Course Module

Fundamentals of Drilling

Drilling Fluids
DRLG 266
Module 4

Revised: September 2014

MacPhail School of Energy

www.sait.ca

Introduction to Drilling Fluids

Rationale
Why is it important for you to learn this material?
Drilling fluid, commonly known as drilling mud or simply mud, is an essential
part of rotary drilling. Drilling fluid is circulated down the drill pipe and up the
annulus of every well drilled. This fluid may be gaseous or liquid or a mixture of
both and the liquid phase may be water or oil. The selection of drilling fluid type
and the properties required of this fluid will determine how efficiently the well is
drilled. The correct type of drilling fluid for the formation to be drilled is a
fundamental decision for the drilling planner to make. The correct drilling fluid
must coat the wellbore with a filter cake that seals off porous zones, helps
prevent collapse of the wellbore, minimizes lost circulation and aids in the
protection against formation fluid contamination. The drilling fluid (mud) must also
be chemically compatible with the formation and formation fluids.
A strong understanding of the various types of drilling fluids is an essential
component in the drilling of a well. The cost of the drilling fluid in any well is a
relatively small portion and yet the proper selection and design of the drilling
fluids system is the single most important factor in the drilling of an effective and
safe well. If the fluid is unsuitable, it is possible that the well will take much longer
to drill, cost up to twice the amount expected and, potentially, produce much less
than it would otherwise be capable of.
Drilling fluids have differing characteristics that determine their effectiveness in
meeting their functions. Since the majority of wells use a water-based fluid and
clays, this understanding will require a basic knowledge of clay mineralogy.
Understanding this and applying it to the required functions of the fluid being
used will allow drilling personnel to optimize the performance of the fluid, the
drilling rig equipment and optimize the drilling of the well.

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module, you will be able to:
Prescribe mud treatments to maintain mud weight, properties and chemistry
within recommended limits.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Describe the functions of a drilling fluid.
2. Differentiate drilling fluids according to their continuous phase.
3. Describe how clay chemistry affects drilling fluid properties.
4. Explain the different drilling fluid additives and chemicals and their typical
applications.
5. Describe drilling fluid contaminants and their effects and how to mitigate
these affects.
6. Describe the physical properties of mud.
7. Describe the chemical properties of mud.
8. Test drilling fluid properties using API testing procedures.
1.

Performance Evaluation
To show you have mastered the material, you will be asked to:
1. You will be tested on this material in Quiz #2 on modules 4-6: drilling fluids,
drilling fluid applications and drilling fluid programming.
2. You will need to complete the water-based mud (WBM) lab and submit a
report.

Introduction
Every well you drill uses a drilling fluid of some kind. This fluid is pumped through
the standpipe, the kelly hose, the swivel and kelly (if you are drilling without a top
drive), down the drill pipe and collars, through the bit and up the annulus back to
surface. Different fluids are used to solve specific hole related problems, to meet
identified geological and client requirements, to assist in drilling the well in the
most cost effective manner and to ensure the well you drill has the maximum
productivity.
Successful drilling operations depend on the optimum selection and performance
of the drilling fluid. To fully understand how you can select the best fluid you must
understand what you expect the fluid to do. To get the optimum performance
from your drilling fluids, you must understand the effect of the different fluids and
the interrelationships between the fluid properties. You must also realize that
drilling fluids represent a relatively small portion of the overall well costs (usually
8 12%) but that poor selection and performance may change the overall well
costs by a much higher amount up to 50%.
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Industry uses a wide range of drilling fluids to solve specific problems. These
fluids range from air to water to water with a complex mixture of chemicals and
additives to oils and oil/water mixtures or emulsions. While the fluids may be
quite different in their composition and their rheological properties, they perform a
series of basic functions that are common to all mud systems.

OBJECTIVE ONE
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Describe the functions of a drilling fluid.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:
1. Read the Learning Material.
2. Complete Exercise One.

Learning Material
Drilling Fluid Functions
Drilling fluids have a wide range of functions. The nine most important are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Clean cuttings from under the bit.

Control subsurface pressures.
Cool and lubricate the rotating bit and the drill string.
Transport cuttings up the borehole.
Suspend cuttings and weighting materials in the annulus whenever
circulation is stopped.
Assist in providing borehole stability by lining the borehole wall with a low
permeability filter cake.
Release cuttings at surface without losing other beneficial materials.
Support part of the drill string and casing weight.
Minimize damage to the reservoir and its productivity.
[Adapted from Mitchell and Miska, pg. 89]

Some of these functions are vastly more important than others and not all of
these functions are of concern or apply all the time for every mud system.
Despite this, optimum drilling practice requires optimum performance from the
fluids.
The two most important functions of the drilling fluid are:
1. Clean cuttings from under the bit.
2. To control subsurface pressures.
If you do not clean out the cuttings from under the bit it will be necessary to redrill
the same cuttings numerous times and this will dramatically affect your rate of
penetration (ROP) and the overall costs of the well. If you do not control the
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subsurface pressure and allow oil and gas to flow into the wellbore (a kick) you
risk a blowout.
Each of the functions is discussed in detail below.

1. Clean cuttings from under the bit.

If cuttings are allowed to accumulate under the bit for any length of time, the bit
will have to re-drill them. This will reduce the size of the cuttings, making them
more difficult to remove from the fluids at surface. It will also severely curtail the
rate of penetration, increasing the overall well costs.
The major factor in removing the cuttings from under the bit is the hydraulic
horsepower carried by the fluid. This is seen under the bit as impingement
velocity, and this velocity is controlled by the physical properties of the system
the surface pump pressure, the volume being pumped and the sizes of the
nozzles.

2. Control subsurface pressures.

For the well to be drilled safely, the drilling fluid must control any subsurface
pressure that is expected during the drilling process. The column of mud in the
annulus of the well exerts a pressure on the formation called the hydrostatic
pressure.
This hydrostatic pressure at any depth may be calculated by:

Where:

=
p is hydrostatic pressure [Pa]
is drilling fluid density [kg/m3]

g is gravitational force [9.81 m/s2]

h is height (true vertical depth) [m]

Hydrostatic pressure is normally stated in kPa.
In a deviated or horizontal well, the height is the true vertical depth of the well
and not the total measured depth.
The hydrostatic pressure should be slightly higher than the formation pressure.
The amount by which it is higher is called the trip margin. Both are normally
specified in the drilling program developed for each specific well. If the
hydrostatic pressure is not higher than the formation pressure, any formation
liquids (or gas) will be allowed to flow into the wellbore (a kick) and will make
control of the well more difficult.
Anything that changes either the density of the fluid or the height of the column of
drilling fluid will change the hydrostatic pressure. For example, the hole must be
5

kept full while tripping or the height of the fluid column will be reduced as the pipe
is pulled from the hole. This is more prevalent when the fluid has a high viscosity
and gel strength as it sticks more readily to the pipe. Additionally, fluids with
these same characteristics are more readily swabbed if the pipe is pulled too
quickly or if the bottom hole assembly is close to hole diameter. This will also
reduce the length of the fluid column. Conversely, running in too quickly under
the same conditions can cause a pressure surge, which can readily fracture the
formation and result in lost circulation, as well as a corresponding reduction in
the height of the fluid column.

3. Cool and lubricate the rotating bit and the drill string.
The drilling process is essentially one of grinding up the formation. This process
generates a great amount of heat due to friction as the bit crushes the rock.
Additionally, continuous contact of the drill pipe and collars as the string is
rotated will generate more frictional heat. The drilling fluid cools the bit by
transferring the heat from the bit and the drill string to the fluid. The circulation of
drilling fluid helps carry the heat to surface, where it can be dissipated. The
drilling fluid also has lubricating qualities, forming a slick wall filter cake that helps
to reduce the friction, thereby lowering the amount of heat generated. To
increase the lubricating effect, special chemicals may also be added to the fluid.
Cooling of the bit is extremely important when thermally stable diamond or PDC
bits are being used. These bits generate more heat than tricones due simply to
the manner in which they drill the formation. They are also susceptible to heat
damage, with PDCs actually burning at temperatures above 700C.

4. Transport cuttings up the borehole.

The circulation of the drilling fluid must remove the drill cuttings from the bit and
carry them to the surface where they can be removed and disposed of.
All cuttings fall through the drilling fluid at some velocity called the slip velocity.
This slip velocity may be calculated using Stokes Law, and is a function of the
fluid and cuttings densities, the size of the cuttings and the fluid viscosity. This
slip velocity is independent of the fluid velocity and is normally in the range of 1518 m/min, relative to the fluid the cuttings are falling through. The efficiency of the
lifting of the cuttings depends on the fluid properties (density and viscosity) and
the annular velocity.
Changes in these properties will affect the lifting efficiency, but will also affect
other operating parameters. For example, increasing the fluid density will assist
in lifting the cuttings, but will reduce the rate of penetration which is inversely
proportional to the fluid density. Increasing the annular velocity will also increase
the lifting efficiency, but is quite likely to lead to hole erosion and all the ongoing
problems associated with erose holes.
6

The minimum value if the annular velocity needs to be related to the slip velocity
to ensure a net upward movement of the cuttings. It is normal practice in Western
Canada to set the annular velocity at approximately twice the slip velocity
usually in the range of 30-36 m/min. Using this annular velocity and knowing the
hole geometry, it is possible to calculate the pump output rates required and the
speed at which the pump is to be run.
In order to efficiently carry the cuttings from the bit to surface, it is important to
realize that a balance is required between the annular velocity of the drilling fluid
and the fluid properties specifically the viscosity and density. A high velocity,
thin fluid will give the best lifting, but will lead to severe hole problems and
increased fuel costs for the pumps. Increasing the viscosity will reduce the lifting
efficiency, and improve the carrying capacity of the fluid but also increase
pump wear while reducing fuel costs as the pump rates are decreased. In
addition, density provides buoyancy, but reduces the rate of penetration. Annular
velocities are normally defined as part of the drilling program leaving the drilling
supervisor to optimize fluid properties as conditions dictate.

