BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

PILANI-333031 (RAJASTHAN) INDIA

Second Semester 2007-2008
Course: EA C461 (Artificial Lab 4: Best-First Heuristic
Intelligence) Search
Prepared By: Dr. Mukesh Kumar Rohil rohil@bits-pilani.ac.in

This Lab is based on the book by Ivan Bratko, Prolog Programming for Artificial Intelligence, Third
Edition, 2001, Pearson Education Ltd., Second Impression 2007 (in India).

Given the heuristic function f(n) = g(n) + h(n), where g(n) is an estimate of the cost of an optimal path
from starting node, s, to current node, n, and h(n) is an estimate of the cost of an optimal path from
node n to the goal node t.

When node n is encountered by the search process we have following situation: a path from s to n
must have already been found and its cost can be computed as the sum of the arc-costs on the path. It
may not be optimal cost but its cost can serve as an estimate g(n) of the minimal cost from s to n.The
other term, h(n), is more problematic because the ‘world’ between n and t has not been explored by the
search until this point. Therefore, h(n) is typically is real heuristic guess, based on the algorithm’s
general knowledge about the particular problem.

Starting with the start node, the search keeps generating new successor nodes, always expanding in the
most promising direction according to the f-values. During this process, a search tree is generated
whose root is the start node of the search. The best-first search program will thus kep expanding this
search tree until a solution is found. This tree will be represented in the program by terms of two
forms:

1. l(N, F/G) represents a single node tree (a leaf); N is a node in the state space, G is g(N) (cost of
the path found from the start node to N); F is f(N) = G + h(N).
2. t(N, F/G, Subs) represents a tree with non-empty subtree; N is the root of the tree, Subs is a list
of its subtrees; G is g(N); F is updated f-value of N – that is, the f-value of the most promising
successor of N; the list Subs is ordered according to increasing f-values of the sub-trees.

The updating of the f-values is necessary to enable the program to recognize the most promising
subtree at each level of the search tree. This modification of f-estimates lead, in fact, to a function f
from nodes to tree. For a single node tree (a leaf), n, we have the original definition of f(n) i.e. f(n) =
g(n) + h(n). For a tree, T, hose root is n, and n’s subtrees are S1, S2, etc., f(T) = minif(Si).

A best-first program along these lines is shown in Table 1. Some more explanation of this program
follows.

The key procedure is expand, which has six arguments:

expand(P, Tree, Bound, Tree1, Solved, Solution).

It expands a current (sub)tree as long as the f-value of this tree remains less or equal to Bound. The
arguments of expand are given in Table 2.

P, Tree and Bound are ‘input’ parameters to expand. Expand produces three kinds of results which is
indicated by the value of the argument Solved as follows:
(1). Solved = yes.
Solution = a solution path found by expanding Tree within Bound.
Tree1 = uninstantiated.

(2). Solved = no.

Solution = Tree expanded so that its f-value exceeds Bound.
Tree1 = uninstantiated.

(3). Solved = never.

Solution and Tree1 = uninstantiated.

A Prolog program (based on the best first search) to solve 8-puzzle problem is given in Table 3.
However, some predicates need more clauses to be added.

Do the following:
1. Apply the Best-first search (Table 2) to
solve the routing problem (as given in
Fig. 1) to find the shortest path from
node s to node t.
2. Find the time taken by the method to
find the shortest path for problem 1
above. [Hint: Read and Use time/2
predicate given in the LPA Win-
Prolog help]
3. Comparing the program in Table 1
and Table 3, make a table of predicates
of Table 1 and Table 3 by stating
which predicate(s) in Table 3 does the
analogous or similar work of which
predicate(s) in Table 1. Figure 1: A routing network [The numbers along
4. The Table 3 (Best-first search applied arcs are g(n) and numbers in square are h(n)]
to 8-puzzle problem) does not have some clauses of some predicate. Complete
1 2
those and run the program for five initial conditions to reach to the goal state.
The goal state is given in Fig. 2. 3 4 5
5. Name your files as L4_AI_YourID_pN and zip them as L4_AI_YourID.zip and 6 7 8
transmit to instructor’s email id. Replace the text YourID by your BITS
IDNumber and N in pN by problem number 1, 2, 3, or 4 as the case may be. Figure 2
% A best-first search program.

