High Efficiency Pulse Operated Thermo-Electric

Generator used to Power Electric Cars

Marin NEDELCU
Abstract
This paper propose a new thermo-electric generator and customized operating regime yielding significant
improvements in power/volume, cost/performance and energy efficiency over conventional limitations of
traditionally thermo-electric devices. Our new devices are based on traditionally thermo-electric materials and a
new and revolutionary design of thermo-electric unit and pulse (Non Steady-State) operation. For car needs we
propose a green technology heating using gas or liquid fuels for heating and air or liquid for cooling. Being a DC
power source this TEG can be connected in series to increase the voltage in agreement with car needs or can
be used a special DC-AC up converter to convert DC low voltage - high current power source into AC high
voltage low current power source.
Keywords: thermo-electric generator, high efficiency, pulse operation, green source, electric cars

1. Introduction
A thermo-electric power generator (TEG)
is a solid state device that provides direct
energy conversion from thermal energy
(heat) due to a temperature gradient into
electric energy based on Seebeck effect.
The thermo-electric power cycle, with charge
carriers (electrons) serving as the working
fluid, follows the fundamental laws of
thermodynamics and intimately resembles
the power cycle of a conventional heat
engine. Thermo-electric power generators
offer several distinct advantages over other
technologies [1-4]: they are extremely
reliable (typically exceed 100,000 hours of
steady-state operation) and silent in
operation, since they have no mechanical
moving parts and require a considerably less
maintenance; they are simple, compact and
safe; they have very small size and virtually
weightless; they are capable of operating at
elevated temperatures; they are suited for
small-scale and remote applications typical
of rural power supply, where there is limited
or no electricity; they are environmentally
friendly; they are not position-dependent;
and they are flexible power sources.
The major drawback of thermo-electric
power generators is their relatively low
conversion efficiency (typically ~5 % [5]). In
general, the cost of a thermo-electric power
generator essentially consists of the device

Marin NEDELCU: PhD, Pulseteg, str. Dumbrava nou, nr.

18, Bucureti, Romnia, mznedelcu2002@yahoo.com

cost and the operating cost. The operating

cost is governed by the conversion efficiency
generator, while the device cost is
determined by the cost of its construction to
produce the desired electric power output[1].
Since the conversion efficiency of a module
is comparatively low, the thermo-electric
generation using waste heat energy is an
ideal application. In this case, the operating
cost is negligible compared to the module
cost because the energy input (fuel) cost is
cheap or free. Therefore, an important
objective in thermo-electric power generation
using waste heat energy is to reduce the
cost-per-watt of the devices. Moreover, costper-watt can be reduced by optimising the
device geometry, improving the manufacture
quality and simply by operating the device at
a large temperature difference [1].
2. Basic theory of a TEG
The basic theory and operation of thermoelectric based systems have been developed
for many years.
The thermo-electric power generation is
based on a phenomenon called Seebeck
effect discovered by Thomas Seebeck in
1821 [1].
When a temperature difference is
established between the hot and cold
junctions of two dissimilar materials (metals
or semiconductors), a voltage is generated,
i.e., Seebeck voltage. In fact, this
phenomenon is applied to thermocouples
that are extensively used for temperature
measurements.

ELECTROTEHNIC, ELECTRONIC, AUTOMATIC, 60 (2012), nr. 4

63

Based on this Seebeck effect, the thermoelectric devices can act as an electric power
generator.
A schematic diagram of a simple thermoelectric power generator operating based on
Seebeck effect is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram showing components

and arrangement of a typical single-stage
thermo-electric power generator

The figure-of-merit Z for the thermoelectric devices is defined as:

(1)

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the basic

concept of a simple thermo-electric power
generator operating based on Seebeck
effect

As shown in Figure 1, the heat is

transferred at a rate of HQ from a hightemperature heat source maintained at TH to
the hot junction, and it is rejected at a rate of
LQ to a low-temperature sink maintained at
TL from the cold junction.
Based on Seebeck effect, the heat
supplied at the hot junction causes an
electric current to flow in the circuit and
electric power is produced. Using the firstlaw of thermodynamics (energy conservation
principle) the difference between HQ and LQ
is the electric power output eW. It should be
noted that this power cycle intimately
resembles the power cycle of a heat engine
(Carnot engine), thus, in this respect, a
thermo-electric power generator can be
considered as a unique heat engine [11].
3. Performance of the thermo-electric
power
3.1. Figure-of-merit
A
schematic
diagram
showing
components and arrangement of a typical
single-stage thermo-electric power generator
is shown in Figure 2.