5. Suspend cuttings and weighting materials in the annulus

whenever circulation is stopped.
The properties of the drilling fluid must be maintained such that any drill cuttings
not circulated out of the hole prior to trips or connections will remain suspended
in the fluid. If the cuttings are able to settle back down the wellbore due to poor
fluid suspension ability, they will accumulate on bottom and have to be re-drilled
before a new hole can be made and there is always the possibility they will pack
off around the bit and BHA with the further possibility of sticking the drill string.
The gel strength is the fluid property that is most important in holding the cuttings
in suspension. It is important that the gel strength be controlled so that it stays
reasonably constant and does not build excessively while the fluid sits quiescent.
High strengths require high pump pressures to initiate circulation and are
expensive in terms of fuel and pump repairs.

6. Assist in providing borehole stability by lining the borehole wall

with a low permeability filter cake.
The hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid pushing against the sides of the
wellbore assists in maintaining wellbore integrity. It has also been demonstrated
that the higher the fluid density (and the higher the hydrostatic pressure), the less
sloughing occurs. Several oil companies use this to reduce the amount of
sloughing shale when tectonically active shales are encountered. It will work,
provided the operator is prepared to accept the lower rates of penetration that
result from the higher mud densities.
7

If a permeable formation is drilled, the liquid phase of the drilling fluid will leak or
seep into the permeability leaving behind the solids portion of the fluids on the
wall of the hole. This filter cake will coat the wellbore walls and help to stabilize
any mechanically unstable formations. The filter cake will also help to minimize
further passage of the liquid phase (fluid loss) to the formation which will reduce
the effects on any water sensitive zone(s). There are also special chemicals and
additives available to assist in the formation of the filter cake.
The filter cake which builds up needs to be firm, thin, tough and slick so that it is
not mechanically displaced; so that it reduces the friction of the drill string while
drilling; and to ensure it does not appreciably reduce the hole diameter behind
the bit and potentially cause sticking.

7. Release cuttings at surface without losing other beneficial

materials.
Once the cuttings reach surface, they need to be removed from the drilling fluid
as quickly as possible. In most cases, this is an exact opposite requirement to
that of the fluid to keep the solids in suspension. Almost all rigs choose to thin
stream the fluids over an inclined stream, to try and mechanically affect this
surface separation, and to try and remove the smaller particles using high
volume centrifuges.
If the cuttings are not released at surface, they stay in the fluid and are
recirculated down the well. If the drilled solids remain in the fluid, the softer
particles like shale are eventually ground up even smaller (making them harder
yet to remove), and the hard materials such as sand become an abrasive that
cause excess wear and premature failure of the pump parts.
As drill solids continue to build in the drilling mud, they increase the density of the
fluid, reducing the rate of penetration and increasing the cost. A higher solids
content will also increase the viscosity of the drilling fluid and increase the costs
to pump the fluid.

8. Support part of the drill string and casing weight.

As the well is drilled deeper, more and more drill pipe is used, which results in a
much heavier drill string. This is also true of long, large, high weight casing
strings. All of the weight must be supported by the upper joints of pipe and by the
surface equipment the derrick and the substructure. The buoyant effect of the
mud provides support for a portion of this weight and is taken into account when
running very long strings. The buoyancy is essentially the weight (amount) of
mud displaced by the pipe. The higher the fluid density, the more buoyancy is
available, but the lower the rate of penetration becomes.

9. Minimize damage to the reservoir and its productivity.

The main reason for drilling wells is to produce oil or gas from a specific
formation. The amount of oil and gas produced is determined by the thickness of
the formation, the fluid saturations, the rock permeability and the formation
pressure. The formation is drilled through using a drilling fluid expected to build a
filter cake and restrict the amounts of whole mud and filtrate that will invade the
formation. Invasion of either will probably result in some degree of permeability
reduction (damage) in the immediate vicinity of the wellbore. This damage may
be either:

Blockage of the permeability (pore throats) by the mud solids

Hydration and swelling of the clays in the formation which are contacted
by the drilling fluid filtrate

Maintaining the hydrostatic pressure just above the reservoir pressure and
building a drilling fluid with a good filter cake and a low fluid loss, the amount of
invasion that occurs can be minimized.
The use of non-water-based fluids can also prevent some types of formation
damage, but these fluids are extremely expensive and often environmentally
sensitive. Inhibited water-based fluids may also be used to prevent clay hydration
through the use of potassium salts, calcium salts and anionic polymers. It is
important to note that the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is a mature basin,
and that more and more of the reservoirs drilled in are in dirty formations
formations with clays present that are easily damaged.
The use of inhibited water systems should reduce (or minimize) the degree of
damage, but may lead to other difficulties in interpreting the logs run on the well.
It is always advisable to check with the geologist or log interpreter prior to using
these types of fluids.

Exercise One
1. What drilling fluid functions are directly related to the density of the fluid?
2. Which functions of a drilling fluid are the most important? Explain why.
3. Explain how hydrostatic pressure is calculated?
4. Why is it important that the drilling fluids circulated down the well release the
drill cuttings at surface?

OBJECTIVE TWO
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Differentiate drilling fluids according to their continuous phase.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:
1. Read the learning material.
2. Complete Exercise Two.

Learning Material
Drilling Fluid Components
Drilling fluids are made up of two basic components:

1. The continuous phase of the drilling fluid.

The continuous phase of a drilling fluid is the base fluid that is used to make up
the system. The continuous phase may have chemicals dissolved within it, which
then become part of the continuous phase. The continuous phase will suspend
any materials that make up the discontinuous phase.

2. The discontinuous phase of the drilling fluid.

The discontinuous phase is that portion of the drilling fluid held in
suspension/emulsion by the continuous phase.
The discontinuous phase will contain any solid or undissolvable liquids that are
added to the system to alter the properties imparted by the base fluid. These
intentionally added materials are known as additives.
The discontinuous phase will also contain any solids that are picked up from the
formations being drilled through. This material is considered to be contaminants,
the primary one being the drill cuttings created by the drilling process.
There are two basic drilling fluid systems in use in Western Canada: water-based
muds (WBM) and oil-based muds (OBM) which are, in the majority of cases, an
invert emulsion.

10

Water-Based Muds
In WBMs, the continuous phase is water. In Western Canada, this water is
predominantly fresh water; in other parts of the world, salt water is used (usually
sea water with 30,000-35,000 ppm sodium chloride).
There are several common additives used in water based systems. The primary
additive is clay. This clay is a high grade of bentonite, which is primarily sodium
montmorillonite. The other common additive is barite (barium sulphate), which
has a specific gravity of 4.65 and is used to increase the fluid density. Other
additives are also used to alter specific characteristics.
There are also several common chemicals added to and dissolved in the water.
The most common is caustic soda (NaOH), which is used to control the pH.
Again, there is a wide range of chemicals also added to control specific
properties.

Oil-Based Muds
The only oil-based fluid used in Western Canada is an invert emulsion where oil
is the continuous phase. Because of availability, cost and a specific composition
(making property control much easier), in most fluids, this oil is diesel fuel. In an
invert the discontinuous phase is primarily water with salt (a chemical) dissolved
in it. The discontinuous phase may also include barite in both phases.
Clays are generally not used in inverts and the primary additive is barite (nonweighted inverts have a density of 850-900 kg/m3) used to raise the density and
ensure well control. Chemicals are always used and the primary chemicals are
the emulsifiers, which sit in the interface between the diesel and water,
maintaining the stability of the emulsion.

Drilling Fluids Types

There are five basic types of drilling fluid in use around the world. They are:
1. Gases or pneumatic fluids
2. Water and water-based fluids
3. Oil and oil-based fluids
4. Synthetic fluids
5. Combinations of the above
Each of these fluids has a specific use and is used to meet specific well
requirements. And of course some are more common than others in given areas.
Furthermore, within each type of fluid there are varieties usually resulting from
the additives and chemicals deliberately added to them to give them specific
properties. Each is discussed below.
11

Gaseous Fluids
In gaseous drilling fluids, the continuous phase is a gas. A variety of gases have
been used (air, methane, CO2 and N2), but for safety and cost reasons, the
primary gases used are air (for top hole) and nitrogen for deeper zones, which
may contain hydrocarbons. Methane (natural gas) has also been used where
hydrocarbons are expected and the well is being drilled very close to a high
pressure source of natural gas usually a pipeline. Methane use is becoming
rare especially given the fire risk on surface.
When the carrying capacity of the gas alone is not sufficient to lift the liquids and
clean the hole, a foaming agent will be added to the gas stream. The primary
foaming agent is soap and this creates bubbles, which hold the liquid around the
outside by surface tension. This can increase the fluid carrying capacity of the
system and gives the added benefit of increasing the systems tolerance to down
hole liquids. Note that the increase in the lifting capacity with foams is somewhat
limited.

Water-Based Fluids
Water-based drilling fluids are fluids where the continuous phase is fresh water.
Approximately 85% of all meterage drilled uses water-based fluids and the water
may have material dissolved within it or may contain undissolved material (known
as the discontinuous phase).
Water-based systems are sub-classified according to the salt content of the
continuous phase.

12

Fresh water systems have a chloride content of less than 5,000 ppm.

Brine systems have a chloride content of between 5,000 and 50,000 ppm.

Sea water systems are a subset of brine systems where the make-up
water is drawn from the ocean/sea, the chloride content will be between
25,000 and 50,000 ppm, depending on the native content of the source
ocean/sea.

Salt saturated systems have a chloride content of between 100,000 ppm

(near saturated) and 200,000 ppm (super saturated).

Source: SAIT Polytechnic

Figure 1: Water-Based Systems

Water alone is a very poor drilling fluid. It has a very low viscosity and no fluid
loss control. In Western Canada it has limited use, and the majority of the waterbased systems will have materials added to them to change and control the fluid
properties primarily to increase the viscosity and density, and to lower fluid
loss.
Water-based drilling fluid systems are the most commonly used systems as they
are relatively simple, have easier rheological control and can be adapted to most
situations through the addition of the appropriate additives/chemicals: they are
also very cost efficient especially if care is taken to prevent Cl- contamination.

