From the dendrogram in Example 23-3 read off the distances between all possible pairs

of samples (for example, the dendrogram distance between I and VI is 2.58). Make a
table of these dendrogram distances.
Make tables for the dendrogram distances based on smallest distances and largest
distances as well.
Compare these three tables with the original distance table on which the dendrograms
are based. Which table compares most closely?

Using the table of sample means of characters X and Y which we have calculated for
samples I, II,
VI of Exercise 23.B.1., punch the
means of sample I on an IBM card. Place the decimal point for character X in column 5
and the decimal point for character Y in column 10. (If you have not used a
keypunch before, you will find it works very much like a typewriter. First
experiment with the "Feed," "Register," "Release," and "Duplicate" keys. You will
quickly get the knack of simple keypunching). Place the means for samples II
through VI on separate cards, being sure to place the decimal points in the proper
columns.
Locate a program for computing principal components (SAS is suggested), punch the
necessary control cards, and run the program.
Call the principal components W and Z, respectively. Calculate the means of W and Z and
their variances. Which is more variable? If W has not been standardized,
standardize it.
From the standardized values of W, calculate the distances between the sample means I,
II, III, IV, V, and VI. Compare these distances to those obtained earlier in
Example 23-2.
Punch, as in Exercise 23.F.1., values of X and Y for each member of samples I, II, ...,
VI of Example 23-1. The values of X and Y for the first individual go on the first
card, etc., as before. Be certain the decimal points are in the cqlumns specified
in the previous exercise.
Using the UCLA Biomed program titled "Stepwise Multiple Discriminant Function Analysis"
or some other program which does canonical variate analysis (not the same as
canonical correlation analysis), punch the necessary control cards and run the
program. Be sure to get your output plotted if possible. Experiment with the
various options your program permits. How do the plotted distances compare with
those previously calculated? (You may have to plot the means yourself if you use a
program other than the one suggested).
Study the entire output of your program. Note the points which you cannot understand.
Consult a statistician or numerical taxonomist to clarify those points.

author in several major herbaria and from publications by competent authorities.

Do not base distribution on general ranges given in manuals.
These geographic instructions do not cover all distribution possibilities
so each author is enjoined to be consistent in describing his range exceptions.
II. ECOLOGYHABITATS
A.

Notes

Designation of frequency or density should not be used unless author is

entirely confident of statements such as rare, infrequent, common, abundant.
Endemism should be stated where certain, e.g., Shortia galacifolia, endemic
to BR of Ga, SC, NC.
Specific habitats should be used for highly localized species when definitely known: i.e., Sand dunes (Uniola paniculata), Shale barrens (Oenothera

argillicola), Limestone or dolomite outcrops (Asplenium resiliens), Hammocks (Clusia flava), etc.
Section E. SYNONYMY
Synonyms are to be included only when the names employed in the Flora of the SE differs
from those used in the recant manuals of the Eastern United States. These recent manuals and
their abbreviations are in chronological order by author:
S J. K. Small. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. 1933.
F

M. L. Fernald. Gray's Manual of Botany, 8th edition. 1950.

H. A. Gleason and A. Cronquist. Manual of the Vascular Plants of

the Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. 1963.

R A. E. Radford, H. E. Ahles and C. R. Bell. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the

Carolinas. 1968.
A)
Previous segregates accepted in the above recent manuals but not by the contributor
should be listed as follows:
(Under Cassia nictitans L.)
"Incl. Chamaecrista multipinnata (Pollard) GreeneS; Cassia n. var. hebecarpa Fernald, Ch n.
var. leiocarpa FernaldF, G."
B)
Taxa previouslyincluded as synonyms in the above recent manuals but regarded as
distinct by the contributor should be listed in synonymy as follows:
(Under Desmodium nuttallii (Schindler) Schubert)
". . .Meibomia viridiflora (Nuttall) KuntzeS, in part; D. viridiflorum (L.) DC.G, in
part."
(Under Cassia obtusifolia L.)
". . .Emelista tora (L.) Britton & RoseS; C^. tora L.F, G."
C)

Taxa previously passing under the name of other taxa should be indicated as follows:

(Under Amorpha georgiana Wilbur)

"A. cyanostachya Curtissensu S, not Curtis"
(Under Aeschynomene indica L.)
"A. virginica (L.) BSPsensu S, in large part."
(Under Sabatia stellaris Pursh)
"S_. campanulata (L.) Torreysensu S, in part."
D)

Obvious synonyms from the above recent manuals should be listed:

(Under Diamorpha smallii Britton)

"incl. D. cymosa (Nuttall) Britton ex SmallS, Sedum smallii (Britton) AhlesR."
(Under Psoralea lupinellus Michaux)
"Rhytidomene lupinellus (Michaux) RydbergS."
(Under Lotus helleri (Britton)
"Acmispon helleri (Britton) SmallS."
Note:

Synonymy is not as mechanically categorized as the above might indicate.