where is the electric conductivity, is the

thermal conductivity, and S is the Seebeck
coefficient.
The dimensionless figure-of-merit ZT is
formed by multiplying Z with the average
temperature.
(2)

A greater ZT indicates a greater

thermodynamic efficiency, subject to certain
provisions, particularly that the two materials
in the couple have similar Z.
ZT is therefore a method for comparing
the potential efficiency of devices using
different materials.
Values of 1 are considered good; values
in the 3-4 range are essential for thermoelectric to compete with mechanical devices
in efficiency.
To date, the best reported ZT values are
in the 3-4 range.
Currently, this goal of high ZT values is
referred to as: "high figure-of-merit" [6][7][8].
Meny research in thermo-electric materials
have focused on increasing S and reducing
by manipulating the nanostructure of the
materials
3.2. Device efficiency
The efficiency of a thermo-electric device
for electricity generation is given by
defined as:

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ELECTROTEHNIC, ELECTRONIC, AUTOMATIC, 60 (2012), nr. 4

relevant to waste heat energy is shown in

Figure 3 [13].
The maximum efficiency max is defined as
(3)

where TH is the temperature at the hot

junction and TC is the temperature at the
is the modified
cooled surface. Z T
dimensionless figure-of-merit, which takes
into consideration the thermo-electric
capacity of both thermo-electric materials
being used in the device and is defined as:
(4)

where is the electric resistivity, T is the

average temperature among the hot and
cold surfaces and the subscripts n and
denote properties related to the n- and type
semiconducting
thermo-electric
materials, respectively. Since the thermoelectric devices are heat engines, their
efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency,
hence the TH and TC terms in max .
Regardless,
the
coefficient
of
performance of the current commercial
thermo-electric refrigerators ranges from 0.3
to 0.6, one-sixth the value of traditional
vapor-compression refrigerators. [9,10]
4. Thermo-electric materials for power
generators
Among the vast number of materials
known to date, only a relatively few are
identified as thermo-electric materials.
As reported by Rowe [13], the thermoelectric materials can be categorized into
established (conventional) and new (novel)
materials, which will be discussed in the next
sections.
Today's most thermo-electric materials,
as Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te3)-based alloys
and PbTe-based alloys, have a ZT value of
around unity (at room temperature for
Bi2Te3 and 500-700K for PbTe). However,
at a ZT of 2-3 range, thermo-electric power
generators would become competitive with
other power generation systems [12,14].
The figure-of-merit Z of a number of
thermo-electric materials together with
potential power generating applications

Figure. 3, Conversion efficiency as a function of temperature and module material figure-ofmerit [13]

The effective thermo-electric materials

should have a low thermal conductivity but a
high electric conductivity. A large amount of
research in thermo-electric materials has
focused on increasing the Seebeck
coefficient and reducing the thermal
conductivity, especially, by manipulating the
nanostructure
of
the
thermo-electric
materials.
For the reason that the thermal and
electric conductivity correlate with the charge
carriers, new means must be introduced in
order to conciliate the contradiction between
high electric conductivity and low thermal
conductivity as indicated by Weiling and
Shantung [14].
4.1. Conventional thermo-electric materials
Rowe [13] reported that the established
thermo-electric materials (those which are
employed in commercial applications) can be
conveniently divided into three groupings
based on the temperature range of
operation, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Figure-of-merit of a number of thermoelectric materials and their potential

applications [13]