Fresh Water/Drilled Solids-Water

The simplest, most primitive drilling fluid consists of fresh water from the nearest
source. While an attempt is made to remove the drill solids and cuttings at
surface, these systems quickly become contaminated with the drill cuttings (clays
and other solids).
In Western Canada, these fluids tend to develop a very thick filter cake
comprised of the surface clays they drill. If the cake becomes so thick as to
restrict drilling, the cake is called a mud ring. These mud rings are dispersed
back into the fluid using a thinner (a chemical) called sodium acid pyrophosphate
(SAPP). If unconsolidated sands, gravels or boulders are encountered, it will
usually be necessary to build viscosity using bentonite.

13

The current application in Western Canada of this mud system is in the drilling of
surface holes. Despite the drawbacks of the fluid it does have two significant
advantages in surface hole drilling:

The fluid is non-polluting and is unlikely to damage local farmers water

supplies.

The fluid is inexpensive.

Bentonite - Water
The bentonite systems are a great improvement over fresh water systems for
handling drilling conditions. When high grade bentonite (sodium montmorillonite)
is added to fresh water, it hydrates and disperses (see the section on clay
mineralogy for details). This provides a non-Newtonian fluid with a controllable
viscosity, which tends to gel when stationary and suspend cuttings and weight
material.
Non-Newtonian fluids thicken at low annular shear rates to transport cuttings, but
thin out at the high bit shear rates to allow fast penetration rates. This fluid forms
a thin, low permeability filter cake to reduce filtrate loss and sticking.
The gel-water mud may on occasion be used as a low priced drilling fluid, but its
predominant use is a base mud, the properties of which can be modified by
additions of inorganic and organic compounds. A typical base, gel-chem mud, is
made up of fresh water that is less than 5,000 ppm chlorides and less than 100
ppm calcium and magnesium. The pH is usually 9.5-11 and it contains 40 to 60
kg/m3 of bentonite.

Gel-Chem
Gel-chem systems are bentonite-water systems that contain thinners and/or fluid
loss additives in addition to the gel. They can be either weighted or unweighted
systems. In unweighted systems, the additives are used to reduce fluid loss and
to maintain the desired rheology. The density will normally be kept below 1050
kg/m3.
In weighted systems, a weighting agent (density increaser) will have to be added
to control of down hole pressures. These systems will have thinners added to
maintain rheological control within the range required (known as dispersed
systems) to ensure that the system effectively performs the functions of a good
drilling fluid. Dispersed systems are the most common gel-chem systems as they
have very good carrying capacity and suspension ability.

Gel-Polymer
This type of mud system is a rather broad classification, which includes
bentonite-water-based muds with one or two polymers added to obtain specific
properties. The polymers are added to non-dispersed mud systems as an
14

extender to increase viscosity or shale stabilization, while at the same time

generally decreasing the filtration rate. A big advantage of the polymers is their
effectiveness in controlling independent properties of the mud with small
additions. Their main drawback is their high cost and the fact that they are
organic, requiring the use of biocides.
A typical gel-polymer combination would be a gel-polysaccharide system. Fluid
loss can quickly be reduced by additions of specialized polymers, starches or
carboxymethylcellulose (CMC).
Another typical gel-polymer combination would be a gel-polyanionic cellulose
system. This versatile mud provides good rheology and fluid loss properties.
These gel-polymer systems have good general properties, such as shear
thinning, shale protection by polymer coating and a thin, slick filter cake. Brines
or seawater may be used to add water or salinity to the system.
A special class of water-based muds is partially-hydrolyzed polyacrylamide
(PHPA) as an additive, either to encapsulate drill solids or to extend bentonite
clay in a low-solids mud. PHPA muds have become reasonably common in
Western Canada, and PHPA appears to be the polymer of choice where
extended viscosity and/or shale encapsulation is required. These muds perform
well but are, like all polymer systems, relatively expensive.
As a polymer system, PHPA works well in fresh water, seawater, saturated salt
water mud, KCl and solids-free brine systems. It also provides shale
filming/inhibition, flocculation of drilled solids, viscosity and lubricity.
PHPAs strong encapsulating/filming action stabilizes clay and shale formations,
blocks the absorption or inhibition of water from the drilling fluids, and prevents
clay and shale cuttings from disintegration while carrying them up the annulus
from the bottom of the hole (bit) to surface.
Fluids containing PHPA exhibit shear-thinning at the bit, which helps maximize
the ROP by providing low bit viscosity and high lifting capacity at the lower shear
rates in the annulus.
PHPA fluids do, however, tend to blind normal shaker screens, and a larger
mesh screen is generally required where these systems are used.

Gel-KCl and Gel-KCl Polymer

The beneficial effect of the K potassium ion on stabilization of hydratable shales
+

has been well established. It has been shown that the K ion fits exactly into the
clay matrix, preventing water access and subsequent swelling. In areas where
shale hydration causes hole sloughing, this mud system can be run with 4% to
6% KCl to reduce the problem. The KCl drilling fluid may also be used to reduce
the swelling of sensitive clays in the reservoir.
15

Simply adding gel to concentrated KCl brine will not produce appreciable
+
viscosity, as the gel will not yield; the K ion prevents effective hydration of the
bentonite. The gel is therefore pre-hydrated in fresh water before incorporation
into the mud system.
As with any bentonite-water system contaminated with positive ions, viscosity is
often difficult to maintain. Adequate viscosity is provided by 0.6 to 1.8 kg/m3
polysaccharide and filtration is reduced with 1.4 to 3 kg/m3 cellulose polymers.
Maintaining a water loss of less than 10 cm3/30min with this system becomes
very expensive. The filter cake will be thicker than the average mud. This mud
resists contamination from salts, but calcium may cause precipitation of the
polymer at a pH value above 11.
A disadvantage to keep in mind is the difficulty in disposal of high chloride fluids.
In Alberta, it is necessary to obtain approval for fluids disposal at the end of the
well from the AER prior to spudding. This disposal approval will be a condition on
you drilling license.

Solids Free Systems

Solids free polymer drilling fluids were originally developed in Alberta in the
1980s to be fast hole drilling fluids. The idea was to eliminate clays and all other
solids (which decreases ROP), and to provide decreased bit viscosity due to
shear thinning, increased bit horsepower and increased spurt loss (which
increases ROP). This was done by substituting polymers for clays in water to
provide viscosity and carrying capacity, shear thinning, decreased turbulent
friction losses, high gel strengths and filtration control with high initial spurt loss.
The systems are highly resistant to contamination due to the absence of clays.
The main drawback is the high cost of polymers required to increase fluid
viscosity, to increase gel strength and to minimize filtration. These systems can
also be expected to bind drill solids into the system making solids control
difficult. They have been used primarily where large sumps are in use allowing
longer settlement times but historically the only solution to the solids control
problem is dilution of the system. Due to the high cost of the polymers, this can
greatly increase the cost of the hole.
With the increasing use of sumpless drilling operations and the increasing costs
of polymers, these systems are being used less and less. Additionally, other fluid
systems have been developed at a considerably lower cost, and no-solids
polymer systems are seen very infrequently.

16

Flocculated Water (Clear Fluids Drilling)

This is a special application of a no-solids system where the objective is to drill
the well with clear water, that is, water that has little to no suspended solids in
it.
Empirical evidence shows that the fastest ROP attainable, with a liquid drilling
fluid, is using the lowest fluid density possible. However in drilling with waterbased fluids, the drill cuttings are ground up to a very small size and it becomes
increasingly difficult to remove them. These cuttings accumulate in the drilling
fluid, causing the density to increase and the ROP to decrease.
In a flocculated water system (floc-water), chemicals are added to the water to
flocculate the bentonite along with drill cuttings into large soft accumulations,
which are then removed at surface before the clear fluid is circulated back down
the hole. The most common additives in Alberta are gypsum (calcium sulphate),
caustic, lime, soda ash (which all maintain a high pH) and a variety of specialized
polymer flocculants.

Summary Water Based Fluids

Water-based drilling fluids are the least expensive, simplest way to drill a well.
They are readily adaptable, through the use of additives, to meet most drilling
situations. They tend to be less harmful to the environment and easier to dispose
of when the well is finished.

Pure Oil-Based Systems

There are a number of pure oil-based systems available (such as Black Magic),
although they are becoming increasingly rare. The pure oil-based drilling fluids
are mixtures of oxidizing asphalt organic acids, alkali, stabilizing agents and high
flash diesel oil. Such drilling fluids will usually tolerate less than 3% water
emulsified in the oil.

Invert Emulsions
Invert emulsion is the main oil mud type presently in use. Invert emulsions
contain up to 50% water emulsified in the diesel, with various additives used to
emulsify the water and stabilize the system.
The invert mud system is a water-in-oil emulsion in which oil is the external or
continuous phase. The water is broken up into small droplets and uniformly
dispersed within the oil phase. To emulsify the water in the oil, there must be
sufficient chemical emulsifier to completely form a film around each water
droplet. If there is not sufficient emulsifier, the emulsion will be unstable and the
small water droplets will coalesce into large water droplets, and eventually into
two distinct phases.
17

From the standpoint of stability, the smaller the droplet, the more stable the
emulsion. In an invert emulsion, the average droplet size is less than several
microns. Additionally, uniform droplet size also makes the emulsion more stable
and to obtain small droplets of uniform size, energy or work must be applied as
shear. The importance of droplet size and its relationship to mud stability cannot
be over emphasized. The droplet size also contributes to viscosity and gel
strength. When oil (continuous phase) is added, the emulsion becomes more
stable because the distance between droplets is greater. The reverse is also
true; additional water will decrease stability because the distance between water
droplets is lessened. The addition of oil or water will affect viscosity. Oil
decreases viscosity while water increases viscosity. An unweighted invert will
weigh approximately 890 to 900 kg/m3 with a 40 to 50 second funnel viscosity.
The high temperature high pressure (HTHP) fluid loss is approximately 2 to 4
cm3/30 minutes and contains only oil. If free water is present it indicates
insufficient emulsification and steps should be taken immediately to rectify the
problem.
The water phase needs to contain various concentrations of salt to maintain a
balance with formation fluids containing salts. Generally speaking, a saline
formation fluid attempts to absorb less saline water from a fresh water source
through osmotic forces in order to balance the salinities. If left indefinitely, both
fluids will have the same salinity, meaning that the (potentially fresh water
sensitive) formation has absorbed a portion of the fresh water present in the
drilling fluid.
To counteract these forces, the water phase of the invert contains sufficient
chlorides to balance the osmotic forces of the formation, thus eliminating the
absorption of water. The water salinity is determined by the salinity of the
formations to be drilled and is usually between 40,000 ppm for relatively fresh
water formations and up to 140,000 ppm for very saline formations. If massive
halites are to be drilled, it is common practice to increase the salinity in the water
phase to 350,000 ppm.
Invert emulsion drilling fluids have applications such as the following:
1. Drilling through hydratable shales, which tend to slough.
2. Drilling crooked or directional holes that develop high torque and drag.
3. Drilling through water sensitive reservoirs.
4. Drilling areas with high corrosion rates, particularly when much H2
5. Drilling through soluble formations such as massive salts and other
evaporites. S is present.