The above is meant merely as a tentative guide and the contributor is encouraged to convey the
facts accurately and concisely. Constributors are strongly urged to publish their nomenclatural
research in full elsewhere. Scholarship demands more than the legal minimum of the basionym.
Section F. VASCULAR FAMILIES OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES
(Selected)

Section G. TAXONOMIC PHILOSOPHY, CONCEPTS, POLICIES (From Shetler et al.

[1973] A Guide for Contributors to Flora North America [FNA] [Provisional Edition])
I. TAXONOMIC PHILOSOPHY
The Editorial Committee will encourage in principle a broad species concept and taxonomic
practices that promote stability in the taxonomy and nomenclature of North American plants. To
this end, it is expected that the authors will keep changes in rank to a minimum and make them
only after adequate taxonomic investigation and publication of the results in an appropriate
journal or monograph. Where current authorities offer a choice of rank for a particular taxon,
the author's decision should be made in the light of the taxon's variation throughout its whole
geographic range. Radical treatments involving excessive species-splitting or species-lumping
relative to past practice will be given the closest scrutiny by the Editorial Committee, and the
authors of such treatments must be prepared to defend them on objective grounds. In no
case will the pages of the Flora be open for publication of new taxa or new combinations. Such
publication should be done in the recognized journals, where appropriate evidence and
documentation can be presented.
II. TAXONOMIC CONCEPTS AND POLICIES
The contributor will define the limits of all taxa within the group he is treating, while
the Editorial Committee, in consultation with the specialists, will be responsible for delimiting
taxa of coordinate- or higher rank.

In practice, this means that in most cases the contributor will be responsible for the limits of
infrageneric taxa, mainly the species, and the Editorial Committee will be responsible for
setting the limits of genera and higher taxa. Contributors dealing with whole families naturally
will be responsible for delimiting all included genera. All decisions by contributors will be
subject to the usual editorial review.
The contributors and Editors should take into account all available evidencemorphological,
geographical, ecological, cytological, chemicalin delimiting genera and species, but the taxa so
recognized must be definable ultimately on a practical morphological basis.
A.
Genera. The Editorial Committee will strive to achieve a reasonably uniform generic concept
from group to group, but especially within families. Although there can be no fixed criteria for
delimiting genera, due consideration should be given to historical precedent and to the
importance of maintaining nomenclatural stability. Familiar genera should not be merged or split
on the basis of personal preference or other trivial grounds, but only on the basis of carefully
weighed new evidence that is documented fully in the literature. Furthermore, generic alignments
should be made in the light of treatments in Flora SSSR and Flora Europaea. For the sake of
advancing common understanding, every effort should be made to eliminate artificial generic
distinctions between the FNA and comparable European or Russian treatments of the same or closely
related species.
B.
Species. The FNA Manual above all is to be a practical work, and the primary units of the
Flora, the species, must be practical entitles with consistent, if small, morphological
distinctions. At the same time it is understood that no two species, notwithstanding their
equivalent rank, ever are equivalent in their origin, nature, and extent of evolutionary
differentiation. Even within genera the species, though definable by morphological criteria, will
illustrate differed! theoretical or evolutionary situations.
All available biosystematic evidence should be used in delineating species in the FNA treatments.
_Some examples of different kinds of species, viewed theoretically, that may be recognized in the
FNA Manual, as in Flora Europaea, are discussed in the Flora Europaea guidebook (Heywood 1958,
Appendix E). At least the following kinds of species may be recognized whenever the morphological
requirements can be met:
- Highly distinct, widely distributed plants with little variation.
- Species with different ploidy levels in which the levels are not
recognizable morphologically or in which the variation is so nearly continuous that
infraspecific taxa cannot be recognized.
- Species in which aneuploidy occurs, but in which the different chro
mosome numbers are not correlated with morphological features of the plants.
- Species distinguished by minor morphological characters, but which are
distinct ecologically from related species.
- Polymorphic species with morphologically definable subspecies or varie
ties .
- Polymorphic species in which clinal variation occurs and in which infra
specific taxa cannot be distinguished satisfactorily.
- Species that are widely separated and morphologically different from
related species with which they are highly interfertile.
- Asexually reproducing plants that are morphologically distinctive and

which occupy a significant geographical range.

