Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
14
1.14.1
Tensor-valued Functions
ei e j
dt
dt
(1.14.1)
The derivative is also a tensor and the usual rules of differentiation apply,
d
T B dT dB
dt
dt
dt
d
(t )T dT d T
dt
dt
dt
d
Ta T da dT a
dt
dt dt
d
TB T dB dT B
dt
dt
dt
d T dT
T
dt
dt
d
dQ T
dQ T dQ T
dQ
QQ T
Q Q
Q Q
0
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
Thus, using Eqn. 1.10.3e
Q T Q Q
T Q
QT
Q
115
(1.14.2)
Kelly
Section 1.14
Q T is a skew-symmetric tensor.
which shows that Q
1.14.2
Vector Fields
The gradient of a scalar field and the divergence and curl of vector fields have been seen
in 1.6. Other important quantities are the gradient of vectors and higher order tensors
and the divergence of higher order tensors. First, the gradient of a vector field is
introduced.
The Gradient of a Vector Field
The gradient of a vector field is defined to be the second-order tensor
grada
a
a
e j i ei e j
x j
x j
(1.14.3)
In matrix notation,
a1
x1
a
grada 2
x
a1
3
x1
a1
x 2
a 2
x 2
a3
x 2
a1
x3
a 2
x3
a3
x3
(1.14.4)
grada dx
ai
e i e j dxk e k
x j
ai
dx j e i
x j
(1.14.5)
da
a(x dx) a(dx)
which is analogous to Eqn 1.6.10 for the gradient of a scalar field. As with the gradient
of a scalar field, if one writes dx as dx e , where e is a unit vector, then
da
grada e
dx in e direction
(1.14.6)
Thus the gradient of a vector field a is a second-order tensor which transforms a unit
vector into a vector describing the gradient of a in that direction.
116
Kelly
Section 1.14
da a dx j a
e j
e j grada .
x j
ds x j ds x j
Although for a scalar field grad is equivalent to , note that the gradient defined in
1.14.3 is not the same as a . In fact,
a T
grada
(1.14.7)
since
a ei
a j
a je j
ei e j
xi
xi
(1.14.8)
dx dX u( X dX) u( X)
dX du( X)
dX gradu dX
117
Kelly
Section 1.14
initial
q0
u ( X dX )
dX
p0
qf
u ( X)
dx
pf
final
0 2kX 2
u i
gradu
0
0
X j
0
0
0
0 2kX 2 e1 e 2
0
X2
final
X1
Figure 1.14.2: deformation of a box
Note that the map dX dx does not specify where in space the line element moves to.
It translates too according to x X u .
The divergence and curl of vectors have been defined in 1.6.6, 1.6.8. Now that the
gradient of a vector has been introduced, one can re-define the divergence of a vector
independent of any coordinate system: it is the scalar field given by the trace of the
gradient {Problem 4},
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Kelly
Section 1.14
Similarly, the curl of a can be defined to be the vector field given by twice the axial
vector of the antisymmetric part of grad a .
1.14.3
Tensor Fields
A tensor-valued function of the position vector is called a tensor field, Tijk (x) .
The Gradient of a Tensor Field
The gradient of a second order tensor field T is defined in a manner analogous to that of
the gradient of a vector, Eqn. 1.14.2. It is the third-order tensor
grad T
Tij
T
ek
ei e j e k
x k
x k
T jk
ei e j ek
T jk e j e k
xi
xi
(1.14.11)
Analogous to the definition 1.14.9, the divergence of a second order tensor T is defined to
be the vector
div T grad T : I
Tij
x j
(T jk e j e k )
T
ei
ei
xi
xi
ei
The divergence of a tensor can also be equivalently defined as that vector field which
satisfies the relation
divT v divT T v
for all constant vectors v.
One also has
T ei
T ji
(T jk e j e k )
ei
xi
x j
119
(1.14.13)
Kelly
Section 1.14
so that
divT T T
(1.14.14)
As with the gradient of a vector, both Tij / x j e i and T ji / x j e i are commonly used
as definitions of the divergence of a tensor. They are distinguished here by labelling the
former as divT (called here the divergence of T) and the latter as T . Note that the
operations divT and T are equivalent for the case of T symmetric.