18

The system has additional benefits, such as:

1. Reduced possibility of differential sticking across porous zones due to low
filter loss and lubricity of the filter cake.
2. Lower mud weight than water base in normally pressured zones
contributes to generally higher penetration rates.
3. Resistant to contamination.
4. Stable mud properties at temperatures above 175C.
5. Can be modified into a very stable, non-corrosive, non-freezing packer
fluid.
There are disadvantages of oil-based systems, which restrict the areas where its
use is practical. These disadvantages include:
1. High initial cost of system. Costs may be between $4000 and $7000 per
m3, as opposed to water-based fluids, which may cost as little as $150
per m3.
2. Seepage losses can be high and expensive. Note that because of its
cost, the mud is normally cleaned (centrifuged to remove drill cuttings and
barite) and reused on other invert wells.
3. Lower viscosity and less effective cleaning properties.
4. Location restoration costs increased.
5. Dirty working conditions if not properly looked after.
6. Hard on rubber in circulation system.
7. The aniline point of diesel must be above 60C. Note that the aniline point
is a measure of the amount of aromatics in the diesel. While this is
required to minimize the amount of damage done to rubber products in
the circulating system, it is also good practice to reduce aromatics such
as benzene and toluene from a health perspective, as they are known
carcinogens.
8. Slow penetration rate through carbonate rocks. Note that a low colloid
invert with relaxed filtration control can be used to obtain normal
penetration rate, although the costs will increase.
To properly run an invert mud, sufficient and efficient solids control must be
utilized. This is not unusual for any mud system except that in the case of an
invert system the cuttings are oil soaked and contain up to 30% oil. Care must be
taken to segregate these cuttings and dispose of them properly.

19

Synthetic Drilling Fluids

In many offshore drilling situations, there are hydratable shales, massive salt
sections and many other potential drilling problems. These drilling situations are
best dealt with using an oil-based drilling fluid. However oil-based fluids present
unique risks offshore the majority of which relate to the perceived
environmental impact of a spill of an oil-based fluid and the observed difficulties
in disposing of the cuttings. Day rates for offshore rigs are so high that using
water-based fluids is not an option, as the risk of hole problems is simply too
high. And the environmental based complaints against oil-based fluids are such
that oil-based fluids are questionable in many cases. The majority of operators in
these areas have chosen to use a synthetic product or a synthetic based mud
(SBM).
In SBMs the synthetic liquid forms the continuous phase while an emulsified
brine forms the discontinuous phase. The formation and the cuttings are exposed
primarily to the synthetic phase and it acts in a manner similar to an oil-based
mud reducing the swelling and degradation of the borehole walls and the
dispersion of the cuttings into the fluid. The system works well and does not need
large dilution volumes and the volume of both the mud system and spent cuttings
can be minimized.
SBMs are available using a range of base fluids and these include:

Esters, which are synthesized from fatty acids and alcohols. In several
compounds, the fatty acids are synthesized from vegetable oils (canola).
In esters, the key is the selection of hydrocarbon chain length on either
side of the ester group. These groups are selected to provide adequate
viscosity, hole stability and to minimize toxicity.

Ethers are a range of materials synthesized from alcohols. The

hydrocarbon groups associated with ethers are selected to maximize the
operating properties of the drilling fluid

Polyalphaolefins (PAOs) are manufactured by the polymerization of

linear alpha-olefins such as 1-octene or 1-decene. Control over the
chemical structure and physical properties is possible by the adjustment
of the reaction parameters in the polymerization process and the
selection of the starting alpha-olefin.

Olefin Isomers are derived from the selective isomerization of normal

alpha-olefins. Products are selected to maximize the required drilling
parameters while minimizing environmental impact.

All of the SBMs have different chemical properties and drilling performance.
Environmental impacts also differ.
Most SBMs have drilling and operational properties similar to oil-based mud
(OBM) systems and are commonly used to replace OBMs and drill situations
20

such as hydratable shales, high temperatures and salts. In some cases, SBMs
provide better drilling performance than OBMs.
Costs for SBMs are several times higher than OBMs, but can be recovered if the
cuttings can be discharged on site (to the sea) and if the environmental
requirements prohibit (or make exorbitantly expensive) the use of OBMs.
Given that the primary use for SBMs is environmental impact reduction, there are
several other reported advantages to its use. They include:

Less waste relative to water-based muds (WBMs).

Elimination of diesel as a base mud and less perceived pollution

potential.

Improved drilling performance relative to WBMs.

SBMs also provide increased lubricity (reducing torque and drag),

reduced friction, lower densities (and higher ROPs) and reduced
wastes.

The primary disadvantage is cost.

Exercise Two
Compare and contrast WBM, OBM and SBF by completing the following table of
advantages and disadvantages.
Fluid Type
WBM

Advantages

Disadvantages

21

Fluid Type
OBM

SBM

22

Advantages

Disadvantages

OBJECTIVE THREE
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Describe how clay chemistry affects drilling fluid properties.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:
1. Read the learning material.
2. Complete Exercise Three.

Learning Material
Clay Mineralogy
Anyone who is involved or interested in the oil and gas industry will quickly
realize that is important to understand clay behaviour. Clays furnish the colloidal
particles in many drilling muds and are one of the most common additives to both
water-based systems. Even when you drill with water, clay from the formations
drilled become suspended in the fluid and alter the fluid properties. During the
drilling of the well, clays in the shales will absorb some water and this may affect
hole stability. Because of these interactions, a general knowledge of colloid
chemistry and clay mineralogy is essential.

Colloids
Colloids are not any particular material but are materials of a size that is similar
to the water molecules in which they are suspended. This means that colloids are
0.0001 to 0.0005 microns in size.
Colloidal systems (colloid particles suspended in water) have their behaviours
typically governed by their extremely large surface area. In most cases, surface
chemistry determines the colloid system properties. In the inside of any colloid,
each molecule is surrounded by similar molecules at least on one side and
the surface carries an electrostatic charge. To modify the system properties, you
need to add a surface active agent (often a surfactant), which modifies the
interfacial forces and determines the properties of the fluid.

Clays
Clay is defined as a rock: a fine-grained, earthy substance having plastic
properties that will become shale if consolidated. These clay minerals are
hydrous aluminum silicates, usually containing alkalis (sodium or potassium),
alkaline earths (calcium or magnesium) and iron in appreciable quantities.

23

Clays in Water
Mud engineers are not normally particularly familiar with the chemical
composition or the crystalline structure of the clay, but rather in how the clay
behaves when it is contact with water. These materials will tend to hydrate (the
bonding of water molecules to the surface of the clay particle) in the presence of
water. This bonding is a major factor in the behaviour of the drilling fluid.
Depending on the extent of the hydration, the clay will cause an increase in the
viscosity, gelation and fluid loss of the fluid. The increase in viscosity provides
the fluid with better carrying capacity, (that is, the ability to clean the hole) and
increased suspension ability.

Clay Structure
There are two broad classes of clay:
1. Sheet like, thin platelets such as montmorillonite, illites and kaolinites.
2. Rod or needle like particles, such as attapulgite.
The sheet like group can be further classified by the number of sheets that form a
single platelet (two-layer or three-layer units). Each sheet is primarily made up of
either alumina (Al2O3) or silica (SiO2), although the substitution of other atoms is
common and can profoundly affect the properties of the resulting clay.
The three-layer group can be further divided into swelling and non-swelling clays.
Those clays that readily swell or hydrate allow water molecules to enter between
the platelets which spreads the layers , which in turn allow more water to be
absorbed onto the surface of the clay. The result is a colloidal suspension of the
clays which greatly increases viscosity. Clays that exhibit these properties are
called smectites. The principle smectite is montmorillonite, which is the main
ingredient in bentonite.

Ion Exchange
The concept of ion exchange accounts for many significant changes in drilling
+++

fluid properties. During the formation of clays, the Al

ion may be exchanged for

++

a lower valence ion (usually Mg ), leaving a negative imbalance. In addition,

there are other ionic imbalances at the broken boundaries of the clay crystal.
This imbalance will be off-set by the absorption of a cation.
The stability of clays in water is attributed to the forces of attraction and repulsion
caused by the residual charges on the surface of the clay platelet. Because of
the exchangeable bases, negative charges predominate on the face of the
platelet, but positive charges (off-set by anions) are present and predominate on
the edges. The face area is much greater than that of the edges, thereby
assuring an overall negative charge for the particle. The charges bonded to the
clay and the ions present in the water make up an electrical double layer with a
24

measurable potential, which will determine the stability of the particle in

suspension. Two-layer clays exhibit less ion exchange than three-layer clays and
are thus more stable. Three-layer clays tend to have much higher ion exchange
potentials and thus dissociate more readily in water. The three-layer clay of most
interest to us is sodium montmorillonite (bentonite), as it is readily hydratable and
extensively used as a viscosifier in fresh water.