All recognized species are to receive full and comparable treatment in accordance with the
FNA guidelines, and the Editors will not include any species in the Data Bank that are not
recognized clearly by the contributor himself on a coordinate basis with all other species
recognized by him. The recognition and treatment of microspecies is discouraged, although
microspecies may be grouped as complexes into broader species. In such cases, orthodox binomials
must be used for the broad species (e.g., Campanula rotundifolia L. _s._l. , not Campanula
rotundifolia complex), and the microspecies must be treated as taxonomic synonyms, not as a list
of included microspecies. To summarize, there can be only one level of species. Species may be
aggregated, however, to simplify keying or to show close similarities, provided that the
"aggregate," "group," or "complex" can be keyed out and diagnosed as a unit on a practical
morphological basis and can*serve, therefore, as a useful though informal supraspecific
category.
C.
Infraspecific Taxa. Only major infraspecific taxa that are morphologically definable
entities will be included in the FNA Manual. Either the category subspecies or the category
variety may be used, depending on the history and knowledge of the group, but both may not be
used in the same species. Furthermore, each contributor should use one Category or the other
consistently throughout the genus or other group that he is treating, except that individual
authors treating medium-sized or large families may be permitted to vary usage from genus to
genus if, in the Family Editor's judgment, such inconsistency is justified. The use of subspecies
is preferred, because in the Editorial Committee's view this is the more meaningful evolutionary
category, but historically the category variety has often been used in about the same sense. To
exclude varieties from the Flora would encourage wholesale publication of new combinations, a
result that in itself would not contribute to our knowledge of the given taxa and would be
contrary to the Committee's goal of promoting nomenclatural and taxonomic stability. The
Committee is attempting, therefore, to strike a balance in the use of subspecies and varieties
between total inconsistency and total but artificial uniformity, realizing that the guidelines
set forth here will cause a certain amount of recombination to bring about the required
consistency within groups. In general, the contributor should be guided insofar as possible by
existing knowledge and nomenclatural precedent.
In groups where subspecies are recognized, traditional varieties should be
altogether if they cannot be defended on good evolutionary grounds as subspecies.

dropped

The following kinds of taxonomic groups may be treated as subspecies or varieties in the Flora:
- geographically isolated populations that differ from one another by
fewer characters than do species of the same genus and can be
demonstrated to have some degree of interfertility.
- ecologically specialized populations, particularly with respect to
certain edaphic or climatic conditions, when there also is a morphological means of
distinctipn.
- cytological variants, if they have characteristic distribution patterns
and can be recognized by features other than chromosome number alone,
- chemical variants, with concomitant morphological and geographical or
ecological attributes.
A key to infraspecific taxa must be provided when either subspecies or varieties are recognized.
All formally recognized infraspecific taxa must be treated in the standard way, including full
description. Taxa that are not accepted by the author himself may not be included.
Any variation not meriting treatment at the subspecific or varietal level (e.g., clinal or local

ecotypic variation, minor variation in color or pubescence), is not to receive .formal recognition.
Specifically, the formal use of the category form will not be permitted. Informal comment on
infraspecific variation must be brief, germane, and without the haphazard use of such terms as
"cultivar," "form," "type," and "race"; otherwise, it will be pruned rigorously or eliminated.
D. Other Categories. Infrafamilial and infrageneric categories sanctioned by the International
Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN; Stafleu and Voss 1972) may be intercalated between family
and genus or between genus and species, respectively, provided they are formally described and
serve a useful purpose in the treatment. The judicious use of such categories is encouraged as a
means of subdividing large families and genera into more natural units, thereby making the
treatment of such a family or genus more useful as a systematic conspectus. Their use also allows
for more concise treatment, because characters that are common to a whole group of species or
genera can
be described under the appropriate infrageneric or infrafamilial category and can be omitted from
the descriptions of the individual species or genera. Excessive subdividing is discouraged,
however, because the treatments must remain practical. Generally, a single rank between family
and genus and between genus and species should be sufficient. Ordinarily, this will be subfamily
or tribe between family and genus, and subgenus or section between genus and species, depending
on traditional usage within the group.
The ranks subtribe, subsection, series, and, particularly, subseries should be used sparingly if
at all. Usually, the infrafamilial and infrageneric taxa will not be included in the keys.
Experimental categories, e.g., coenospecies, ecospecies, ecotype, deme, may not be used in the
formal nomenclature. Likewise, the term "cultivar" and other special terms in use for cultivated
plants will not be permitted as designations of formal categories. If essential to an understanding
of the contributor's treatment, the current biosystematic concept of the group may be summarized
tersely in pertinent experimental terminology under the section "Observations." Expansive
hypothetical discussions in relationships will be condensed to their essence or eliminated by the
Editors.
E.
Hybrids. Intergeneric and interspecific hybrids may be included in the Flora only when they are
common, self-propagating taxa worthy of treatment as ordinary genera or species. Such hybrids must be
given regular generic or binomial names prefixed by the multiplication sign (x), in accordance with
Appendix I of the ICBN. Formulas to express hybrid parentage, as provided by the ICBN, may not be used
in the formal nomenclature, but may be used sparingly in an explanation of the parentage under
"Observations" when such explanation is absolutely necessary.
The indiscriminate naming of hybrids is to be avoided, and in general the Editorial
Committee will permit the inclusion of designated hybrid taxa
only when their hybrid origin has
clearly represent entities in the
hybrids will be eliminated. If it
of hybridization may be explained