ELECTROTEHNIC, ELECTRONIC, AUTOMATIC, 60 (2012), nr. 4

Alloys based on Bismuth (Bi) in

combinations with Antimony (An), Tellurium
(Te) or Selenium (Se) are referred to as low
temperature materials and can be used at
temperatures up to around 450K.
The intermediate temperature range up to
850 K is the regime of materials based on
alloys of Lead (Pb) while thermoelements
employed at the highest temperatures are
fabricated from SiGe alloys and operate up
to 1300 K.
Although the above mentioned materials
still remain the cornerstone for commercial
and practical applications in thermo-electric
power generation. Significant advances have
been made in synthesising new materials
and fabricating material structures with
improved thermo-electric performance.
Efforts have been primarily focused on
improving the figure-of-merit material, and
hence the conversion efficiency, by reducing
the lattice thermal conductivity [13]. The
performances of TEGs are largely affected
by the features of materials used. Hence, the
selection and combination of TE materials is
vital for the design of a good TEG. It is
necessary to examine and compare the
existing families of TE materials.
Chalcogenides material family is main
contributor to TEGs, among them bismuth
telluride (Bi2Te3) and its alloys are very
good TE materials below room temperature.
Bi2Te3 can be alloyed with Sb2Te3 or
Bi2Se3 so as to considerably reduce thermal
conductivity.
However, since tellurium is scarce, toxic
and volatile at high temperatures, its usage
is limited. Lead telluride (PbTe) was found to
have good thermo-electric properties at
temperatures in the range of 300-700 K.
Similar thermo-electric materials such as
PbS
and
PbSe,
also
belong
to
chalcogenides system.
The alloy of silver antimony telluride
AgSbTe2
with
germanium
telluride
GeTe((AgSbTe2)1-x(GeTe)x,
commonly
referred to as TAGS was initially sought as a
replacement for p-type PbTe in applications
at higher temperatures such as radioisotope
TEGs for space power supplies.TAGS has
been successfully used in long-life thermoelectric generators [15]. SiGe alloys are
superior
materials
for
thermo-electric
generation and is typically used for both n-

65

and p-legs in high temperature (>900 K)

TEGs. However, the ZT of these materials is
fairly low, particularly for the p-type materials
[15].
Skutterudites (ReTm4M12) are complex
materials containing rare earth elements
(Re), transition metals (Tm) and metalloids
(M). Skutterudites have reduced thermal
conductivity due to rattling of the heavy rare
earth element within the loosely bound
lattice.
The ZT of skutterudite has been found to
be higher than unity at 700 K[16]. The first
improvement in the TEG architecture comes
with the concept of segmentation (or stack,
in some cases) of thermocouple[17].
In this concept, it is suggested that
thermocouples should be built with several
materials, with each material optimized for
the temperature range it is located.
With this design philosophy, the TEGs
could reach higher overall efficiencies than
those built with single material within each
leg. Design considerations of segmented
thermocouples are discussed in [16].
Main concerns are the compatibility of
materials
and
the
dimensioning
of
thermocouple elements.

Figure 5. Thermocouple configuration with

segmented legs [17].

5. Waste heat from exhaust gases

generated from automobiles:
applications
The utilization of waste heat energy from
exhaust gases in reciprocating internal
combustion engines (e.g. automobiles) is
another novel application of electricity
generation using thermo-electric power
generators.
Although, a reciprocating piston engine
converts the chemical energy available in

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ELECTROTEHNIC, ELECTRONIC, AUTOMATIC, 60 (2012), nr. 4

fossil fuels efficiently into mechanical work a

substantial amount of thermal energy is
dissipated to the environment through
exhaust gas, radiation, cooling water and
lubricating oils.
For example, in a gasoline powered
engine, approximately 30 % of the primary
gasoline fuel energy is dissipated as waste
heat energy in the exhaust gases (see
Figure 6).

Figure 7. The CAD model of the assembled ATEG in

GM pick-up truck project [19]

Figure 8. The Komatsu thermo-electric module [20]

6. Non conventional attempts to

improve the thermo-electric
efficiency

Figure 6 Typical energy path in gasoline fueled

internal combustion engine vehicles [19]

The waste heat energy discharged in the

exhaust gases from a typical passenger car
travelling at a regular speed is 20-30 kW [1].
A comprehensive theoretical study
concluded that a thermo-electric generator
powered by exhaust heat could meet the
electric requirements of a medium sized
automobile [18], and It was reported that
among the established thermo-electric
materials, those modules based on PbTe
technology were the most suitable for
converting waste heat energy from
automobiles into electric power.
Widescale applications of thermo-electrics
in the automobile industry would lead to
some reductions in fuel consumption, and
thus environmental global warming, but this
technology is not yet proven [19] (see Figure
7 and Figure 8).