Note the following
some authors define the operation of on a vector or tensor not as in (1.14.13),
but through / xi ei so that T divT Tij / x j ei .
using the convention that the dot is omitted in the contraction of tensors, one should
write T for T , but the dot is retained here because of the familiarity of this latter
notation from vector calculus.
another operator is the Hessian, 2 / xi x j e i e j .
Identities
Here are some important identities involving the gradient, divergence and curl
{Problem 5}:
gradv gradv v grad
gradu v gradu v gradv u
div u v grad u v (div v )u
T
(1.14.15)
(1.11.16)
Note also the following identities, which involve the Laplacian of both vectors and
scalars:
2 u v 2 u v 2gradu : gradv u 2 v
curl curl u graddiv u 2 u
120
(1.14.17)
Kelly
Section 1.14
1.14.4
Cylindrical and spherical coordinates were introduced in 1.6.10 and the gradient and
Laplacian of a scalar field and the divergence and curl of vector fields were derived in
terms of these coordinates. The calculus of higher order tensors can also be cast in terms
of these coordinates.
For example, from 1.6.30, the gradient of a vector in cylindrical coordinates is
T
gradu u with
1
gradu e r
e z u r e r u e u z e z
e
r
z
r
u
u
1 u r u
r er er
e r e r e r e z
r
r
z
r
u
u
1 u u r
e e r
e e e e z
r
z
r
r
u
u
1 u z
z ez er
e z e z e z e z
z
r
r
(1.14.18)
divA A T rr
e r
z
r
r
r
1 A Az Ar Ar
A
r
e
z
r
r
(1.14.19)
A
1 Az Azz
A
zr zr
e z
z
r
r
r
1.14.5
The divergence theorem 1.7.12 can be extended to the case of higher-order tensors.
Consider an arbitrary differentiable tensor field Tijk ( x, t ) defined in some finite region of
physical space. Let S be a closed surface bounding a volume V in this space, and let the
outward normal to S be n. The divergence theorem of Gauss then states that
ijk
nk dS
V
Tijk
x k
(1.14.20)
dV
Tn dS div T dV ,
S
121
Tij
T n dS x
ij
dV
(1.14.21)
Kelly
Section 1.14
TndS div ( T) dV
S
u ndS grad u dV
S
u TndS div (T
S
1.14.6
(1.14.22)
u) dV
Following on from 1.6.12, here a more formal treatment of the tensor calculus of fields
is briefly presented.
Vector Gradient
for all h E
(1.14.23)
In that case, the tensor Dv x is called the derivative (or gradient) of v at x (and is given
the symbol vx ).
Setting h w in 1.14.23, where w E is a unit vector, dividing through by and
taking the limit as 0 , one has the equivalent statement
vx w
d
d
v x w for all w E
(1.14.24)
Using the chain rule as in 1.6.11, Eqn. 1.14.24 can be expressed in terms of the
Cartesian basis e i ,
vx w
vi
v
wk e i i e i e j wk e k
x k
x j
(1.14.25)
vi
ei e j
x j
(1.14.26)
122
Kelly
Section 1.14
1.14.7
Problems
1. Consider the vector field v x12 e1 x32 e 2 x 22 e 3 . (a) find the matrix representation of
the gradient of v, (b) find the vector gradv v .
2. If u x1 x 2 x3e1 x1 x 2 e 2 x1e 3 , determine 2 u .
3. Suppose that the displacement field is given by u1 0, u 2 1, u 3 X 1 . By using
gradu , sketch a few (undeformed) line elements of material and their positions in the
deformed configuration.
4. Use the matrix form of gradu and u to show that the definitions
(i) div a tr (grada)
(ii) curla 2 , where is the axial vector of the skew part of grada
agree with the definitions 1.6.17, 1.6.21 given for Cartesian coordinates.
5. Prove the following:
(i)
gradv gradv v grad
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
123
Kelly