less than six months. [Atwell and McGeddy, 1989; Neuman and
Guven, 1994; Parker et al., 1993] [Basso, 1997]
When air-handling equipment is operated at low air-flow rates, the reduction of the pressure loss and
the higher degree of efficiency of the heat exchangers can more than compensate for the higher
purchase costs of the VAV system. Outside working hours, the air-flow rate can be reduced to 50
percent of the design value. The resulting energy consumption of the VAV system for conveying the
air decreases to less than 25 percent of peak load. [Schicht, 1991]
Make-up air systems
One of the largest subsystem energy users in a laboratory's space conditioning system is the makeup air-handling system. Make-up air units can use tremendous amounts of energy unnecessarily in
part because of basic design decisions regarding the temperature and humidity tolerance allowed in
the laboratory or cleanroom. The energy requirements to heat, cool, dehumidify, or humidify the
make-up air are considerable and can represent 30 percent to 65 percent of the total energy
required to maintain the laboratory or cleanroom environment. Charneux (2001) describes an
interesting laboratory design in which classroom and office area airflow is combined with supply
make-up air for the facility's lab spaces, resulting in an overall outside air demand reduction of 30
percent. As noted by Lacey (1997), an innovative "focused" make-up ventilation system is used in an
animal anatomy lab to provide "spot" ventilation. This system, which also uses air-to-air energy
recovery, consumes 10 percent of a conventional bulk ventilation system. [Charneux, 2001] [Lacey,
1997] [Kruse, 1991; Naughton, 1990a; Brown, 1990]
Cleanroom recirculation air systems
Cleanrooms of class 1000 and cleaner have air change rates of 600 to 900 per hour. Large amounts
of energy are necessary to transport these huge quantities of cleanroom air and remove fan heat.
Recirculation air systems for cleanroom designs can maximize energy savings by reducing both the
unidirectional air-flow rate and the pressure drop in the air recirculation loop. Significant energy
savings are also possible when high-efficiency components are used for circulating these large
quantities of air. [Naughton, "HVAC Systems Part 1, 1990]
In cleanrooms, air flow is a generally fixed parameter based on the air velocity desired. Required fan
horsepower can be reduced by one-third if the clean room is provided with a mixed HEPA filter air
velocity and only the product and the production equipment are covered with 90 fpm (0.457 m/s) air
flow while the remainder of the cleanroom operates at a lower velocity of 60 fpm (0.305 m/s).
[Naughton, "HVAC Systems Part 1, 1990]
Major energy savings can be achieved by lowering system static pressure and improving fan
efficiency. The energy required to overcome the system static pressure rises at a cubed rate, thus
increasing energy requirements exponentially. [Ciborowski and Pluemer, 1991]
More:
VAV systems
Make-up air systems
Air recirculation systems
Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Exhaust Systems
In laboratory-type facilities, a fundamental goal of energy engineers is to reduce the amount of

exhaust air to the lowest safe level for any particular design because conditioned exhaust air is very
energy intensive. Code and certification requirements that determine the amount of exhaust need to
be verified with the authority that has jurisdiction over the facility design and operation; however,
there are surprisingly few codes that stipulate the actual amount of exhaust for laboratory-type
facilities. Certification standards must be carefully understood to insure that they are appropriate for
the actual activities for which laboratory equipment and space are being used. Devices that exhaust
air from a laboratory have evolved in response to concerns about safety and energy consumption.
For fume hoods, the most important energy-efficiency measure is to incorporate variable volume
exhaust airflow that changes with the position of the protective sash. Manifolding fume hoods, when
appropriate, reduces exhaust system energy consumption. Manifolding can also reduce first costs
and increase system flexibility. Optimizing stack heights and air stream exit velocities can minimize
required energy to disperse exhaust stack effluent. Finally, even the most sophisticated, energyefficient exhaust system can be rendered ineffective if operators are not trained and motivated to
use the system to its maximum potential.
Overview of Exhaust Systems
As presented in the Laboratory Control and Safety Solutions Application Guide Rev. 2, 1994 all
exhaust systems for laboratory-type facilities must meet the following four fundamental
requirements:
The system capacity and air velocity must transport all hazardous airborne
substances away from their origin and discharge them sufficiently high above the
facility. These substances include one or a combination of chemical fumes, vapors,
airborne biological substances and various particulate and radioactive elements.
The system must not leak or allow the exhaust air stream to re-enter the facility.
The system's components such as ducts, fans, and dampers must be able to
withstand the corrosive or other adverse effects of the transported substances.
The system operation must not generate an unacceptable sound level or excessive
vibration.
In selecting an exhaust system, one must also consider: first costs, life-cycle costs, maintainability,
space requirements, expansion possibilities, and component reliability (see Chapters 2 and 3).
[Lunneberg, 1998]
More:
Exhaust System Configuration
Exhaust air cleaning systems
Specialized exhaust systems
Room Pressure Control