been thoroughly established and widely accepted and when such taxa
North American flora that must be recognized. Long lists of putative
is essential to an understanding of the group, then the significance
by simple comment under "Observations ."

F.
Apomicts. The taxonomy of groups in which apomixis occurs must be approached with special
caution. To attempt to describe or even mention all apomicts in such critical genera as Rubus and
Taraxacum is out of the question, and the Editors will not accept treatments in which apomictic
plants have been named and described indiscriminately. Insofar as is possible, apomicts should be
referred to their closest sexually-reproducing species. However, when an apomictic plant is widely
distributed and morphologically distinct on a constant basis, it may be treated as a species. If it
is essential to an understanding of the group, then the significance of apomixis may be discussed
briefly under "Observations," but without giving a long list of named apomicts.
G. Alien Species. The Editorial Committee will be guided by a liberal policy on the inclusion of
alien (introduced) species. Contributors will be given wide latitude to decide which species to
include, on the condition that all included aliens be incorporated into the key and described in

full.
Aliens that are thoroughly naturalized, as judged by the contributor, are to be included
automatically. These include not only weeds and accidental introductions but also garden plants that
have escaped and are propagating themselves well beyond the immediate vicinity of where they are
cultivated. In addition, imperfectly naturalized or casual aliens (adventives, waifs, escapes; i.e.,
aliens that apparently can propagate themselves in the wild, but which are not known to be spreading
nor to be long persisting without constant reintroduction) should be included when in the
contributor's opinion they are of special interest or are likely to be encountered frequently enough
in the flora to pose problems in identification. Even cultivated perennials (especially trees and
shrubs) may be included if they are species that often are found persisting untended in the wild in
stands or as individuals. Finally, there are taxonomic groups in which it may be desirable to treat
certain of the purely cultivated species because they are trees or crop plants that are planted or
cultivated in continuous stands or on an extensive scale. Cultivated plants, i.e., species that will
not reproduce in the wild or persist without tending
or management, should be included sparingly, however, and only when their inclusion serves a real
purpose. Any cultivated species that are included must be keyed and described in the usual manner.
H. Rare and Endangered Species. A special effort will be made to identify those taxa native to the
FNA territory which, on the basis of their entire worldwide range, are known or believed to be rare or
endangered or to have become extinct in the wild recently. In their treatments, contributors shou
include recently extinct species (e.g., Franklinia alatamaha), describing a ' -ji keying them, and also
should attempt to designate the rare and endangered species. Criteria for recognizing and classifying
rare and endangered species are given in a later section of the Guidebook. All introduced,
naturalized, and cultivated plants are to be excluded from consideration. A species that is rare or
endangered in one or two states, but is common elsewhere in its geographic range, does not qualify for
recognition in the FNA rare and endangered list. Primary attention is to be given to species that are
endemic to the FNA territory, especially if they are locally endemic or relict species.
A list of rare and endangered species is urgently needed for North America, but none has ever
been compiled on a continental basis.. The need for at least a national list for the United States has
been emphasized repeatedly by those who have prepared environmental impact statements and studies on
the location and preservation of natural areas and ecological preserves, and by concerned citizens and
conservation organizations. Preserving rare and endangered species has become a matter of policy at
national and international levels. The first step in doing so is to provide scientifically accurate
information. The designation of rare and endangered species is the subject of recent bills before the
U. S. Congress. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources is concerned
about endangered plants on an international level. Certain rare and endangered plants are being
considered for international protection to prevent their export and import. FNA is the appropriate
body to compile a scientifically authoritative list of endangered plants for the United States (less
Hawaii) and Canada. Persons concerned about endangered species on the state or local level are
encouraged to use the same criteria and classification scheme set forth for the FNA Data Bank. There
is a definite need for a hierarchy of lists of endangered species local, state, national, and
international.
I. Nature and Scope of Descriptions. All descriptions must be comparative as well as diagnostic. The
primary object of a flora is to provide a rapid means of correctly identifying the plants of some
specified region. For this reason descriptions in Floras usually include only the most diagnostic
characters of the plants treated. Because these characters differ greatly from group to group, the
descriptions in a Flora rarely are comparable from one family or genus to another or even among
species of the same genus.
The FNA Manual is intended to serve the usual purpose of a Flora, and, accordingly, it will
include only diagnostic descriptions, which must be as concise as is consistent with clarity and
utility. The FNA Data Bank is intended to serve the additional,'-critically important, new function of
correlation (comparison), made possible by the computer-based Information System in which the Data
Bank is maintained. Through the query language of the FNA System, it is possible to retrieve the data
in any of a virtually limitless array of permutations. Thus, simple to highly complex correlations of
morphological, ecological, geographical, and other parameters are possible within and among taxonomic