Bentonite
Bentonite is the most important clay used in drilling. Drilling quality bentonite is
primarily sodium montmorillonite. In its simplest form, the clay particles resemble
a deck of cards or the pages of a book. The three-layered sandwich has two
outer layers of silica surrounding a middle layer of alumina. These platelets are
so small that approximately 1,500,000 of them would make a pile 1 mm high.
This structure is shown on page 98 of the Mitchell and Miska textbook.
When the stack of clay platelets comes in contact with fresh water, the cations
have a tendency to move into the water, leaving the clay surface with a slightly
negative charge. Water molecules are available and bond with the negative
charges and the clay particle becomes surrounded by water molecules, forcing
the particle apart and causing swelling. As this continues, more and more water
surrounds the clay particle and eventually individual clay platelets become fully
separated. This process is caused by hydration and is the basic mechanism
whereby clay builds viscosity in water.
If the water used to hydrate the clay is salty, the Na+ ion is present and
represses the ionization of the sodium ion in the clay platelet. Additionally the
Na+ ion is attracted to the negative charge of the clay particle reducing the
polarity of the clay and minimizing the attractive forces between the particles.

Salt Water Clay or Attapulgite

Attapulgite (salt gel) differs from other clays in that it is made up of rod or needle
shaped particles rather than platelets. Due to this shape, it does not provide
viscosity in the same manner. Viscosity is mechanical rather than dependent on
inter-particle attractive forces. It is the inter-meshing of the needles that provides
viscosity, high shear stress is required to break up the mesh and when broken
the needles exhibit unbalanced charges. As soon as the shear is removed, the
needles regroup, but in a random manner. Attapulgite will provide viscosity in
waters of any salinity, however, the nature of the needles and the random
manner of combination do not provide good fluid loss control.

Clay Linkage
Depending on the drilling fluid environment in which the clays are present, the
clays can link together in various configurations. The orientation of the particles is
very important to the rheological properties of the drilling fluid. The drilling fluid
engineer will be able to predict the flow behaviour of the fluid based on

25

knowledge of how the clays can be expected to link up in a given type of drilling
fluid.
The attraction/repulsion of ions on the surface of the particle are responsible for
the forces that link or separate clay particles (ions with like charges repel, ones
with different charges attract). That is, anions will be attracted to cations, but
repelled by other anions.

Source: SAIT Polytechnic

Figure 2: Attraction and repulsion

The four most common linking processes are (refer to Figure 3 below):
1. Aggregation: a large amount of the clay particles are in the face-to-face
orientation. This is the common state when clay first enters the drilling
fluid, either in the form of drill cuttings or as an additive.
2. Flocculation: edge-to-edge or edge-to-face orientation, gives the most
viscosity with the least amount of clay. The system will tend to be
unstable, as the bonds are easy to break.
3. Deflocculation: the system will contain aggregate particles, flocculated
particles and individual particles separated by space and repulsive forces.
4. Dispersion: widely separated individual clay particles. The particles have
a lower viscosity than flocculated systems, but tend to be more stable.
They also have the lowest viscosity for a given quantity of clay material.
26

Source: SAIT Polytechnic

Figure 3: Clay Linkages

Bentonite
Sodium montmorillonite (bentonite) is the most common clay viscosifier used in
drilling fluids, as it readily hydrates in fresh water to a fully dispersed state. This
3
means that you will gain the highest yield (m of DF per tonne of clay) of any clay.
Dispersed clay particles are very small (less than 1 micron), and will form what is
known as a colloidal system. In a colloidal system, the particles are so small that
they will be held in suspension by Brownian motion alone. This minimizes any
loss of material due to gravity settlement, and will impart important rheological
properties to the drilling fluid. The attractive forces between the colloidal particles
create an increase in the viscosity of the fluid. It is viscosity that allows the drilling
fluid to clean cuttings from around the bit and to carry them out of the hole.
Viscosity also aids the ability of the drilling fluid to suspend cuttings when the
fluid is not being circulated.

Exercise Three
1. Describe the following:
a. How clay colloids are held in suspension.
b. The possible sources of clay material that a drilling fluid may contain.
c. The effect of clay material on drilling fluid properties.

27

OBJECTIVE FOUR
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Explain the different drilling fluid additives and chemicals and their typical
applications.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:
1. Read the learning material.
2. Complete Exercise Four.

Learning Material
Drilling Fluid Additives and Chemicals
There are two classes of material added to drilling fluids: additives and
chemicals.
Additives: These are solid materials that are added and become suspended in
the fluid, thus becoming part of the discontinuous phase of the system.
Chemicals: These are materials that dissolve into the base fluid (WBMs), thus
becoming part of the continuous phase of the system. In inverts they may also
dissolve into the discontinuous phase (the water).

Water-Based Fluids
Water-based drilling fluids are systems where the continuous phase is water. In
Western Canada, fresh water is used (with essentially no chemicals dissolved in
it). In other parts of the world (and particularly offshore), the water may contain
naturally dissolved chemicals such as salt. It is important to remember that if the
water has chemical already in solution, these chemicals may affect the additives
and other chemicals, and ultimately the properties of the drilling fluid.
Fresh water alone is a very poor drilling fluid because it has very limited viscosity
and essentially no fluid-loss control. To alter these basic rheological properties,
the water will have material added to it and suspended within it. If intentionally
added to the system, these materials are known as additives and form the
discontinuous phase. Drilling fluid additives are used to adjust the properties of
the system in order to allow the fluid to effectively perform the functions required
of it. If the additives are not intentionally added, they are known as contaminants.
All contaminants will affect the drilling fluid properties in some way.

28

Examples of contaminants are drill cuttings, including shales, cement (from

drilling out the casing shoes) and other chemicals from the formations.

It should be noted that most drilling fluid additives will affect more than one of the
properties of the system. It is very important that the proper concentrations be
used and maintained to carry out the function intended without adversely
affecting other system properties.

Viscosifiers
As mentioned, pure fresh water has essentially no viscosity. Viscosifiers are
materials that are added to the system to increase the viscosity of the fluid. An
increase in viscosity enhances the drilling fluids ability to clean cuttings from the
bit and to transport them to surface. It also increases the fluids ability to suspend
material (cuttings) when circulation is stopped. All WBMs require viscosifiers. The
most common viscosifiers used are additives (colloidal clays), but they may be
chemicals.
Each is discussed below, together with the mechanism provides gives the
viscosity.

1. Bentonite
Drilling quality bentonite is high-grade sodium montmorillonite, a high yield clay
that gives good viscosity and aids in fluid loss control in fresh water systems. It is
used in almost all WBMs and provides viscosity through the electrical charge
imbalance (polar behaviour) on the individual platelets. These individual platelets
are surrounded by water molecules and cannot aggregate. However the
electrical attraction provides the viscosity.
Bentonite is readily available, reasonably inexpensive and consistent in its grind,
composition and properties.
The majority of WBM fluids use a bentonite/water mixture as the base fluid for
the more complex fluids in use to meet specific formation or other well needs.
These more complex fluid mixtures build on the properties of the basic,
bentonite/water fluid mixture and they use additives and chemicals as described
below.

2. CMC
Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) is a long chain polymer that is added to
water as a colloid. It provides viscosity in water-based systems through the
physical interference/entanglement of the long chain molecules. CMC will extend
the viscosity of a bentonite in water system, but it is used primarily for fluid loss
control.
CMC is widely available and, while expensive, it is the least expensive of all the
organic-based polymers. Like all organic-based polymers, it requires the use of
biocides to protect it from bacterial degradation.

29

3. Salt Gel
+

Mixing bentonite in salt water is ineffective in providing viscosity, as the Na ion

is attracted to the negative charges on the face of the platelets. The only effective
manner in which bentonite can provide viscosity is if it is pre-hydrated in fresh
water to develop its viscosity. Mixing the pre-hydrated bentonite into the salt
water will carry the viscosity into the new mixture, but this viscosity will not last.
Within a relatively short time, the Na+ ions will be attracted to the clay.
If a sea water fluid is to be used as the base fluid, a different kind of clay must be
used. This clay is normally attapulgite, often called salt gel. Attapulgite is a clay
viscosifier that can be used in water of any salinity, but is primarily used in brine
and sea water drilling fluids.
Attapulgite has a needle-like structure, and provides viscosity in the WBM
through a physical interference of the needles.

4. XCD Polymer
XCD polymer is a high molecular weight polymer specifically manufactured for
high dispersion. It is a water-soluble polysaccharide of xanthan gum, and
provides excellent viscosity in all salinities of water. It also provides a limited
measure of fluid loss control.
Like all polymers, it provides viscosity through the physical
interference/entanglement of the long chain molecules. Again, like all organicbased polymers, it requires the use of biocides to protect it from bacterial
degradation.

Fluid-Loss-Control or Fluid-Loss Agents

Fluid loss agents are additives that assist the drilling fluid to build a tight,
impermeable filter cake and lower the amount of filtrate lost to the formation
during the drilling process.
There are three primary reasons to lower the fluid loss and prevent filtrate
(primarily water) from entering the formation.

1. When drilling through water sensitive shales or other zones that may
become unstable when exposed to water, it is important to minimize the
volume of filtrate reaching the shale and thus lessen any problems that
are associated with water sensitive formations. Note that lowering the
fluid loss will not completely eliminate this sort of problem, but will help
ensure that the situation does not become a major problem.
2. Log interpretation is usually based on a relatively low amount of fluid
invasion. Where high volumes of filtrate are present, this interpretation
becomes somewhat questionable. The majority of clients will specify a
maximum fluid loss (usually 8-10 cm3/30min) when drilling a pay zone.
30

3. Fresh water allowed to penetrate a pay zone that contains swellable clays
will likely damage the permeability and reduce the potential productivity of
the zone. It is important that this damage be minimized.