Energy Efficiency and Laboratory Pressure Control
By insuring that the laboratory is safely and correctly isolated from adjacent spaces, the air pressure
control system contributes to the overall energy efficiency of the laboratory facility. An energyefficient VAV supply and exhaust can be used to control this pressure. The techniques to provide
laboratory pressure control include differential pressure sensing, air-flow tracking, and combination
pressure sensing/tracking.
The advantages and drawbacks of these techniques make clear that the best choice for safe and
energy-efficient laboratory operation is a combination of pressure sensing and air-flow tracking. The
pressure control system's efficient maintenance of laboratory conditions has a large effect on
heating, cooling, and air moving expenses. According to Grossman (1995), "Depending on the
technology used, each laboratory air-flow control system may require a different maximum volume
of air measured in cfm, to do the job properly. At an average cost of $3/cfm [to $7/cfm] each year,
the differences between the energy costs associated with systems can often be quite dramatic."
More:
Laboratory pressure control objectives
Static pressure force
VAV and laboratory pressure control
Application of pressure sensing
Application of air-flow tracking
Combined pressure sensing and air-flow tracking
Enthalpy stabilization
Noise Attenuation
Energy Efficiency and Noise Attenuation
Noise attenuation devices typically increase the pressure drop of the air distribution system,
increasing its energy consumption. Numerous strategies exist for eliminating noise; however, it is
preferable not to design a noisy system in the first place. Noise is caused by air movement and
transmitted by vibrations to the ductwork from fans, dampers, and other components, especially
fume hoods. An engineer can make a system quieter by selecting low-noise fans, incorporating round
ductwork, and reducing air-flow velocity by oversizing the ductwork. Active noise cancellation
technology can reproduce low-frequency fan noise electronically and reintroduce the noise 180 out
of phase, canceling it without restricting air flow within the ductwork. [Wise and Dineen, 1995;
Micro-Electronics Facility Efficiency Workshop, 1995; Handbook of Facilities Planning, 1990]
More:
Fans and noise
Fume hoods and exhaust ductwork noise
Active noise attenuation
Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Air Filtration
The first step in energy-efficient air filtration design is to determine accurately rather than estimate
the filtration required for the laboratory's process needs and for safety. Close attention to filtration
efficiency will result in significant energy use reductions over the life of the facility, especially when
the optimization of the filter's final pressure drop is calculated.
The next step in designing energy-efficient filtration is reducing pressure loss in filter systems by
selecting filters with the lowest pressure drop available, usually those with deep, extended surfaces;
underrating filter bank(s) by sizing for reduced volume compared to the rated filter volume; and
designing the filter bank for a low face velocity of no more than 300 feet per minute (100 feet per
minute is best for energy-efficient design). The Micro-Electronics Facility Efficiency Workshop (1995)
points out that, "...since filter life is inversely proportional to the square of velocity, cutting velocity in
half can extend filter life by a factor of four." Some High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters cause
less pressure drop than the filters typically included in conventional supply systems; HEPA filtration
does not necessitate large pressure drops.
The features described above will cost more than conventional designs partly because of their
requirements for increased duct size and filter area. However, these recommendations are usually
shown to be cost effective when life-cycle cost analysis is done.
Degree of Filtration
Energy Efficiency and Degree of Filtration
The degree of air filtration needed is determined primarily by the process that the air stream serves
and is typically stipulated by codes or researcher requirements. In a typical laboratory, highefficiency filtration is not normally required. Filters with 30 percent ASHRAE efficiency (atmospheric
dust spot test method) provide adequate filtration for a reasonable first cost if maintenance is
provided at appropriate intervals. The type of laboratory isolation required, e.g., hazardous or
protective (see Chapter 2), will also determine the degree of filtration necessary. In a laboratory
isolated for hazardous research, the exhaust air steam may need to be filtered with High Efficiency
Particulate Air (HEPA) and activated-carbon filters. A research laboratory that is protectively isolated
may also require HEPA filtration of the supply air, as in the case of a cleanroom. For energy
efficiency, the filter system should be "underrated." [McIlvaine, 1992; NAFA Guide..., 1993; Bas,
1995]
Underrating filters
Underrating a filter system means passing less air through it than its rated capacity allows, that is,
less volume of air per unit time than the clean filter can manage at a specified pressure drop.
Because underrating means a lower pressure drop and increased dust holding capacity compared to
operation at rated capacity, the filter will have a longer life and a lower energy consumption during
its life. The NAFA Guide to Air Filtration (1993) points out that underrating means, "The time required
for a pressure drop increase due to captured dust will be extended."
More:
Filtration overview
Cleanroom filtration
Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Lighting

By Doug Avery, Michael Siminovitch, Ph.D., and Geoffrey C. Bell. P.E.
Typically 10 to 20 percent less energy is consumed by lighting in laboratory-type facilities than by the
HVAC system. Nonetheless, efficient lighting systems provide significant energy savings. Efficient
lighting design begins with understanding the tasks to be performed in the laboratory. A design that
incorporates both dedicated task illumination and general ambient lighting is most energy efficient.
High-efficiency lighting components, such as T8 fluorescent lamps and electronic ballasts, are the
starting point in energy-efficient lighting designs. Lighting energy is also dramatically reduced by
control systems that turn off lights based on occupancy or adjusts lighting in response to available
natural light. In some laboratories, a remote lighting system provides the benefit of isolating a large
portion of the lighting system from the laboratory space.
Lighting Design
Energy Efficiency and Lighting Design
Efficient laboratory lighting design first considers the task that occupants will perform in the space.
We review two lighting design approaches: general lighting and task-ambient lighting. The lighting
design approach determines the type of lighting calculation used. Lighting design affects other
energy-consuming systems in the facility. For instance, in cleanrooms, large ceiling luminaires reduce
ceiling area for HEPA filters. As filter area is reduced, filter exit velocity increases, increasing the
static pressure within the system, which causes fans to consume more energy. Finally, all heat
generated by the luminaires and the harder working fans affects cooling equipment sizing.
[McIlvaine, 1992; Eley et al., 1993]
More:
Task identification
General lighting design
Task-ambient lighting
Daylighting
High-Efficiency Lighting Components

Energy Efficiency and Lighting Components
A number of lighting system components are available for installation in research laboratories. This
section will review the various lamps, ballast, and fixtures that are typically utilized to provide
general space illumination, with particular attention to the efficacy of specific lamp and ballast
combinations. Components designed to provide task lighting will also be examined, including
discussions of the relative efficiency of various products. [Catone, 2001]
According to Eley et al. (1993) ref145,
There are three primary means of improving the efficiency of a fluorescent lamp-ballast system:
Reduce the ballast losses.

Operate the lamp(s) at a high frequency.
Reduce losses attributable to the lamp electrodes.
More:
Lamps
Electronic ballasts
Fixtures
Diagonal air-distribution system for operating rooms: experiment and modeling