groups at the same or at different levels.

Reliable, meaningful correlation is possible, however, only when the descriptions are all
comparable in content, format, and terminology. Otherwise, the problems of missing data and
unstandardized formats and terms largely subvert retrieval strategy and make generalization from query
responses hazardous, if not impossible. Therefore, the Editorial Committee has defined a minimum set
of characters that are common to most vascular plants for which data must be supplied consistently and
comparatively in every
description by every contributor over the full range of. taxa treated, except where the characters
are not applicable. This common requirement is intended to guarantee some measure of comparability
and completeness in the FNA Data Bank from the outset.
Each contributor will be expected to provide data not only for all required
comparative characters, but also for those characters that he considers to be the most diagnostic
for the taxon in question, which often may not be among the required set. The guidelines for
description are to be followed for the diagnostic characters as well as for the comparative
characters. The full descriptions will be entered into the Data Bank and included with the
treatments when they are published individually, but only the diagnostic characters will be
printed in the concise Manual.
All descriptions are to be based on the diversity and variation of the taxa as they are
represented in the FNA territory. An exception is to be made only when this procedure would lead to a
distorted description of the taxon, because its FNA representatives are highly unrepresentative of the
taxon as a whole. If the diversity or variability found outside the FNA area is taken into
consideration, this should be indicated clearly, character by character. It is assumed that the need
for taking exception to the above rule will be minimal at the species level and will increase upward
through the hierarchy of taxonomic categories.
Chromosome Number is an optional character, to be given at the end of the morphological
description when reliable information can be supplied. Contributors are encouraged to include
chromosome number in their descriptions whenever possible, especially if number is taxonomically
important or critical. However, all counts must be verified in the primary sources and must be based
on material of known wild origin within the FNA territory. It is intended that in due course the FNA
Data Bank will become the central repository for authentic, critically evaluated information on the
chromosome numbers of North American plants. In the interest of producing the FNA Manual rapidly, however, available information on chromosome number is not being requested on a mandatory basis at this
stage, because of the extra effort that would be required of the contributors and Editors to search
out and verify the data.
An unverified FNA compilation would not add significantly to the secondary compilations of
chromosome numbers already available to botanists. It is the hope of the Editorial' Committee that
a separate effort to compile a complete file of documented chromosome numbers can be undertaken
N
once the FNA Manual is published, and sooner if possible.
The FNA Data Bank also is designed so that in the long run it can include comprehensive
ecological characterizations of the taxa. For the immediate purposes of the FNA Manual, however, the
ecological data will be restricted for practical reasons to characterizations of habitat preference
and flowering time. The contributor should provide a brief description of habitat and flowering time
for each taxon.
As a final note on description, it should be emphasized that these requirements apply to all taxa
at the level of family or below. Orders and higher taxa will not be described. The treatments are to
be comparable between taxa of different ranks as well as between taxa of the same rank. Furthermore,
each taxon should be described so as to encompass all of its subordinate taxa. T the maximum degree
possible, the computer will be used to check whether