1. Drispac
Drispac is a high molecular weight polyanionic cellulose (polymer) that provides
fluid loss control in water-based systems, regardless of their salinity.
The polymer provides fluid loss control through the physical interference of the
long chain molecules in the filter cake.
Using polymers to develop fluid loss control will have a serious secondary effect:
it will also cause a significant increase in viscosity. This viscosity is dependent
upon the concentration of Drispac used. Drispac should be used in low
3
concentrations in fresh water (1-3 kg/m ), but it may be used in higher
3
concentrations up to 10 kg/m in salt water.

2. Lignite
The lignite used in drilling fluids is a naturally oxidized coal product that is used to
control filtrate loss in both fresh and saline water.
Lignites are a temperature stable thinner (they are much more stable than
lignosulphonates). They work by dispersing the clays in the mud, effectively
releasing the clay platelets that are bound into the cuttings and the calcium ions.
Once released, the clay platelets provide the fluid loss.
Lignites also act as thinners (viscosity reducers) but require a pH greater than
9.5 to provide effective deflocculation and dispersion.

3. Lignosulphonate
Lignosulphonates are used primarily as a low to normal temperature (less than
120C) deflocculating agent in WBM. Lignosulphonates also contribute
significantly to fluid loss control in both fresh and saline water, and act in the
same manner as lignites.
Lignosulphonate is primarily used as a thinner, and provides a high degree of
dispersion in both fresh and saline water.

4. Starch
Starch used in the drilling industry may be a pre-gelatinized cornstarch or potatobased starch that is designed specifically for use as a filtration control agent.
Starch acts as a gelatin, encapsulating drill cuttings and clay particles and
binding them into the filter cake, thereby reducing the filtration.

31

Starch will also increase viscosity somewhat, and encapsulates cuttings in a

polymeric film, effectively preventing the cuttings from hydrative and dispersive
disintegration.
Starch works best in an alkaline environment, and should be used with a biocide.

5. Starlose
Starlose is a hydrophilic organic polymer made from starches, and is protected
against bacteria attack. It provides excellent fluid loss control in all water-based
systems in a similar manner to starches.

6. Tannins
Tannins are derived from wood bark and are used to control fluid loss in waterbased systems. Tannins work in a manner similar to lignites and
lignosulphonates in that they provide dispersion of the clays in the drilling mud.
They also act as a mild thinner.

Thinners/Deflocculants
Thinners are additives that cause the clays in the mud system to disperse,
separating the clay platelets and thus reducing the viscosity of the system.
Thinners are generally used to maintain the rheology of the system within the
desired range for any given type of drilling fluid. They act by reducing the
attractive electrical (ionization) forces between particles, allowing them to totally
separate within the continuous phase of the fluid.
Deflocculants are additives that reduce clumping (flocculation) or aggregation
within a system. Deflocculants also reduce the attraction between particles, but
not to the same extent as thinners. Deflocculants generally do not provide
complete dispersion of the clay particles within the mud.

1. Cypan
Cypan is a synthetic high molecular weight polymer of acrylonite. Cypan is
absorbed onto the clay platelets and initially isolates the individual platelets,
causing deflocculation of the system. Once deflocculation occurs, it may be
difficult to regain viscosity.
Cypan will cross link the clay particles in the filter cake and assist in building a
thin, tight filter cake, in addition to reducing fluid loss.

2. Lignite
While it is primarily used as a fluid loss agent (see above), lignite also acts as a
thinner in both fresh and saline systems.

32

3. Lignosulphonate
Lignosulphonate is primarily used as a thinner, and provides a high degree of
dispersion in both fresh and saline water. Lignosulphonates also provide fluid
loss control (see above) and the same process applies.

4. SAPP
SAPP is sodium acid pyrophosphate, and is used to treat out calcium from
gypsum, cement and anhydrite. SAPP is frequently used as a thinner in low pH
(less than 9) drilling fluids where temperatures do not exceed 82C. SAPP is very
useful in preventing mud rings during the drilling of surface hole.

Weighting Agents
Weighting material is used to increase the density of the drilling fluid when it is
necessary to have additional hydrostatic pressure to control the subsurface
pressures expected in the interval to be drilled. Weighting agents are primarily
dense solids that become part of the discontinuous phase or heavy salts (used
primarily in completions fluids systems) that dissolve into the continuous phase.

1. Barite
Barite (or bar) is barium sulphate, a finely ground compound having a specific
gravity (SG) of 4.265. It is used to increase the density of liquid based systems.
Barite may be used to increase the fluid density to approximately 2400 kg/m

although 2200 kg/m is more common. Barite is also commonly added in a short
3

pill form (usually less than 5 m ) to prevent wet trips. The dense pill is placed in
the drill pipe and provides a degree of overbalance on the drill pipe, causing the
fluid to fall from the drill pipe into the annulus.

2. Calcium Carbonate
Calcium carbonate is a non-water-soluble, naturally occurring limestone, ground
relatively finely, with an SG of 2.7. It is used as a weighting agent when it is
desirable that the compound be acid soluble, and it is used almost exclusively in
the drilling or completion of producing zones.

3. Hematite
Hematite is an iron ore, Fe2O3, with an SG of 5-6.2. It is used when a sufficient
density increase cannot be obtained with barite. A system weighted with hematite
may have a density of up to 2800 kg/m3, and is a much more stable system than
one weighted with galena.

33

4. Galena
Galena is lead sulphide (PbS) with an SG of 6.7. It is used when the density
cannot be increased sufficiently using other materials. Systems containing
galena tend to be unstable (the galena sags, or falls out of the drilling fluid).
These systems also exhibit very high and stable gel strengths.

5. Salts
Drill-in fluids are used to drill a pay zone that is sensitive to solids plugging.
These drill-in fluids are often clear fluids, basically water with limited additives. If
some additional weight is required, various salts can be dissolved into the
continuous phase of the drilling fluid. Salts are available with an SG of 2.1 (NaCl)
at the lower end, and 3.3 (NaBr) with the heavier salts. These brines may also be
used for completions fluids and packer fluids.

Lost Circulation Material

This is material added to the system to stop or minimize the loss of drilling fluid to
porous/permeable zones. Lost circulation varies from case to case: it may be
simply a high seepage loss (very important if you are using high cost muds such
as invert), or it may be a complete loss of drilling fluid to the formation. Severe
lost circulation is very important from a blowout prevention point of view; if you
have complete losses, the hydrostatic head will be dramatically reduced. If you
have any porous and permeable zones open in the wellbore, you can expect to
take a kick.
Lost circulation material (LCM) is material that aids in forming bridges to act as a
back stop to finer material (clays) in the drilling fluid. The most common types of
LCM are sawdust, cellophane (flat plastic) or fibrous materials. Lost circulation is
potentially serious enough that it must be healed or cured as soon as possible,
and a wide variety of material has been used as LCM in past situations.

1. Cellophane
Cellophane or celloflake is clear, multi-sized flakes of poly-cellulose. Sizes range
from 5 mm to several cm. Expectations are that cellophane will act as a sealing
agent to the formation permeability. Cellophane in the drilling fluids system will
also plate out on the shale shakers and blind the shakers. When using LCM, it is
usually necessary to bypass the shakers, and there is a risk that the bit jets may
plug.

2. Fibre
Fibres may be organic (such as cedar-bark or ground sugar cane), or they may
be man-made (such as shredded nylon fibres). Fibrous material acts as a matting
agent to assist the sealing and bridging agents in sealing the formation
permeability.
34

3. Mica
Mica or muscovite is a naturally occurring mineral that is processed into fine,
medium and coarse flakes. It is generally inert and non-toxic, and can be used in
both drilling fluids and cement slurries to reduce lost circulation. It is often used to
reduce seepage losses.

4. Kwik Seal
Kwik Seal is a mixture of granular materials, flakes and fibres, and is available in
a range of grind sizes.

5. Sawdust
Historically, sawdust has been readily available from sawmills as a relatively
cheap waste product. It has been used extensively as a lost circulation material
in WBM. Initially, the wood chip and fine wood dust swell in the mud and provide
a degree of plugging. However, the swelling is time dependent and the wood
structure breaks down quickly in the WBM, ending as a dispersion that does very
little for the lost circulation.
Demand for sawdust is increasing and the price and availability are changing
dramatically. Because of this, the advantages of using sawdust may be
disappearing rapidly.

6. Nut Hulls
In the southern US states, pecan and walnut shells are readily available as a
waste product and are ground into fine, medium and coarse grinds. These
granular products are not particularly effective, and it makes little economic
sense to use them outside the Southern US states.

Flocculants
Drilled solids (cuttings) are ground up into the drilling fluid and as they are ground
smaller they become extremely difficult to remove from the fluids. Additionally,
excessive solids in the drilling fluids increase the yield point and cause gelation.
Flocculants are additives and chemicals used to cause the suspended particles
to clump together or flocculate. When they are added, the flocculated drilling fluid
becomes essentially two phases a continuous water phase with little or no
solids and a very wet solids phase. The system will have a high viscosity
caused by the flocculated solids and a very high fluid loss determined by the
clear fluids.
Flocculants are used to obtain a higher viscosity in a low solids system where it
is desired to keep the amount of solid material and thus the density as low as
possible.

35

Flocculants are also used to flocculate fine drill cuttings into relatively large
clumps to facilitate their removal at surface when using a clear water drilling
fluid system where chemicals are used to maintain a water-based drilling fluid
system that is fairly close to clear or transparent.

1. Soluble Calcium Salts

When a soluble calcium salt is dissolved in the water-based mud, the Ca++ ion is
distributed and is attracted to the negative charges on the clay particles. These
attractions pull the clay platelets and the fine drilling solids together into large,
wet clumps.
The common calcium ions deliberately added to WBM systems include:

Gypsum: naturally hydrated calcium sulphate (CaSO4)2H2O. Cheap and

readily available gypsum is generally used as the base flocculant in clear
water systems, for drilling anhydrites or inhibition of reactive dirty (shaly)
formations.

Calcium Chloride: CaCI2 is used where flocculation of solids is required

in clear water systems.