Monika Woloszyna, , , Joseph Virgonea and Stphane Mlenb
a
Centre de Thermique de Lyon:UCBL, CNRS UMR 5008, INSA de Lyon, bat. 307 20, av. A. Einstein,
69621 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
b
Air Liquide, Centre de Recherche Claude Delorme, Jouy-en-Josas, France
Received 19 March 2003; revised 17 March 2004; accepted 24 March 2004. Available online 5 June
2004.
Abstract
The airflow patterns and the diffusion of contaminants in an operating room with a diagonal airdistribution system were subjected to both experimental measurements and numerical modeling. The
experiments were carried out in MINIBAT test cell equipped with an operating table, a medical lamp and a
manikin representing the surgeon. Air velocity and tracer-gas concentration were measured automatically
at more than 700 points. The numerical simulations were performed using EXPAIR software developed
by Air Liquide for analyzing air quality in operating rooms. Only isothermal conditions were investigated
in this comparison with the numerical software. The results showed that the contaminant distribution
depended strongly on the presence of obstacles such as medical equipment
3
Technology&Services
areportby
WilliamLawrance
ProductManager,FlktWoods
FlktWoodsGrouphasbeensupplyingairhandling
unitsforhospitalsforseveraldecades.Indeed,even
today,aEU2000airhandlingunitisbeinginstalled
somewhereintheworldevery10minutes.
TheEU2000generationofairhandlingunitshave
nowbeenonthemarketforover10yearsandare
installedinmanyhospitalsalloverNorthernEurope
andScandinavia.
FlktWoodshavebeenmanufacturingairhandling
unitsforoverfourdecadesandsomeofthefirstunits
installedarestillrunningwelltoday.
Theairhandlingunitandtheairdistribution
terminaldevicesareimportantpartsoftheventilation
systemandnowFlktWoodsisintroducingafurther
developmentinairdistributionfordemanding
indoorenvironments.
Generally,hospitalstendtohavealargenumberof
relativelysmallairhandlingunits,eachservinga
specificfunctionwithinthebuilding.Thespecial
technicaldemandsincludehygiene,reliability,safety
andenergyrelatedissues.
FlktWoodshassomeinterestingsolutionsforfilter
frames,highefficiencyparticulateair(HEPA)filter
installation,fans,coolingcoilsandheatrecovery,as
wellassilencersandthecasingitself.
Inahospitalenvironment,theretendtobehigh
concentrationsofharmfulmicroorganisms.Their
routestohumansareeitherbyphysicalcontactorby
airbourneroutes.Inthisenvironmenttheyare
particularlydangerousbecauseofreducedimmunity
levelsinpatients.
Theriskofbeinginfectedthroughtheairbourne
routeisafunctionofparticleconcentration.The
chanceofaparticlethatiscarryinganorganism
fallingintoanopenwoundincreaseswithparticle
concentration.
Byreducingtheconcentrationwereducethe
chanceofinfectionand,hence,thenumberof
patientsinfected.
Fourmainfactorsaffectthelocalconcentration
aroundapersoninaroom:
firstly,theconcentrationofparticleswouldtend
toincreasewithrateofproductionofparticlesin
theroom;
secondly,theproportionofsupplyandexhaustair
quantityinrelationtothesizeoftheroom;
thirdly,theleveloffiltrationofthesuppliedair
willaffecttheabilityoftheventilationsystemto
dilutetheroomairparticleconcentration;and
fourthly,airturbulenceandairmovementinthe
roomcantransportparticlessothemethodofair
distributionwillaffectlocalconcentrations.
Thelastthreeoftheseareattributesoftheventilation
systemthatcanbeengineeredtolimittheeffectof
thefirstandtheFlktWoodsGrouphavesystems
andproductstomeettheseengineeringproblems.
Thegrouphassuppliedequipmenttoaverylarge
numberofhospitals,whichhasgivenusverylong
andwideexperience;weareabletoofferrelevant
advicebasedonthatexperience.
Airhandlingunitfiltershavethetaskof,asa
minimum,limitingtheconcentrationofparticles
enteringtheroomfromoutdoorsbutalsoofkeeping
theairhandlingunitcomponentsascleanaspossible
inordertoreducetheriskofbiologicalgrowth
withintheunititself.Ideally,theairhandlingunit
shouldnotproduceanydustitself,butthatismore
orlessimpossiblewheremovingpartsareconcerned
i.e.thefanset.
FlktWoodshavesomewelltestedsolutionsthat
reducetheproductionofdustgeneratedbythefan
set.Forexample,flatbeltsproduceconsiderablyless
AirHandlingandVentilationSystemsforHospitals
Class
CollectingEfficiency(%)atMost
PenetratingParticleSize
H10
>85
H12
>99,5
Table1
dustthannormalvbeltsandaremoreefficientat
transmittingthepowerfromthemotortothefan.
Directdrivenfansavoidtheuseofbeltsandboth
plugfansandaxialfanscanbeoffered.
Themotorcanalsobemountedontheoutsideof
theairhandlingunitcasingsothatweavoid
mountingboththemotorandthebeltdriveinthe
airstream.Thisinvolvestheuseofaspecialfanwith
anextendedshaft.Caremustbetakenwhen
engineeringsuchasolutionsinceincreasingthesize
oftheshaftwhileavoidingthecriticalspeed
compensatesfortheadditionalforcesontheshaft.In
addition,thefanandmotorassemblymustalsobe
fullyisolatedfromthebuildingstructure.
Finalfiltrationcanbeusedtosubstantiallyreducethe
concentrationofdustparticlesinthesupplyairand
herethedesignofthefilterframeanditsinstallation
canbedecisive.TheFlktWoodspatentedHEPA
filterframeeliminatestheriskofbypassleakagewhile
avoidingtheuseofliquidsealsandofferingcleanand
rapidfilterreplacement.HEPAfiltersareavailablein
differentgrades.
Thestandardsusedfordeterminingthetypeof
collectingefficiencyoffiltersoftendifferbetween
EuropeandtheUS.EvenwithinEuropethereare
differentstandardsindifferentcountries.European
CommitteeforStandardization(CEN)EN1822gives
acommonstandardwithinEuropeandisbasedonthe
filtersabilitytocollectthemostpenetratingparticle
size(MPPS)or,inotherwords,howgoodthefilteris
atstoppingtheparticlesthataremostdifficulttocatch.
MilitaryStandard282,dioctylphthalate(DOP)0.3m
isusedintheUS.Particleswithasizeof0.3marenot
necessarilythemostdifficulttocatchsoforanygiven
individualfilterthetestresultwillappeartobebetter
whentestedinaccordancewiththeUSstandardthan
iftestedtotheEuropeanstandard.Figure1indicates
thecollectingefficiencyforDOP0.3masafunction
oftheairflowforonewholecassette.
Asaresult,careshouldbetakenwhencomparingthe
performancedataforHEPAfiltersfromdifferent
manufacturers.
Notethatthecollectingefficiencyisinversely
proportionaltotheairvelocity,whileairpressure
dropisproportionaltoairvelocity.Thatmeansthat
increasingthevelocity(orreducingtheoverallfilter
area)maybeafalseeconomysincealthoughthe
initialinstallationcostsmayseemlower,the
operatingcostwillbemuchhigherandthefiltration
performancereduced.
HeatRecovery
FlktWoodsoffersafullrangeofheatrecovery
systemsandforhospitalswouldrecommendeither
liquidcoupledorplateheatexchangers.The
advantageoftheliquidcoupledsystemisthatthere
isnoriskoftransferofairandcontaminationfrom
theextracttothesupplyside.Thesystemalsooffers
considerableflexibilitysincethesupplyandextract
neednotbeneareachotherandmultipleheat
exchangerscanbeusedoneitherorbothofthe
supplyandextract.
Econet
isaliquidcoupledheatrecoverysystem
withsomeadditionalbenefits.Thesystemis
deliveredcompletewithaspeedcontrolledpump,
valves,sensorsandcontrolsystem.Wealso
maintainthesystemafterthecontractorhas
installedit.Thecontrolsystemisprogrammedwith
aFlktWoodsdevelopedoptimiser.Thepumpis
controlledtocirculatetherightquantityofwater
fortheprevailingconditionsoftemperatureandair
flowrate.