% bestfirst( Start, Solution): Solution is a path from Start to a goal

bestfirst( Start, Solution) :-

expand( [], l( Start, 0/0), 9999, _, yes, Solution).
% Assume 9999 is greater than any f-value

% expand( Path, Tree, Bound, Tree1, Solved, Solution):

% Path is path between start node of search and subtree Tree,
% Tree1 is Tree expanded within Bound,
% if goal found then Solution is solution path and Solved = yes

% Case 1: goal leaf-node, construct a solution path

expand( P, l( N, _), _, _, yes, [N|P]) :-

goal(N).

% Case 2: leaf-node, f-value less than Bound

% Generate successors and expand them within Bound.

expand( P, l(N,F/G), Bound, Tree1, Solved, Sol) :-

F =< Bound,
( bagof( M/C, ( s(N,M,C), not member(M,P) ), Succ),
!, % Node N has successors
succlist( G, Succ, Ts), % Make subtrees Ts
bestf( Ts, F1), % f-value of best successor
expand( P, t(N,F1/G,Ts), Bound, Tree1, Solved, Sol)
;
Solved = never % N has no successors - dead end
).

% Case 3: non-leaf, f-value less than Bound

% Expand the most promising subtree; depending on
% results, procedure continue will decide how to proceed

expand( P, t(N,F/G,[T|Ts]), Bound, Tree1, Solved, Sol) :-

F =< Bound,
bestf( Ts, BF), min( Bound, BF, Bound1), % Bound1 = min(Bound,BF)
 expand( [N|P], T, Bound1, T1, Solved1, Sol),
continue( P, t(N,F/G,[T1|Ts]), Bound, Tree1, Solved1, Solved, Sol).

% Case 4: non-leaf with empty subtrees

% This is a dead end which will never be solved

expand( _, t(_,_,[]), _, _, never, _) :- !.

% Case 5: f-value greater than Bound

% Tree may not grow.

expand( _, Tree, Bound, Tree, no, _) :-

f( Tree, F), F > Bound.

% continue( Path, Tree, Bound, NewTree, SubtreeSolved, TreeSolved,

Solution)

continue( _, _, _, _, yes, yes, Sol).

continue( P, t(N,F/G,[T1|Ts]), Bound, Tree1, no, Solved, Sol) :-

insert( T1, Ts, NTs),
bestf( NTs, F1),
expand( P, t(N,F1/G,NTs), Bound, Tree1, Solved, Sol).

continue( P, t(N,F/G,[_|Ts]), Bound, Tree1, never, Solved, Sol) :-

bestf( Ts, F1),
expand( P, t(N,F1/G,Ts), Bound, Tree1, Solved, Sol).

% succlist( G0, [ Node1/Cost1, ...], [ l(BestNode,BestF/G), ...]):

% make list of search leaves ordered by their F-values

succlist( _, [], []).

succlist( G0, [N/C | NCs], Ts) :-

G is G0 + C,
h( N, H), % Heuristic term h(N)
F is G + H,
succlist( G0, NCs, Ts1),
insert( l(N,F/G), Ts1, Ts).

% Insert T into list of trees Ts preserving order w.r.t. f-values

insert( T, Ts, [T | Ts]) :-
f( T, F), bestf( Ts, F1),
F =< F1, !.

insert( T, [T1 | Ts], [T1 | Ts1]) :-

insert( T, Ts, Ts1).

% Extract f-value

f( l(_,F/_), F). % f-value of a leaf

f( t(_,F/_,_), F). % f-value of a tree

bestf( [T|_], F) :- % Best f-value of a list of trees

f( T, F).
bestf( [], 9999). % No trees: bad f-value

min( X, Y, X) :-
X =< Y, !.
min( X, Y, Y).

Table 1

P Path between the start node and Tree

Tree Current search (sub)tree
Bound f-limit for expansion of Tree
Tree1 Tree expanded within Bound; consequently, the f-value of Tree1 is greater than Bound
(unless a goal node has been found during the expansion).
Solved Indicator whose value is ‘yes’, ‘no’, or ‘never’.
Solution A solution path from the start node ‘through Tree1’ to a goal node within Bound (if such a
goal node exists).