If the theoretical efficiency is not limited

from thermodynamic point of view (Carnot
cycle) [21], the thermo-electric generators
traditionally manufactured and steady-state
operated (i.e., substantially continuous) have
the maximum efficiency around 5 % for a
deltaT~200C. Thus, a substantial increase of
delivered electric power or efficiency cannot
be expected from traditionally manufactured
and steady-state operated thermo-electric
devices except in circumstances wherein a
particular thermo-electric material with figure
of merit ZT >> 1 will be developed.
In the last two decades, several scientists
proposed thermo-electric materials of
dimensions smaller than their effective
cooling lengths, as being capable of
demonstrating enhanced thermo-electric
properties [22,23]. Loginov and Gurevich
[24,25] demonstrated that the interaction
between electrons and phonons decreases,
when the hot side of a sample is subject to
heat pulses over a certain frequency range.
Side interaction constitutes the extra
source of heating in traditional bulkdimensioned thermo-electric materials. As
result, the thermal lattice conductivity
decreases.
Connected with Gurevichs work, Ghoshal
[26] claims a decrease in thermal

ELECTROTEHNIC, ELECTRONIC, AUTOMATIC, 60 (2012), nr. 4

conductivity by thermal contact switching, as

by employing a MEMS device.
7. Original contribution: the non
steady-state (pulse) operated TEGs
The non steady-state TEGs is based on
our original theoretical and experimental
works and the results of developing of non
steady state operation [27, 28, 29]
From theoretical point of view, the pulse
operation of thermo-electric devices is a
potentially elegant way of obtaining the
performance of super-lattices without having
to manufacture them.
We showed an ultra-fast process in which
we can obtain increased thermo-electric
performance by minimizing the thermal
dissipation.
The theoretical efficiency, , of a thermoelectric device designed in agreement with
the parameters of our pulse operating
regime can be very close with Carnot
efficiency. This increase in efficiency
accompanies the decrease of thermal
conduction and heat dissipation produced in
pulse operation.
Technical
barriers
of
decreased
conversion efficiency met in traditional
thermo-electric generators will be lifted by
ultra-fast electric pulses transfer in a
magnetic field, this idea representing a new
and revolutionary concept on thermo-electric
devices manufacturing and customized
operating regime.
As heat source any heating technology
using gas, liquid or solid fuel, isotopic
heating source or sun concentrators etc. can
be used
In our theoretical papers, Pulsed thermoelectricity [29] the authors theoretically
investigate the possibilities of pulse
operation of thermo-electric devices. We
describe a new type of thermo-electric
transport
that
is
macroscopic
nonequilibrium, fast, transient regime transport
which diminishes the effects of thermal
diffusion.
We theoretically stated that depending on
intrinsic physical parameters of used
semiconductors there is a minimum
frequency operation where the effects of
thermal diffusion start to diminish and a
maximum frequency at which the diminishing
is too small to be taken into consideration.

67

So, it is described a thermo-electric

machine that can work reversible as thermoelectric generator or thermo-electric cooler
using the thermo-electric element not as a
classical power supply having an internal
resistance, Ri, but as a kind of thermal high
frequency charging condenser.
Figure 9 was obtained by experimental
investigation the dependence of delivered
electric power with frequency is in good
agreement with the theory.

Figure 9. Frequency dependence of electric power

for a pulse-operated thermo-electric
source, duty cycle D = 0.5. Delta T =
70C. RL = 0.08 ohms. The left-most
point on the graph corresponds to DC
operation

Preliminary results of our non steadystate experiments show:

1. The new operating technique, that we
developed, allows us to overcome
the
intrinsic
limitations
of
conventional thermo-electric devices
as applied in series or parallel to
obtain higher output voltages or
currents.
2. The benefit lies in our ability to obtain
maximum power, even when load
resistance is less than the internal
resistance of a device (such as a DC
motor) connected in series.
3. The duty cycle D = ton/T yields the
maximum electric power at a
specified frequency less than f0 is D
~ RL//Ri..
4. By tuning the duty cycle and pulse
frequency, we are able to obtain
power at the same level as the
maximum available from the same
thermo-electric
assembly
when
normally operated in steady state
with the external load resistance
equal to the internal resistance,
RL = Ri.
5. At pulse frequencies higher than a