Econet
isselectedtogiveyouahightemperature
efficiencyandtheoptimiserensuresthatthesystem
givespeakperformancecontinually,evenifyouare
operatingavariableairvolumesystem.
AnotherimportantadvantageofEconet
isthatthe
systemcanbeconnectedtoasourceoflowgrade
heat.Itispossibletofeedwaterwithatemperature
aslowas35Cintotheheatrecoverycircuitto
provideadditionalheatingwhentheheatrecovery
systemdoesnotmeetthedemand.Thereturnwater
willbeaslowas1520C,whichcangivesubstantial
benefitsindistrictheatingsystems.Econet
canbe
integratedwiththechillersystembyusingwarm
waterfromthecondensor.
Econet
canalsobeusedforcooling.Cool
watercanbeinjectedintothecircuitduringthe
warmseason.
LifecycleCost
Lifecyclecost(LCC)isthetotalcostofpurchasing,
installingandrunninganitemofequipmentfora
designatednumberofyears.Theenvironmentalcost
canalsobeincludedinthissum.
Technology&Services
2
BUSINESSBRIEFING:HOSPITALENGINEERING&FACILITIESMANAGEMENT2003
Figure1
Page 3
AirHandlingandVentilationSystemsforHospitals
LCC=Investmentcost+Energycost+Service
cost+Environmentalcost+Taxes(ifapplicable)
Overa10yearperiod,theoverallLCCisdominated
bythecostofenergy,whichcantypicallyaddupto
over80%ofthetotalcost.
Installingeffectiveheatrecoveryequipmentcan
reduceheatingandcoolingenergycosts.Aswe
manufacturethethreemostimportanttypesofheat
recovery,wecanadviseonthebestsystemforyour
applicationanddiscusstheadvantagesofthe
differentsystems.
However,theelectricalenergyusedtodrivethefan
motorsisoftenthelargestpartofthetotalenergy
cost.Efficientfansandmotorswillobviouslyreduce
energycostbutselectingabiggerunitwilloftenhave
agreaterimpactonthespecificfanpower.
Ourairhandlingunitselectionprogramcan
automaticallycalculateLCCcostsforunitsselected
askyourlocalFlktWoodsrepresentativeto
demonstratetheLCCprogramforyouandaskforan
LCCcalculationwithyourtenderbids.
Itgoeswithoutsayingthatreliabilityandlongevity
areimportantissuesinhospitalsystems.TheEU
2000unitisastandardisedproductwithflexibility
andvarietybuiltintothedesignplatform,whichis
specificallyengineeredforreliabilityinoperation.
Wemanufactureallourmajorcomponentswithin
theFlktWoodsGroupandhavefullcontrolover
qualityandperformance.Allcomponentsarefully
testedinourmodernresearchanddevelopment
(R&D)facilitytothemostrigorousanduptodate
internationalstandards.
Ifanairhandlingunitiseasytomaintainthenthere
isagoodchancethatitwillbemaintained.Thatis
why,whenthisgenerationofairhandlingunitswas
beingdesigned,weconsultedfacilitiesmanagement
companiesandmaintenanceengineersfortheirinput
andadviceastothebestpossiblefeatures.
Awellmaintainedunitperformsreliablyandgivesa
longservicelifeaswellasgoodqualitysupplyair.
Regularandwellcarriedoutmaintenancewillalso
keepenergycostsdown.
Allairhandlingunitsaresuppliedwithorderspecific
installationinstructions.Maintenanceinstructions
andsparepartslistsarealsosupplied,normallyafter
delivery.Thedocumentscanbesuppliedinpaper
formorintheformofanAcrobatfile.
FlktWoodscataloguesprovidedetailedinformation
aboutallstandardcomponentsandthecompanys
selectionprogramsprovideallperformancedatafor
thespecificunit.
Certificatesofvarioustypesarealsoavailableonrequest.
TheEU2000unitmeetsallrelevantCENstandards
andiscertifiedunderEurovent(www.eurovent
certification.com).
Naturally,designandproductionisqualitycertified
underInternationalOrganizationforStandardization
(ISO)9000andFlktWoodshavealsoattained
certificationunderenvironmentalstandardISO14000.
TheEU2000unitcanalsobeselectedtomeetthe
requirementsoftheGermanhygienestandardVDI
(AssociationofGermanEngineers)6022.
CustomisedEnvironment
EleaCARE
OvertheyearsFlktWoodshasbeenapioneerinair
distribution.ThewellknownFloormasterdisplace
mentventilationsystemwasaninnovativedevelop
mentthathasrevolutionisedcomfortventilationin
manydifferentbuildingapplications.Nowitistime
totakeanotherhugestepforwardinthe
developmentinthissystem.
EleaCAREisanewairdistributionsystemfrom
FlktWoods.Whiletakingadvantageofthe
displacementventilationmethod,Eleaisuniquely
equippedwithnewlydevelopedlowresistance
HEPAfiltersandaroomairrecirculationsystem.
Boththesupplyandtherecirculatedairpass
throughthefilterssothatthesupplyairiscleanand
particlesproducedintheroomeitherfromthe
peopleinitorfromaprocessarefilteredout.
Eleaunitscaneasilyreplacetheexistingdisplacement
terminalunitswithoutanyneedforfurtheralteration
totheexistingductingandairhandlingsystem.
Withconventionalmethods,HEPAfiltersand
diffusershaveonlypartlysatisfiedtheneedtocontrol
particleconcentrationinrooms.Suchsystemsseekto
ensurethattheairenteringtheroomiscleanby
dilutingtheconcentrationofparticlesintheroom.
3
Figure2
Page 4
Theproblemisthatpeople,toolsandmachinesetc.,
generatethemajorityofparticlesintheoccupancy
zoneitselfandmixingsystemstendtospreadthat
pollutionallovertheroomandeventransmititto
otherspacesinthebuilding.Thisisanimportant
issueandthereisalotofinterestinfinding
improvementsinhospitalventilationbecauseof
growingconcernoverhospitalacquiredinfections.
CleanroomswithHEPAfilterceilingscansolvethe
problemsincetheyprovidealaminarflowofair
verticallydownthroughtheroomandall
contaminationcreatedwithintheroomiscarried
awayintheexhaustair.Cleanroomsare,however,
ratherexpensivetoinstallandrun.
Displacementsystemsusetheheatsourcesintheroom
tocreateatemperaturegradientandaslowmovement
ofairfromthefloormounteddisplacementterminal
towardstheceiling.Particlesarecarrieduptothe
ceilingbytheupwardcurrentsofairfromthevarious
heatsourcesintheroomandthedirtyairisextracted
atceilinglevel.Thedepthofdirtyairneartheceiling
dependsontheairflowrateandtherateofparticle
productionintheroom.Iftheairsuppliedtothe
displacementterminalhasbeenthroughaHEPAfilter
thenarelativelycleanzoneiscreatedneartothe
terminalitself.Increasingthegradeoffiltrationinthe
airhandlingsystemdoesnotimprovetheairquality
significantlyiftheroomhasahighparticleload.
CustomisedEnvironment
EleaCAREaddressesthisproblembyaddingair
recirculationwithHEPAfiltrationwithintheroom.
FreshairispassedthroughaHEPAfilterbeforebeing
suppliedtotheroomusingnormaldisplacement
techniquewhileasmallfanrecirculatesroomair
throughasecondHEPAfilter.Boththesupplyand
therecirculationfiltersaregradeH12,whichmeans
that99,95%ofallparticleswillbetakenoutofthe
air.Thedevicealsofeaturesanintegratedexhaustair
sectionwithathirdHEPAfiltertocleantheair
beforeremovingitfromtheroom.
Thepressuredropislowandthedeviceisdesigned
sothatitcanreplaceexistingdisplacementterminals
withoutanyneedtoincreasethesupplyairflow.
EleaCAREisavailableinfivesizesforairflowsupto
540m3/h,coveringmostrequirements.
Withthissystem,aconventionalventilationsystem
canbeusedtoachievecleanairzoneswithoutthe
needtobuildexpensivecleanrooms.
TohelpyoudesignwithEleaCARE,acomputer
fluiddynamics(CFD)systemsimulationtoolhas
beendevelopedbyFlktWoods.Thesoftwaretool
simulatesthespreadoftemperature,airvelocityand
particleconcentrationinaroomwithahigh
accuracyandisbackedupbywelldocumented
laboratorytestingthathasbeenusedtocalibratethe
CFDmodel.s
Technology&Services
4
Figure3:MixingVentilation
Figure4:DisplacementVentilation
Figure5
air distribution system in hospitals
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Air delivery system for hospital rooms and the like