Lime: this is calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), and will provide flocculation in

clay-based water muds. Lime may also be used to treat out carbonate
and bicarbonate contamination and to control pH.

2. Potassium Chloride
Potassium chloride is a potassium salt that may be used as a flocculant in low
solids systems. The potassium ion has a single valance, and is not particularly
effective as a flocculant. It is generally used to provide potassium ions in
inhibited systems that are made up to minimize formation clays (in water
sensitive shales and production zones) reactions with water. In these cases, the
potassium ion fits exactly between the clay platelets, preventing water ingress. In
Alberta, the high chloride content of these systems makes disposal of the mud
environmentally unacceptable by normal methods, and the ERCB requires that
the disposal plan be approved prior to issuing a well license.

3. Guar Gum
Guar gum is a natural organic polymer made from Arabic gums (tree sap) which
may be used as a flocculant in saline systems.

5. Polyacrylamide
Various types of polyacrylamides are used in clear water drilling fluids as a
flocculant. These polymers include partially hydrolized polyacrylamide (PHPA)
36

and are used to give an enhanced performance in low solids and clear water
systems.
Polyacrylamides act as many polymers and bind solids, encapsulating them in
the long chain molecules. Additionally, they provide a high level of viscosity
which will shear thin as it is pumped through the bit.

Specialized Additives
There are many other specialized additives that are added to drilling fluid
systems to attain specific results. These additives do not readily fall into any of
the general categories and a number of the more common ones are listed below.
If you have specific needs or problems to solve which are not completely
covered, contact your mud company. They will probably have seen the problem
elsewhere and be willing to make suggestions.

1. Aluminum Stearate
Aluminum stearate (Al(C18H35O2)3 is a surface active organo-metallic compound
used as a defoamer in dispersed or gel-chem systems. Aluminum stearate is not
water soluble and is normally premixed into diesel fuel before it is mixed into the
drilling fluid.
Anionic surfactants derived from vegetable oils may also be used to defoam most
water-based systems.

2. Biocide
Biocides are used to prevent bacteria attack on starches and (expensive)
polymers that would normally be prone to degradation and fermentation. The
most common biocides are a neutralized fatty amine acetate salt, but the most
effective biocides are paraformaldehyde-based.
Biocides are designed to kill bacteria, and in sufficient concentrations can be
harmful to people.

3. Caustic Soda
Caustic is sodium hydroxide, (NaOH) and is used to increase the OH+ ion content
of a system, and subsequently to raise the pH to between 10.5 and 11.5 where
most additives function better.

4. Pipe Free
Pipe free is a balanced blend of surface active ingredients (sulphonates). This
compound is used to degrade the filter cake along the wellbore wall in order to
free differentially stuck drill pipe.

37

Pipe free is not water soluble, and is dissolved in diesel fuel before being added
to the fluid. Normally the pipe free pill is segregated from the remainder of the
system and displaced to the stuck point as a pill to soak the filter cake.

5. Soda Ash
Soda ash is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), and is used to remove calcium ions
from cement and anhydrite contamination through precipitation as calcium
carbonate.

6. Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is used to remove calcium ions (primarily from
cement contamination) from muds with a pH above 9.

7. Zinc Carbonate, Iron Sponge

Zinc carbonate is used as a scavenger to remove H2S from the drilling fluid as a
chemical reaction. The concentration of zinc carbonate must be maintained for it
to be effective. It works well in systems having a pH greater than 10.
Iron sponge is iron with a very large surface area where the H2S is absorbed onto
the surface of the iron. The sponge is removed at the shakers and the H2S will be
desorbed in the shale spoil pile.
Note: In Alberta, defoamers, biocides, pipe free and other diesel-based additives
are regarded as toxic if they are used. The fluid must be tested and treated prior
to being disposed.

Oil-Based Fluids
Oil-based systems use various specialized materials that have been adapted for
use in fluids where the continuous phase consists of a hydrocarbon base. The
additives will have the same general purpose as those added to water-based
systems.

Barite
Standard barite is used as a weighting agent.

Filtration Agent
This is a polymerized fatty acid that is used to reduce the HTHP filtrate of oilbased drilling fluids.

Gilsonite
Gilsonite is modified asphalt that is added to invert systems to lower fluid loss
and to coat the wellbore wall, providing mechanical stability.
38

Organophilic Clay
Organophilic clay is modified montmorillonite that is used both for viscosity
increase and to aid in fluid loss control.

Primary Emulsifier
This is a blend of emulsifiers based on stable fatty acids that react with oil and
water to form a tight emulsion. They are usually added with lime to aid in the
emulsification process.

Salt
It is easier to maintain a tight emulsion if the water has a high ion content. This
tends to stop osmotic transfer of water away from the drilling fluid to formations
that are highly saline. Any of the common calcium, potassium or sodium salts
can be used; however, calcium and potassium salts are generally preferred.

Secondary Emulsifier
A modified amine sulphonate used to tighten the water in oil emulsion. This
material is used when high temperatures or high electrolyte content is expected.

Wetting Agent
A wetting agent is usually a blend of alkanolamides and phosphoids used to oil
wet solid material added to oil-based systems. It also ensures that drill cuttings
become oil wet. Any solids that become water wet will tend to aggregate and
drop out of the system.

Gaseous Systems
Gas-based systems have very few additives due to their intrinsic nature. The
main additives used in gaseous systems are those that will create foam.
The systems are foamed when significant liquid is expected from zones to be
drilled through. Pure gas systems have a very low tolerance to liquid (< 1%); the
liquids tend to cause the drill cuttings to clump together, making it difficult for the
system to transport them up the wellbore.
Since gas has close to zero carrying capacity, the system relies on annular
velocity to remove drill cuttings. The high velocity can cause erosion along the
wellbore wall due to the high-speed impact of drill cuttings with the wellbore wall.
Soft foams increase the system tolerance to liquids but do not provide additional
carrying capacity. Stiff foams will significantly increase the carrying capacity of
the system as well as providing additional tolerance to liquids.

39

Soap
A drilling detergent can be added to create a soft foam. When formation liquids
are encountered the soap will form bubbles and aid in the removal of the liquid.
Low tolerance to liquids is one of the main drawbacks to gaseous systems.

Foaming Agent
There are several foaming agents available from drilling fluid firms that create
stiff foam. This system not only significantly increases the liquid tolerance of the
system, but also increases the carrying capacity of the system. This means that
the annular velocity needed to clean cuttings from the wellbore is significantly
reduced, thereby lowering any erosion problems that may be present.

Exercise Four
1. Explain the difference between barite and bentonite.

2. What group of additives/chemicals would be used to increase the density of a

drilling fluid?

40

OBJECTIVE FIVE
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Describe drilling fluid contaminants and their effects and how to mitigate these
affects.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:
1. Read the learning material.
2. Complete Exercise Five.

Learning Material
Solids/Additives as Contaminants
As the well is drilled, the rock is ground up into drill cuttings, transported to
surface and partially removed in the solids control equipment. Unfortunately not
all of the drill cuttings are removed and the smaller particles build up (increase in
concentration) in the muds. Solids whose physical presence causes problems
with drilling fluid rheology are regarded as contaminants.
An unwanted buildup of solids or contaminants within the system has several
detrimental effects described below:

Density Increase
Drill cuttings have a higher SG than water, so as solids build up in the system
there will be a corresponding increase in the system density. Since ROP is
inversely proportional to the fluid density, any density increase will slow drilling
down. If this increase becomes excessive, it can cause formations to break down
(lost circulation), or cause the rheology of the system to become unstable.
Additionally, pumping fluids with high solids contents will cause a degree of
damage to the pump liners, cylinders and fluid ends, and result in higher fuel
costs.

Viscosity Increase
If the solids being drilled up are shales or other clay-based material, at least a
portion of the clay will hydrate, potentially increasing the system viscosity. Once
again, if untreated, this will lead to problems controlling the system rheology
within the desired range. While the clay will increase viscosity, the yield point will
also increase often dramatically as a direct measure of the solids content in
the fluids. Increases in yield point will lead to higher surface pressures when
41

breaking circulation and may require several stops while tripping in to establish
fluid movement.

Penetration Rate
As mentioned above, the penetration rate is inversely related to the density of the
drilling fluid. The higher the density is, the slower the penetration rate will be.
Penetration is also related to viscosity, as high viscosities reduce spurt loss and
increase chip hold down both of which reduce penetration. Finally, the
increased cuttings circulated in the fluid have to be redrilled. This continuous
grinding of cuttings also reduces penetration rate.

Lost Circulation
Each formation has a maximum hydrostatic pressure that it can withstand before
it fractures and allows whole drilling fluid to enter the formation. A porous
formation is more likely to take fluid if the hydrostatic pressure becomes high.
Both of these problems are accentuated by high density.

Chemical Contaminants
There are many formations that can chemically interact with the drilling fluid. This
chemical reaction may be as simple as dissolving ions and the dissolved ions
may cause changes in the nature of the drilling fluid, making proper rheological
control difficult.

Chloride
The deeper the formation is, the more saline the formation fluids. As drilling
proceeds, some of the salt will enter the drilling fluid. Chlorides will increase the
fluid loss of water-based systems, and will cause some initial flocculation of claybased systems and generally affect rheological properties. This means that
material will have to be added to the system to counteract the effects of the salt.
This will make the system more expensive to maintain and will also increase the
cost of disposal once it is no longer required. The only treatments for chloride
contamination are dilution with fresh water, or switching the system to one of the
salt water systems.

Anhydrite
Calcium sulphate: anhydrite will readily dissociate in water to form free calcium
ions, which attach to the negatively charged clay particles, causing them to
flocculate (increase the viscosity). The system will lose pH as anhydrite content
goes up. This causes rheological stability problems and increases fluid loss to
the system. Anhydrite can be treated with soda ash to remove the excess
calcium and raise the pH.
42

Cement
The system is likely to pick up cement contamination during cementing
operations or when drilling out after a cement job. The effect of this is similar to
anhydrite with the exception that pH will be very high. For this reason, sodium
bicarbonate is used to lower the calcium levels and to lower the hydroxyl ion
(lower pH). If only the viscosity is a problem, a thinner may be used to disperse
the system.