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ELECTROTEHNIC, ELECTRONIC, AUTOMATIC, 60 (2012), nr. 4

minimum (f0), the interaction between

the electron and phonon subsystems
starts to diminish, and the electric
power becomes greater than the
maximum electric power delivered by
the same thermo-electric device in
steady state operation. However, this
effect is at a minimum in devices of
conventional design and materials.
6. At much higher frequencies, f1, the
incremental increase in electric
power with increasing frequency
declines as near-completion of
electron-phonon
decoupling
is
approached.
It is concluded that the experimental
observations herein reported demonstrate
excellent agreement with our theoretical
conclusions.
Taken together, they form the basis of our
design process for new thermo-electric
generators expected to yield higher power
and higher thermal conversion efficiency
than conventional generators or those in a
steady state operating regime.
8. Some comments on thermo-electric
generators design able to be non
steady-state operated
For simplicity, we consider a thermoelectric generator made from a single TE
material N or P between 2 copper paddles,
one being heated and the other being cooled
(see Figure 10 and Figure 11).

As we can see from equation (5), the

maximum electric power obtained from it is
multiplied with power factor, Pf, of the TE
material (depending of intrinsic material
properties) multiplied with dimensional
factor, Df, (depending on ratio area/thickness
of TE material), and T (by this parameter
the maximum electric power depend on
Carnot efficiency and thermal conductivity.
2
2
2
Pmax = V = (T) = 1 A(T)2 = 1 P D (T)2 (5)
f f
l 4 l
4
4Ri
4
A

where:
Pmax = maximum electric power,
obtained from a TE generator,
V = voltage,
I = current,
Ri = internal resistance of TEG,
= Seebeck coefficient of TE
material,
= resistivity of TE material,
l = thickness of TE material,
A = cross sectional area of TE
material,
Pf = 2 = power factor of TE
material,
Df = A/l = dimensional factor of TE
material,
T = temperature gradient = Thot
Tcold,
Depending on the operation regime, we
can have 2 different situations:
a. steady-state operation (a traditionally
one). If we need maximum power, we must
fulfill the following condition:

DN
=
DP

Figure 10 . Thermo-electric N and P slices

(6)

If we need maximum TE efficiency, we

must fulfill the following condition:

DN
=
DP

Figure 11. N and P type thermo-electric slices

between hot and cold copper paddles

N
P

N
P

kP
kN

(7)

So, for the steady-state operation with

suitable dimensional factor, we can have the
electric power delivered by a traditional TEG
(max efficiency around 5 % for a T = 200C)
When we need more electric power in
agreement with the equations (6) and (7), we
must accept a compromise in TE efficiency.
A dimensional factor much more different of

ELECTROTEHNIC, ELECTRONIC, AUTOMATIC, 60 (2012), nr. 4

the traditional used technology will give very

low TE efficiency.
b. non steady-state operation (our theory
and experiments).
The main conclusion of our theory is that
in non steady-state operation, we can
manipulate the thermal conductivity by
physical means, so as to improve the
thermo-electric efficiency (sometime, great
improvement) so, by NSS TE operation, we
can use a greater power factor to increase
the delivered power without having
decreasing in thermo-electric efficiency.
Usually, we are working with a
dimensional factor Df = 200-400, and we can
keep the efficiency more that 5 % (even
>10 %) by a special high frequency electricly
switching.
Multiplying the electric power obtained
with traditional TE generators made by
planar technology, we can explain, why the
NSS TE generator can supply us this great
electric power. The improvement of NSS TE
operation is to obtain simultaneously a high
electric power and good efficiency.

69

P = V / 4Rload

have no relevance.
In this NSS operation P = 1/2LI2, L being
electromagnetic inductance of TE unit
including the primar of up converter. For this
issue, we need very high currents, and to
obtain them, we need much more A/h ratio
TE slices.
10. The NSS (Non Steady-State)
thermo-electric generator (TEG) has
four important parts
The four important parts of the NSS (Non
Steady-State) thermo-electric generator
(TEG) are:
1.Thermo-electric unit: made from 40-60
hot paddles, 40-60 N and P thermo-electric
material slices and 44-64 cold paddles
assembled together to give minimum 2 V
open circuit (usually, 3 V) (see Figure 12).