Document Type and Number:
United States Patent 4489881
Link to this page:
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4489881.html
Abstract:
A method and apparatus for delivering conditioned air to hospital patient rooms or clean rooms which are
maintained at a higher or lower pressure level than the adjacent halls. A constant volume delivery duct is
provided to counter the constant volume toilet exhaust, and the flow rates in the constant volume ducts are
selected to maintain the desired pressure level in the room. The room temperature is maintained by a
variable volume system including a variable volume supply duct and a variable volume return duct.
Dampers in the variable volume ducts are controlled in unison to control the room temperature as desired
while always maintaining equal inflow and outflow in the variable volume system to maintain the pressure
level in the room. A specially constructed and partitioned terminal unit provides a terminal for the variable
volume supply and return ducts and the constant volume supply duct.
Hospital Operating Rooms
[Component Selection]
Hospital Operating Rooms

Air distribution for hospital operating
rooms is much more critical and
specialized than for a typical air
conditioned office building space. In an
office building the air distribution system
is designed to entrain room air into the
supply air stream so as to rapidly mix the
two air masses and create a more
uniform temperature in a draftless
occupied zone.
This type of air distribution system is not
suitable for a hospital operating room as
it would cause the uncontrolled spread of
airborne contaminants.
In the hospital operating room, the control
of airborne contaminants is a
consideration in addition to the room
comfort conditions. Opinions vary
regarding the importance of airborne
contamination with respect to postoperative infection. It is generally agreed
that the majority of infections are caused
by contact contamination from the patient
The largest sources of contamination in a sterilized

operating room, with a clean air supply and
isolation from adjacent areas, are the surgical team
and patient. The function of the operating rooms
air distribution system, therefore must be to carry
away any contaminants expelled into the air by
either the surgical team or the patient on the
operating table. The system must also isolate and
remove this contaminated air so it cannot mix with
the clean supply air. The simplest way to reduce
themselves or the surgical team. Studies

have also indicated a relationship
between the incidence of infection and
the level of air contamination. While the
validity of these results can be
questioned due to changes in surgical
gowns, surgical techniques, antibiotics,
etc., the consensus is simply that the air
should be kept as clean as possible.
The two primary sources of airborne
contamination are generally considered
to be micro-organisms present within the
operating room and particles introduced
into the operating room by ventilation or
infiltration. Particles entering the
operating room by ventilation can be
controlled with the use of high efficiency
particulate filters, while infiltration is
controlled by maintaining a positive
pressure in the operating room as
compared to the surrounding spaces.
the airborne contaminants present in the operating

room is to increase the fresh air ventilation rate.
This practice of dilution has led to air supply
exchange rates much in excess of those typically
required for thermal control. In fact, these
increased air exchange rates can lead to thermal
discomfort due to drafts. As a result, an air
distribution system for the operating room must be
capable of introducing a large volume of supply air
into the space in a controlled manner while
maintaining an acceptable comfort level in the
occupied zone. An effective method of controlling
the transport of airborne contamination is the
introduction of supply air into the operating room at
a low uniform velocity to promote a stable
downward flow of air.
Laminar Flow Systems

The laminar flow ventilation system was
Laminar Flow - Full Ceiling Supply
developed to provide a method of
controlling the transport of air
contamination by introducing the supply
air into the operating room at low uniform
velocities promoting a stable downward
flow of air. The most effective laminar flow
ventilation system would have the entire
ceiling consisting of laminar flow diffusers
to prevent entrainment. A complete
ceiling of laminar flow panels would
require much more air to develop a
proper air pattern than is required to
achieve the specified number of air
Laminar Flow - Partial Ceiling Supply
changes per hour. The high air change
rates required to produce laminar flow
over the entire room normally rule out this
system due to high energy costs.
By reducing the area of laminar airflow to
the critical zone around the operating
table, the total air requirements of the
system can be reduced. Although laminar
flow diffusers discharge air at low face
velocity, some entrainment of room air
still occurs. This entrainment in
combination with the temperature
differential of the supply air causes the air
pattern to angle towards the center of the
discharge air envelope. As a result the
clean zone is reduced as the distance
from the face of the diffuser is increased.
This should be considered when laying
out the location for the laminar flow
diffusers.
The supply air for a laminar flow ventilation system

is filtered by a HEPA filter bank located upstream of
the operating room air distribution system, or by
HEPA filters which are an integral part of each of
the laminar flow diffusers.
With the HEPA filters located in a bank upstream of
the operating room, filter service and maintenance
can be performed without entering the sterile
environment of the operating room.