Exercise Five
1. How does the treatment for anhydrite and cement contamination differ?
2. What problems can unwanted solids cause in drilling fluid systems?

43

OBJECTIVE SIX
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Describe the physical properties of mud.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:
1. Read the learning material.
2. Complete Exercise Six.

Learning Material
Drilling Fluid Physical Properties
The selection and use of drilling fluids requires an understanding of the physical
properties associated with the fluid. These properties may directly affect the
rheology (the flow properties) of the drilling fluid in several different ways. How
they affect the fluids rheological properties is best measured using a direct
reading viscometer at shear rates that approximate the shear expected down
hole (that is, 600 and 300 rpm for water-based drilling fluids), primarily through
the bit nozzles.
The physical properties are described below and the measurement methods are
introduced. Detailed descriptions of the equipment used and the rig and
laboratory procedures followed are described in more detail in the next module.

Density
Density is the weight in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) of the fluid. As a
reference, fresh water has a density of 1000 kg/m3. Drilling fluid densities vary
according to the amount of additives suspended in them: OBM may have a
density of 850-890 kg/m3 while most water-based fluids start around 1030 kg/m3.
As you continue to drill, the drill cuttings are ground progressively smaller and
built up in the drilling fluid, increasing the density, in many cases as high as 1250
kg/m3. If required, fluid density may be increased through the addition of
weighting materials (barite, hematite and galena) and decreased through the use
of efficient solids control equipment (primarily a centrifuge). Density is measured
routinely at the rig and in the laboratory using a mud balance.

44

Funnel Viscosity
The Marsh funnel is a relatively simple, unsophisticated instrument used to
measure the consistency of the drilling fluid, primarily at the rig. It provides a
comparative measure of the fluid consistency from one sample to another,
provided the same funnel is used. Marsh funnels have specific dimensions. The
funnel viscosity is the time one litre of the fluid takes to flow from the funnel,
which holds approximately 1 L, in s/L (seconds per litre).

Plastic Viscosity
The majority of oilfield drilling fluids behave as a Bingham plastic that is, a fluid
in which the shear stress (the applied force to move the fluid) is directly
proportional to the shear rate (the speed at which the fluid moves). A plot of
shear stress and shear rate does not, however, go through the zero point. A finite
amount of stress is required to initiate shear or movement.
One of the parameters of the Bingham plastic rheological model is the plastic
viscosity (PV). The PV is the slope of the shear stress/shear rate line above the
yield point once the fluid is moving. The PV represents the viscosity of a mud
when extrapolated to infinite shear rate on the basis of the mathematics of the
Bingham model.
A low PV indicates that the mud is capable of drilling rapidly because of the low
viscosity of mud exiting at the bit. This allows the fluid to fracture the formation
below the bit, and assists in moving the cuttings from under the bit. A high PV is
caused by a viscous base fluid and by excess colloidal solids. To lower the PV, a
reduction in solids content can be achieved by dilution of the mud. The PV gives
an indication of the amount and nature of solids within the drilling fluid. Polar
solids, such as colloidal clays, contribute to higher PV.
The PV is determined from readings taken on a direct reading rotating
viscometer. These viscometers are calibrated such that the slope of the shear
stress/shear rate curve is the difference between the reading at 600 rpm and the
reading at 300 rpm: that is,
PV = 600 300

Direct reading viscometers give a PV in centipoise (cP). In SI units, one cP is

equal to 1 mPas.

Yield Point
Yield point (YP) is the shear stress required to initiate fluid movement. The YP is
used to evaluate the ability of a mud to lift cuttings out of the annulus. A high YP
implies a non-Newtonian fluid, one that carries cuttings better than a fluid of
similar density but lower YP. The YP is lowered by adding deflocculant to a gel45

chem or clay-based mud, and increased by adding freshly dispersed clay or a

flocculant, such as lime.
It is also determined from readings taken from a direct reading viscometer and
YP is the reading at 300 rpm the PV.
In SI units, the YP is in pascals (Pa).
YP = (300 PV)/2

Gel Strength
The gel strength of a drilling fluid gives an indication of the suspension ability of
the drilling fluid. That is, the ability of the fluid to hold solids suspended during
periods of non-circulation. It is important to note that many high viscosity fluids
have a low gel strength.
Gel strength is a static property of the drilling fluid, which is measured with a
moving, rotating viscometer. In the API approved procedure, the fluid is stirred to
ensure any solids are fully suspended and allowed to sit. After 10 seconds, the
viscometer is turned on at its lowest value (3 rpm) and the peak reading taken.
The drilling fluid is then left undisturbed for ten minutes and the viscometer
turned on again at 3 rpm, with the maximum reading being the 10-minute gel
strength.

Fluid Loss
As you drill a well, a filter cake is formed wherever there is permeability that
allows the liquid continuous phase of the drilling fluid to filter through to some
extent. The fluid that filters through (the filtrate) may lead to formation damage
and difficulties in interpreting well logs.
Drilling personnel would like to determine the amount of this filtrate, but since it
takes place several thousand metres below the surface under conditions that you
are not fully able to measure, you cannot. You approximate this fluid loss (the
amount of filtrate) using an API filter press, which gives the amount of filtrate lost
in 30 minutes from the cell with 100 psi (690 kPa) pressure differential. The
amount of filtrate will depend upon the amount and gradation of solids present in
the drilling fluid. Solids that are larger than the filter paper openings will not pass
the filter paper, and thus will build up until fluid can no longer pass through the
filter cake formed. Fluid loss is measured in cm3/30 minutes.

Filter Cake
The thickness of the filter cake formed during the fluid loss test is measured in
mm. The ideal filter cake is one that is less than 3/32nds of an inch (2 mm) thick
while being tight and pliable. A thick, fluffy filter cake is an indication of high fluid
loss, but also hints at possible hole problems. Drill pipe is more likely to become
stuck with this type of filter cake.
46

Sand Content
A 200 mesh sieve is used with a calibrated glass tube to determine the
percentage of sand in the fluid. Sand is an undesirable contaminant that should
be kept as low as possible through the use of solids control equipment.

Solids/Oil Content
A known quantity of drilling fluid is heated in a retort chamber to determine the
percentage of solids, water and oil present. It is desirable to keep solids as low
as possible since excess solids will raise the density and slow the ROP.

Electro Stability
Viscosity in an OBM is determined by the size of the water droplets in the
emulsion and how well they can be kept apart (prevented from coalescing). The
measurement is used to provide an indication of the tightness (stability) of the
emulsion in invert emulsion drilling fluids. The higher the resistance reading, the
more stable the emulsion.

Exercise Six
1. Explain the difference between yield and yield point (YP) as it applies to drilling
fluids.

2. Why is it desirable to keep the filter cake thin?

47

OBJECTIVE SEVEN
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Describe the chemical properties of mud.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:
1. Read the learning material.
2. Complete Exercise Seven.

Learning Material
Drilling Fluid Chemical Properties
Physical properties are generally determined by the additives in the drilling fluid,
and are measured using mechanical devices. Chemical properties are
determined by the chemicals dissolved in the drilling fluid, and are determined
using titration and other chemical tests. Knowledge of both the physical and
chemical properties is needed to design a drilling fluid that will perform all the
required functions.
The chemical properties of drilling fluids are explained below.

pH
-

pH is a measurement of the concentration of H ions in the drilling fluid. Fresh

water is regarded as neutral and should have a pH of 7. A pH over 7 is basic and
a pH under 7 is acidic.
All WBMs should have the pH maintained in the basic range, preferably between
10.5 and 11.5, as this aids in the prevention of corrosion and in maintaining
stable rheology. Additionally the majority of additives and chemicals are designed
to work most efficiently in this range. pH is generally measured in the field using
litmus paper and in the laboratory using a pH meter. The test may be conducted
using whole drilling mud or filtrate water.
pH is relatively simple to measure and should be determined whenever the fluid
is tested.

Chlorides
This test measures the amount of soluble chlorides (from sodium chloride,
calcium chloride and potassium chloride), and is required in Alberta for disposal
of whole mud where the amounts of chloride that have been added to the mud
approach the disposal limits.
48

The determination of the amount of chlorides in the drilling fluid (in ppm) is a
laboratory titration test using silver nitrate (AgNO3) with potassium chromate as
an indicator. For the test to work effectively, the pH of the filtrate must be close to
neutral (a pH of 7). Basic fluids are usually neutralized using sulphuric acid.

Total Hardness
Hardness is a function of the total soluble calcium and magnesium ions in the
mud. The filtrate is titrated with 0.02 N versenate (EDTA) and an indicator (it
turns blue), allowing the total concentration of Ca++ and Mg ++ in the drilling fluid
to be calculated. It is also possible to determine the hardness from Ca++ and, by
subtraction, the hardness from magnesium.
In most cases, only a total hardness is measured. Note that hardness tests
measure several metal ions simultaneously (calcium, magnesium, lead, iron,
zinc, aluminum and manganese), but are normally reported as calcium and
magnesium as the concentrations of the others are usually negligible.

Alkalinity
This is the concentration of OH, HCO3 and CO3 ions in the drilling fluid. Since high
concentrations of carbonates can cause instability in the rheological properties it
is desirable to treat the system before concentrations reach critical levels.

Exercise Seven
1. For each of the following, determine if the property is physical or chemical:
a. pH
b. PV
c. YP
d. Alkalinity

49

OBJECTIVE EIGHT
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Test drilling fluid properties using API testing procedures.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:
1. Read sections 3.7-3.7.3 and 3.7.5-3.7.6 of Mitchell and Miska textbook.
2. Complete the Water-Based Mud Lab. See Lab manual for all of the details.

50

References
Mitchell, R., & Miska, S. (2011). Fundamentals of Drilling Engineering, SPE
Textbook Series No. 12. Society of Petroleum Engineers.

51

Course Module

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