Table 2

% Problem-specific procedures for the eight

% puzzle, to be used in best-first search of Table 1.

/* Problem-specific procedures for the eight puzzle

Current situation is represented as a list of positions of the tiles,

with first item in the list corresponding to the empty square.
Example:
This position is represented by:

3 1 2 3
2 8 4 [2/2, 1/3, 2/3, 3/3, 3/2, 3/1, 2/1, 1/1, 1/2]
1 7 6 5

1 2 3

"Empty' can move to any of its neighbours which means

that "empty' and its neighbour interchange their positions.
*/

% s( Node, SuccessorNode, Cost)

s( [Empty | Tiles], [Tile | Tiles1], 1) :- % All arc costs are 1

swap( Empty, Tile, Tiles, Tiles1). % Swap Empty and Tile in Tiles

swap( Empty, Tile, [Tile | Ts], [Empty | Ts] ) :-

mandist( Empty, Tile, 1). % Manhattan distance = 1

swap( Empty, Tile, [T1 | Ts], [T1 | Ts1] ) :-

swap( Empty, Tile, Ts, Ts1).

mandist( X/Y, X1/Y1, D) :- % D is Manhhattan dist. between two

squares
dif( X, X1, Dx),
dif( Y, Y1, Dy),
D is Dx + Dy.

dif( A, B, D) :- % D is |A-B|
D is A-B, D >= 0, !
;
D is B-A.

% Heuristic estimate h is the sum of distances of each tile

% from its "home' square plus 3 times "sequence' score

h( [Empty | Tiles], H) :-
goal( [Empty1 | GoalSquares] ), ﾍ
 totdist( Tiles, GoalSquares, D), % Total distance from home squares
seq( Tiles, S), % Sequence score
H is D + 3*S.

totdist( [], [], 0).

totdist( [Tile | Tiles], [Square | Squares], D) :-

mandist( Tile, Square, D1),
totdist( Tiles, Squares, D2),
D is D1 + D2.

% seq( TilePositions, Score): sequence score

seq( [First | OtherTiles], S) :-

seq( [First | OtherTiles ], First, S).

seq( [Tile1, Tile2 | Tiles], First, S) :-

score( Tile1, Tile2, S1),
seq( [Tile2 | Tiles], First, S2),
S is S1 + S2.

seq( [Last], First, S) :-

score( Last, First, S).

score( 2/2, _, 1) :- !. % Tile in centre scores 1

score( 1/3, 2/3, 0) :- !. % Proper successor scores 0

score( 2/3, 3/3, 0) :- !.
score( 3/3, 3/2, 0) :- !.
score( 3/2, 3/1, 0) :- !.
score( 3/1, 2/1, 0) :- !.
score( 2/1, 1/1, 0) :- !.
score( 1/1, 1/2, 0) :- !.
score( 1/2, 1/3, 0) :- !.

score( _, _, 2). % Tiles out of sequence score 2

goal( [2/2,1/3,2/3,3/3,3/2,3/1,2/1,1/1,1/2] ). % Goal squares for tiles

% Display a solution path as a list of board positions

showsol( [] ).

showsol( [P | L] ) :-
showsol( L),
nl, write( '---'),
showpos( P).

% Display a board position

showpos( [S0,S1,S2,S3,S4,S5,S6,S7,S8] ) :-
member( Y, [3,2,1] ), % Order of Y-coordinates
nl, member( X, [1,2,3] ), % Order of X-coordinates
member( Tile-X/Y, % Tile on square X/Y
[' '-S0,1-S1,2-S2,3-S3,4-S4,5-S5,6-S6,7-S7,8-S8] ),
write( Tile),
fail % Backtrack to next square
;
true. % All squares done

% Starting positions for some puzzles

start1( [2/2,1/3,3/2,2/3,3/3,3/1,2/1,1/1,1/2] ). % Requires 4 steps

start2( [2/1,1/2,1/3,3/3,3/2,3/1,2/2,1/1,2/3] ). % Requires 5 steps

start3( [2/2,2/3,1/3,3/1,1/2,2/1,3/3,1/1,3/2] ). % Requires 18 steps

% An example query: ?- start1( Pos), bestfirst( Pos, Sol), showsol( Sol).

Table 3