Supply diffuser with room side replaceable integral
HEPA filters offer ease of accessibility for filter
service and change-out, but must be accessed
from inside the sterile operating room.
Laminar Flow with Air Curtain
In many cases, the ongoing energy costs
associated with a full ceiling laminar flow
ventilation system can be reduced by
reducing the size of the area requiring
laminar airflow. Essentially, creating a
clean zone around the operating table
within the operating room. This is
achieved by surrounding the operating
table with an air curtain.
This air curtain is created using linear slot
diffusers on each of the four sides around
the operating table. The linear slot
diffusers are installed in the ceiling a
minimum of 3 feet out from the sides of
the operating table, allowing room for the
surgical staff and equipment to move and
still be contained in the clean zone. The
linear air diffusers discharge the supply
air at an angle of approximately 15 from
vertical, maintaining a barrier between
the clean zone around the operating table
and the surrounding operating room. The
air curtain presents a physical barrier, in
the form of a clean air curtain, between
the laminar flow diffusers and the
contaminated room air at the ceiling level,
where the laminar flow diffuser is most
likely to entrain room air.
The air curtain entrains contaminated
room air to its outer boundary layer and
carries it way from the operating table
work area, toward exhaust grilles, thus
speeding dilution of the contaminated
room air.
The Price HORD is an integrated system of

laminar flow and linear slot diffusers that
minimizes mixing of room and supply air to
create a controlled operating room work area.
Contamination entering the operating room by
infiltration is controlled by keeping the operating
room at a positive pressure in relation to the
surrounding areas. For this reason, the return air
volume must be slightly less than the supply air
volume. Care must be taken that the differential
between return and supply air volumes is not too
great as this could impede the dilution of the
contaminated air. Typically the return system is
sized for approximately 85% of the total supply
airflow.
The return grilles are mounted at low level,
approximately three to six inches above the floor.
In this location they exhaust both the
contaminated air and any heavier-than-air gases.
The operating room return air system ideally

consists of four return grilles, one located in the
Laminar flow diffusers installed in the
center of each wall. In the case where it is not
ceiling inside the air curtain provide low
velocity, laminar flow of clean air over the possible to have a return grille in each wall, the
surgical staff, patient and operating table. next best option is to have two return grilles,
located on opposite sides of the air curtain.
Alternatively, the grilles could be located in
The supply air for this type of system is
opposite corners of the room. When using only
typically filtered using HEPA filters
two return grilles if they were located on adjacent
located upstream of the operating room
air distribution system. Of the total supply walls, this could result in the migration of
air, 65 75% of the supply air is delivered contaminated air back into the operating area.
through the air curtain and the remaining
25 35% is distributed through the
laminar flow diffusers.
Ceiling Construction
The role of the ceiling in an operating
room is to seal the room from the ceiling
plenum. This is to prevent infiltration of
contaminants from the ceiling space and
to allow for pressurization of the
operating room.
There are typically three ceiling systems
used in hospital operating rooms. These
are drywall ceilings, gasketed t-bar
ceilings and a combination of drywall and
gasketed t-bar ceilings.
The drywall ceiling works well for sealing
the operating room from the ceiling
plenum, but can pose a problem when
ceiling space access is required. Sealed
access doors in the drywall ceiling are
installed near equipment requiring
periodic maintenance and service. If
equipment must ever be removed from
the ceiling space, the access doors may
not be large enough to facilitate this,
requiring removal of large portions of the
drywall ceiling.
Combination Drywall / T-Bar Ceiling
A gasketed T-bar ceiling also works well

for sealing the operating room from the
ceiling plenum and has the added
advantage of allowing access to the
ceiling space when required. Ceiling
panels are clipped in place, compressing
the gasket between the panel and tee,
forming the seal. When it is necessary to
get into the ceiling space, the clips are
removed and the panels are lifted
allowing access to the equipment
installed above the operating room. In the
event equipment must be removed,
panels and tees can be removed to allow
access. Panels are normally constructed
of painted metal to facilitate cleaning.
The third type of ceiling system is the
combination of drywall and gasketed t-bar
ceilings. This typically consists of the
perimeter of the room being drywall and
the center, above the operating table
being gasketed t-bar as shown in the
drawing. This system provides easy
access to equipment located above the tbar system.
Component Selection
Air Curtain
[Hospital Operating Rooms]
HORD
Hospital Operating Room Diffuser
Linear slot discharges vertical

curtain of clean air.
Creates a room within a room
around perimeter of operating
table work area.
Single or multiple side feeds from

supply air plenum.
Terminal Units
for Cleanrooms
LFD / LFDSS / LFD2

Laminar Flow Diffuser
A variety of liner
options are available.
Reduces risk of
micro-organism
growth.
Creates a washing and

rinsing effect.
730 / 735 Series

Stainless Steel Return Grilles
Prevents fibrous
particles from entering
supply air stream.
System Overview
Perforated face discharges nonaspirating (non-mixing) vertical flow of

clean air.
Air pattern flows over the operating table
on its way to the floor.
Low level exhaust

grilles remove
contaminated air and
heavier-than-air
gases from O.R.
Stainless steel
construction ensures
strength and ease of
cleaning.
Exhaust volume
should be 15% lower
than supply to ensure
positive room
pressure.
Unitee CR
Cleanroom Ceiling Systems
Prevents air leakage

between
plenum and operating
room.
Utilizes unique holddown clip and
gasketed tee design.
Ceiling panels
available specific to
applications.
Price offers a wide variety of products which meet the air distribution
requirements of modern hospitals and medical facilities.
Illustrated is a typical installation of a hospital operating room to meet
stringent ventilation needs.
Price specialized environment products and engineering expertise have
been created to handle any critical hospital applications (Intensive Care
units, Burn Wards, Recovery Rooms, etc.)
Laminar Flow
LFDC / LFDCD
Laminar Flow Diffuser with High Efficiency
Filters
Terminal Units for Cleanrooms
A variety of liner options are available.

Reduces risk of micro-organism growth.
Prevents fibrous particles from entering

supply air stream.
730 / 735 Series

Low level return grilles remove

contaminated air from the room.
Stainless steel construction ensures
strength and ease of cleaning.
Provides a laminar or unidirectional flow of clean air over

the operating table.
Houses a high efficiency filter with

extraction efficiencies from 95%
to 99.999%.
UNITEE CR / UNITEE HDCR

Clean Room Ceiling System
Prevents air leakage between

plenum and cleanroom.
Utilizes unique hold-down clip and
Ceiling panels available specific
to cleanroom applications.
System Overview
Price has developed a series of components which can provide a supply of
clean filtered air to todays modern cleanrooms. Cleanroom components
ensure that air is cleaned utilizing high efficiency filters at terminal
diffusers.
This illustration is an example of a cleanroom where dust and microorganisms are removed from the supply air and the required level of
cleanliness is maintained.
Component Selection
[Hospital Operating Rooms]
Air Curtain
HORD
Hospital Operating Room Diffuser
LFD / LFDSS / LFD2

Laminar Flow Diffuser
Linear slot discharges vertical

curtain of clean air.
Creates a room within a room
around perimeter of operating
table work area.
Single or multiple side feeds from

supply air plenum.
Terminal Units
for Cleanrooms
Perforated face discharges nonaspirating (non-mixing) vertical flow of

clean air.
Air pattern flows over the operating table
on its way to the floor.
Creates a washing and
rinsing effect.
730 / 735 Series

Unitee CR
Cleanroom Ceiling Systems
A variety of liner
options are available.
Reduces risk of
micro-organism
growth.
Prevents fibrous
particles from entering
supply air stream.
Low level exhaust

grilles remove
contaminated air and
heavier-than-air
gases from O.R.
Stainless steel
construction ensures
strength and ease of
cleaning.
Exhaust volume
should be 15% lower
than supply to ensure
positive room
pressure.
Prevents air leakage

between
plenum and operating
room.
Utilizes unique holddown clip and
Ceiling panels
available specific to
applications.
System Overview
Price offers a wide variety of products which meet the air distribution
requirements of modern hospitals and medical facilities.
Illustrated is a typical installation of a hospital operating room to meet
stringent ventilation needs.
Price specialized environment products and engineering expertise have
been created to handle any critical hospital applications (Intensive Care
units, Burn Wards, Recovery Rooms, etc.)
Laminar Flow
LFDC / LFDCD
Laminar Flow Diffuser with High Efficiency
Filters
Terminal Units for Cleanrooms
A variety of liner options are available.