9. NSS TE generator design

Traditionally thermo-electric modules
work in steady-state, namely, they are
continuously operated. In this case, the
Joule effect and the Peltier effect are
predominant and the maximum electric
power obtained is P = V2/ 4Rload.
That is the explanation of the very low
efficiency, not more that 5 %. On the market,
at this moment, the maximum power
obtained from a single TE module
continuously operated is around 37 W
obtained for 230C T. For this reasons the
cost/W is more than 4dollars/installed power.
As we demonstrate in Beijing at ITC 2001,
the NSS operation allows much more electric
power/unit volume or weight, and, finally,
much more efficiency by avoiding Joule
effect and Peltier effect during the TE unit
working.
Basically, the high current-low voltage
obtained in DC TE unit is sent in an
electromagnetic unit (up converter) and by
interrupting with a given frequency of this
very high electromagnetic field we can obtain
DC higher voltage or AC domestic currentvoltage. In this case the formula

Figure 12 . A TE generator is assembled from four

similar parts

2. Heating unit: can be gas heater or

liquid heating unit with self-control of heating
power to keep hot temperature under a given
value function of used thermo-electric
materials.
3. Cooling unit: can be a liquid cooling, an
air cooling unit or heat pipes.
4. Up Converter: can convert 2 V DC or
more into 115/220 AC 60/50 Hz by pulse
operation. Basically, the design of this up
converter is based on topology, as described
in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Simplified topologies of isolating DC-DC

converter full-bridge transformer-isolated
boost converter [31]

ELECTROTEHNIC, ELECTRONIC, AUTOMATIC, 60 (2012), nr. 4

70
11. Conclusions

If the theoretical efficiency is not limited,

from the thermodynamic point of view, the
thermo-electric
generators
traditionally
manufactured and steady-state operated
(i.e., substantially continuous) have the
maximum efficiency around 5 % for a
T~200C.
Thus, a substantial increase of delivered
electric power or efficiency cannot be
expected from traditionally manufactured
and steady-state operated thermo-electric
devices except in circumstances where, in a
particular thermo-electric material with
figure-of-merit ZT >> 1 will be developed.
We theoretically and experimentally
developed a new pulse operation technique
(non steady-state), in which we can
manipulate the thermal conductivity by
physical means, to improve the thermoelectric efficiency.
By NSS TE operation, we can use a
greater power factor to increase the
delivered power without having decreasing in
thermo-electric efficiency. Usually, we are
working with a dimensional factor Df > 200
and, by non steady-state, we can obtain
thermo-electric efficiency more than 5 %
(even >10 %) by a special high frequency
electricly switching. These power sources
can be designed to cover electric power
needs from some watts to many kilowatts.
12. Acknowledgment
This work was financially supported by
the SC PULSETEG SRL (Romania)
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Modules Developed In-house, obtained the
6th of February 2011 at O. Luste
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[21] D. Hicks and M.S. Dresselhaus, Phys. Rev.;

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47, 16631 (1993)].

[22] G.N. Loginov, J. of Thermo-electricity; 4, 510, (1996).
[23] [Yu.G. Gurevich & all., J. of Thermoelectricity, 1, 33-37, 1999)
[24] U.S. Ghoshal, US patent 6,429,137 (2002)
[25] M. Apostol, M. Nedelcu, Ultrafast thermoelectric conduction, IEEE Proc. 20th Int.
Conf. Thermo-electricity, Beijing, China
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[26] Reversibile power supply cooling machine
(USA
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[28] Robert W. Erickson and Dragan Maksimovic,
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71

York, 2004

14. Biography
Marin NEDELCU was born in
Nenciulesti,
Jud.
Teleorman
(Romania), on April 10, 1957.
He graduated the Bucharest
University (Romania), Faculty of
Chemistry in 1981.
He received the PhD degree in electrochemistry
from the Politehnic University of Bucharest
(Romania), in 2000.
He was Senior Scientist at the National Institute
for Physics and Technology of Materials,
Magurele, (Romania).
His research interests concern: Thermo-electrics,
high power converters, electrochemistry, new and
renouble energy sources