Reduces risk of micro-organism growth.
Prevents fibrous particles from entering

supply air stream.
Provides a laminar or unidirectional flow of clean air over

the operating table.
Houses a high efficiency filter with

extraction efficiencies from 95%
to 99.999%.
730 / 735 Series

UNITEE CR / UNITEE HDCR

Clean Room Ceiling System
Low level return grilles remove

contaminated air from the room.
Stainless steel construction ensures
strength and ease of cleaning.
Prevents air leakage between

plenum and cleanroom.
Utilizes unique hold-down clip and
Ceiling panels available specific
to cleanroom applications.
System Overview
Price has developed a series of components which can provide a supply of
clean filtered air to todays modern cleanrooms. Cleanroom components
ensure that air is cleaned utilizing high efficiency filters at terminal
diffusers.
This illustration is an example of a cleanroom where dust and microorganisms are removed from the supply air and the required level of
cleanliness is maintained.
Apollo Cancer Institute

Medical Oncology
Pediatric Oncology
Radiation Oncology
Surgical Oncology
Apollo Cancer Institute (Ext: 1970, 1971)

The Apollo Cancer Institute, which is a comprehensive, multidisciplinary, advanced by latest technology with the most competent
and highly skilled health care professionals. The institute provides the treatment in the following major specialties:
Medical Oncology
Surgical Oncology
Pediatric Oncology
Radiation Oncology
The word "Cancer" is widely associated with impending death amongst a large number of people. This is understandable as
Cancer is a killer disease. According to the W.H.O., globally one out of three women and one out of four men are likely to get
cancer in their lifetime. With such a high probability rate, cancer can affect anyone, anytime and anywhere. However very few
people know that cancer is curable in a large number of cases if detected early and a patient can lead a normal life. Although the
prognosis of the disease is bad in an advanced stage, today the use of modern technology has brought the cure rate of cancer
to almost 70-80%.
The Indraprastha Apollo Hospital, New Delhi has recently started the Apollo Cancer Institute, which is a comprehensive,
multidisciplinary, state-of-the-art facility. It brings in the latest technology with the most competent and highly skilled health care
professionals. This institute has the unique advantage of not being a stand-alone cancer unit but also having the most modern
backup from all super specialties and diagnostics.
AdvancedRadiationTherapy
TreatmentsattheRajivGandhi
CancerInstitute,NewDelhi
TheRajivGandhiCancerInstitute(RGCI),
adedicatedoncologycenterinNewDelhi,India,
isoneofthefewmedicalcentersinthecountry
tohaveIntensityModulatedRadiationTherapy
(IMRT)technology.Aninterviewwith
Dr.Y.P.BhatiaandDr.AnilKumarAnand.
InterviewconductedbyLalithaMaheshwaran,SiemensLtd.,India
additionaltopicsofimportanceregardingadvancedradiation
therapytreatmentinIndiatoday.Followingaresomeexcerpts
fromtheinterview:
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Whatistheoverallmissionofyour
institution?HowdoesIMRThelptofulfillyourobjectives?
DR.BHATIA:Weobservedlongagothatoncologyservices
werelackinginNorthernIndia,andthedemandforthese
Dr.AnilKumarAnand(left)andDr.Y.P.Bhatia(right)
attheinterviewwithMedicalSolutions.
Page 2
SCIENCE
RADIATIONTHERAPY
MEDICALSOLUTIONSRSNA2004
93
serviceswasincreasingsteadily.Wethereforewantedto
buildafacilitythatwouldbecompatiblewithglobalstandards
and,atthesametime,offermedicalcareatanaffordable
costtopatients.Fromthebeginning,thiswasouroverall
objectiveandIMRTwasanimportantdevelopmentbecause
ofitshighprecisiontechnique,inwhichtheassociated
morbidityismuchlowerthanwithothermodalitiesof
treatment.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:HowhasSiemenspartneredwith
yourinstituteinmeetingthesegoals?
THERAJIVGANDHICANCERInstituteinNewDelhiisoneofthefewoncologycentersinIndiatoprovideIMRT.
ItisoneofthemostmodernoncologycentersinIndia.
DR.BHATIA:ThehistoryofourassociationwithSiemens
datesbacktotheinceptionoftheinstitute.Atthatstage,we
wereassistedbyasoftloanfromtheGermangovernmentto
helppurchasethetechnologieswerequired.Today,Siemens
advancedradiationtherapyequipmentisanintegralpartof
oursystem.
Wehandleapproximately25to30newpatientseachday.
Thelinearaccelerator,forexample,treatsover140patients
perdayand,clearly,wecannotaffordabreakdownofthe
equipmentevenforonedayastherewouldbesheer
Page 3
SCIENCE
RADIATIONTHERAPY
94
chaosifthatweretohappen.BecauseofSiemenstremen
dousuptimecommitment,weareabletokeepthedowntime
inourfacilitytoabareminimum.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Howhasthedemandforradiation
oncologyservicesincreasedcomparedtoexistingtreatment
facilitiescurrentlyavailableinIndia?
DR.BHATIA:Thedemandissteadilyincreasing.Whenweset
upourinstitute,weexpectedtohandlesevenoreightnew
patientsperday,butweactuallyreceiveapproximatelythree
tofourtimesthatnumber.Thesituationinotherinstitutions
issimilar,becausecancerpatientsrequiringradiationtherapy
areunderservedinourarea.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Isthereneedformajorexpansionof
thesefacilities?Ifyes,inwhatway?
DR.BHATIA:Certainlythereisaneedforexpansion,andwe
havealreadymovedaheadinthatdirection.Forexample,a
newextensionisopeningupinthesamecampus,whichwill
have120additionalbedsandtwonewlinearaccelerators.It
isexpectedthatthiswillbecompletedinJuneorJulyof
2005.Additionally,weareputtingtogetheranoutreach
program,andthereareongoingdiscussionswiththe
governmentofMeghalaya(aprovinceinEasternIndia)to
buildtheirowncancercontrolprogram.Thiswouldbea
naturalexpansionbecausewehavealreadytrainedsomeof
theirdoctorsinclinicaloncology.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Whatareyourmajorchallenges?
DR.BHATIA:Therearetwoissuesthatweneedtohandle
simultaneously.Oneisthegrowingnumberofpeoplewho
needoncologycareservicesinthewideareathatwehaveto
coverinNorthernIndia.Thesecondissueistherapidobso
lescenceoftechnology.Inordertoremaincompatiblewith
worldstandards,wehavetoofferthelatestequipmentand
technologytoourpatients.Weneedtocontinuously
advanceourselvesateveryopportunity.Apartfromthis,
ININDIA,CANCERSOFTHEHEAD,neckandbrainarethemostcommontumors.Dr.Anand,Dr.Kataria(radiationoncologist)
andphysicistMr.Munjal(fromlefttoright)discussthetreatmentplanningofapatient.
Page 4
SCIENCE
RADIATIONTHERAPY
95
thereisthechallengeofkeepingsparepartsavailableforour
existingequipment.Ispokeearlierabouttheneedformaxi
mumuptime,andhowtheabsenceofthiscanbecomea
hindrancetoourgoalofmaximumtreatmenttime.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Couldyouexplainyourviewsonthe
roleofhealthinsuranceprovidersinIndia,andtheirimpact
onpatientcareandtreatmenteconomics?
DR.BHATIA:Healthinsuranceinthiscountryneedsto
maturealotbasically,ithasalongwaytogotobecome
acceptable.Ifyoulookatalltypesofinsurance,includingthe
schemesrunbytheIndiangovernment,only12percentof
thepopulationiscovered.Fortherest,anymedicalexpense
isanoutofpocketexpensetothepatient.Iftheinsurance
systemweretobecomemorewidespread,itwouldsignifi
cantlyhelpoutalotofpeople.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Whatarethemostimportanttech
nologicaladvantagesthatIMRTofferscomparedtoearlier
techniques?
DR.ANAND:Inradiationtherapy,IMRTisthemostimportant
developmentsincetheintroductionofthelinearaccelerator,
becauseitoffersanumberofadvantages.Forexample,the
dosedistributionisbetterandwecanhandleirregular
tumorsmoreeffectively,withminimumdamagetothesur
roundingnormaltissue.Wecandesignthetreatmentinsucha
waythatthemaximumdosefollowsthecontourofthetumor.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Whatwerethemainconsiderations
thatpromptedyoutochooseSiemensequipment?
DR.ANAND:Wehavehadtwopreviousexperiencesindeal
ingwithSiemensoverthepastsevenyears,andwewere
quitehappyacertaincomfortlevelhaddevelopedover
theyears.Moreimportantly,theirtechnologyissuperior
toothers.TheSIMTECIMMAXXtechnologyallowsusto
providefasterdeliveryofIMRT,sothepatientisonthetreat
menttableforashorterperiodoftime.Hencethepatient
remainscomfortableandwecanhandleagreaternumber
ofpatients.And,Siemenshasasignificantpresencein
NorthernIndiawithveryreliableservice,whichresultsin
veryhighuptimeforourequipment.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Headandneckcancerisoneofthe
mostcommoncancersinIndia.Couldyouexplaintheimpact
ofIMRTinthesecases?
DR.ANAND:IMRTismostusefulparticularlyinhead,neck
andbraintumors.Wecanincreasethedoseevenifthere
arecriticalstructuresintheclosevicinity.Wenowhave
experiencewithIMRTtreatmentinmorethan250cases,
puttingusfairlyhighupthelearningcurve.
Oneofthemostcommonproblemsinheadandneckcancer
isdrynessofthemouth.Withearliertypesoftreatment,this
conditionwoulddistorttheinternalstructureoftheoral
cavity,butwithIMRT,theparotidglandsaresparedandmouth
drynessisavoided.Inastudyof19cases,wewereableto
completelyavoidthisproblemfor78percentofthepatients.
MEDICALSOLUTIONS:Whatwasthemostdramaticpatient
experienceintermsoftherapeuticeffectivenessatyour
center?
DR.ANAND:Wehavehadseveralcases,buttheonewhich
particularlycomestomindisthatofa56yearoldwoman
whohadarecurrenttumorintheparanasalsinus.Thetumor
wasveryclosetotheopticnerve,requiringustobe
extremelycautious.WithIMRT,shewasabletorecover
completely;withprevioustreatments,thiswouldnothave
beenpossible.
140PATIENTSperdayaretreatedwiththePRIMUS
linearaccelerator.
BEFORETHERADIATIONtreatmentbegins,radiologic
techniciansverifytheindividualsettingsforeachpatient.

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AIRDISTRIBUTION

Duct Insulation Guidance

Computerized Ductwork Simulation

Branch take offs

Stack discharge fittings

Duct Fittings and Economics

Duct Insulation Guidance

Existing Duct Sizing Methods

Computerized Ductwork Simulation

Existing Duct Simulation Methods

T-Method Computerized Duct Simulation

T-Method Ductwork Simulation Program

uses similar techniques for duct optimization and simulation,

Duct Optimization Principles

Existing Tree-Network Optimization Methods

T-Method Duct Optimization

is appropriate for any duct shape and material;

Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Architectural

Life-cycle cost analysis

Conditioning system capacity analysis

Load management analysis

Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Direct Digital

Direct Digital Control (DDC) Advantages

Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Laboratory

Make-up air systems

Cleanroom recirculation air systems

Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Exhaust Systems

In laboratory-type facilities, a fundamental goal of energy engineers is to reduce the amount of

Overview of Exhaust Systems

Room Pressure Control

Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Air Filtration

Abstract: Energy Efficiency and Lighting

High-Efficiency Lighting Components

Reduce the ballast losses.

Diagonal air-distribution system for operating rooms: experiment and modeling

air distribution system in hospitals

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Commercial Concrete Masonry Repair Vacuum www.balvac.com

Air delivery system for hospital rooms and the like

Hospital Operating Rooms

The largest sources of contamination in a sterilized

themselves or the surgical team. Studies

the airborne contaminants present in the operating

Laminar Flow Systems

The supply air for a laminar flow ventilation system

environment of the operating room.

The Price HORD is an integrated system of

The operating room return air system ideally

Combination Drywall / T-Bar Ceiling

A gasketed T-bar ceiling also works well

[Hospital Operating Rooms]

Linear slot discharges vertical

Single or multiple side feeds from

LFD / LFDSS / LFD2

Creates a washing and

730 / 735 Series

Perforated face discharges nonaspirating (non-mixing) vertical flow of

Low level exhaust

Prevents air leakage