Marine diesel engines,

catalytic fines and

a new standard to ensure
safe operation
Separation Performance Standard

written by Alfa Laval, BP Marine and MAN B&W Diesel

MAN B&W Diesel

A joint effort
good for the industry
This publication is intended to provide an overview of catalytic
fines and their effect on marine diesel engines, marine residual
fuel oils and fuel cleaning on board. It has been written by
members of the European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
Workshop No. 20 for separation performance standard, the
reference of which is CWA 15375:2005 Separators for marine
residual fuel Performance testing using specific test oil.
Authors of this publication are Gunnar strm of Alfa Laval, Adrian Daniels
of BP Marine and Kjeld Aabo of MAN B&W Diesel, whose collaborative efforts
have been key in establishing a new standard for separation performance.
All three companies, together with others, have been driving the marine
industry towards a standard for separation performance through their work
to establish and gain approval for a CEN Workshop Agreement (CWA).

Gunnar strm
Alfa Laval

Adrian Daniels
BP Marine

Kjeld Aabo
MAN B&W Diesel

Inside view
Summary ..................................................................................................... 2
Marine residual fuel ................................................................................... 4
Residual fuel oil .............................................................................................. 4
Refining processes ....................................................................................... 4
Catalytic fines .............................................................................................. 11
ISO 8217 Fuel Standard .............................................................................. 12
Measuring catalytic fines content ................................................................. 13
Catalytic fines in residual fuel oil future trends ........................................... 13
Marine diesel engines ..............................................................................
Catalytic fines and engine performance .......................................................
The importance of fuel cleaning ...................................................................
Engine wear and damage from catalytic fines ..............................................
Case study: Land-based power plant ..........................................................

14
15
15
17
19

Fuel cleaning systems .............................................................................

The modern approach .................................................................................
Stokes Law ................................................................................................
Operating parameters ..................................................................................
How fuel oil quality affects separation ..........................................................
Series or parallel operation? ........................................................................

20
20
21
21
23
24

New standard for separation performance ...........................................

Model test method ......................................................................................
Correlation to actual operating conditions ....................................................
Why a model test method ...........................................................................
Type approval ..............................................................................................
Economical aspects ....................................................................................

26
27
29
29
30
31

Dimensioning of fuel cleaning systems ................................................. 32

Sizing of centrifuges .................................................................................... 32
Certified Flow Rate vs. Maximum Recommended Capacity ......................... 32
Conclusion ................................................................................................ 34

Summary
In general, marine diesel engines burn residual fuel oils. The
quality of the fuel oils varies widely, depending on the grade
and processing of the fuels. Some may contain higher levels of
contaminants, such as water and abrasive solids, than others.
To achieve reliable and cost-effective operation of the marine diesel engines
it is necessary to clean all residual fuel oils before injection into the engines.
The leading cleaning method used on board ships today is centrifugal separation. For years engine builders, ship owners and classification societies have
been missing reliable performance criteria to be able to compare how one
manufacturers centrifuge performs against that of another manufacturer with
regard to the removal of hard abrasive particles such as catalytic fines from
marine residual fuels. If unchecked, these catalytic fines can endanger ship
safety by causing engine wear and damage.
According to the ISO 8217 Fuel Standard for Specifications of Marine Fuels,
the maximum allowable content of catalytic fines in bunkered fuel, expressed
as the total content of aluminium and silicon, is 80 mg/kg (ppm). However,
engine builders generally anticipate that this amount will be reduced by the
fuel cleaning system onboard to a maximum of 15 ppm before the fuel oil is
injected into the engine.
Manufacturers of centrifuges now supply buyers with their own maximum
recommended capacity (MRC) tables as guidelines to select a fuel cleaning
system. However, buyers cannot be sure that the centrifuges that are specified and installed using these tables actually ensure the safe removal of
harmful solids from bunker fuels.
In June 2004 the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) began to
establish an operational specification of a method to measure separation
performance of centrifuges with regard to the presence of solid particles in
residual fuel oils.
The CEN Workshop finalised an agreement, called CWA, in August 2005 that
effectively established a new industry standard that defines the performance

of centrifuges installed on board ships. This standard is based on controlled

artificial particles, which however are still considered as reliable performance
criteria, which establish a fuel oil centrifuges ability to remove solid, abrasive
particles from marine residual fuels to safe operational levels.
Hereby objective comparisons between centrifuges from different suppliers
will be possible.
The participants will investigate the prospects of developing the agreement to
a full international standard recognized by the International Organization for
Standardization.
The reference number of this document is CWA 15375, Separators for
marine residual fuel oil Performance testing using specific test oil, dated
2005-08-17.

Marine residual fuel

Marine residual fuel, also called bunker fuel or residual fuel oil, is
the name given to the primary energy source used in the marine
industry.
This fuel is consumed on board the vessel both by the main engine, which
transports the vessel through the water, and by the auxiliary engines, which
provide all the electrical energy for onboard systems, such as lighting, heating
and engine auxiliary equipment.
Residual fuel oil
Residual fuel is essentially a refinery by-product, blended to satisfy market
demand for a cheap source of energy. Some of the residual fuel manufactured
is used by the marine industry. The main drivers in the refining industry are the
production of light and middle distillate grades, used to formulate motor gasoline, jet fuel, automotive diesel fuel and chemical feedstock. Over the past
15 years the worldwide demand for distillate grades has continued to rise,
whereas the production of residual fuel oil has declined slightly (Figure 1).
As a consequence of the relentless increase in demand for distillate fuels,
refineries have incorporated more sophisticated processes in order to extract
as much as possible of distillate feedstock from a barrel of crude oil. The net
effect is a reduction in the percentage of the crude oil barrels produced as
residual fuel oil. In 1990 approximately 20 percent of a barrel of crude was
processed into residual fuel oil, compared to 14 percent today. The decrease
is remarkably linear (Figure 2).
If the reduction in residual fuel oil production continues to decline at the same
rate of about 4.6 percent every decade, then in approximately 30 years there
will be no residual fuel oil. Clearly at some point in time between now and 2035
the demand for residual fuel oil will outstrip the capability to supply it, causing
residual fuel oil to lose its current exclusive status as a cheap source of energy.
Refining processes
This section describes the basic refining processes, which are applicable to
the production of residual fuels. Typically the source of all fuels is derived from
crude oils. Some of the refinery processes are described below.

1400

Tonnage (million tonnes)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year
Middle distillates

Gasolines

Fuel oil

Others

Figure 1. Oil consumption worldwide (excluding the former Soviet Union).

Source: BP Statistical Review 2004 www.bp.com/centres/energy

% of fuel oil consumer / Total oil products

21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year
Fuel oil

Linear (fuel oil)

Figure 2. Residual fuel oil as a percentage of all oil products (excluding the former Soviet Union).
Source: BP Statistical Review, 2004 www.bp.com/centres/energy

Crude oil
Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that must be processed to
provide both the products and the quantity of each product required to fulfil
worldwide demand.
No two crude oils are alike; there are significant variations in density, viscosity,
sulphur content, vanadium content and in the yield of each product that can
be produced by a refinery.
Originally crude oil was distilled in an atmospheric distillation process to obtain
the required grades at the required quantity. The vacuum distillation process
was developed to enable further refinement of atmospheric residue.
Both atmospheric distillation and vacuum distillation are refinery processes
based on the physical separation of crude oil components into distillate fuels.
Because these processes do not chemically alter the structure of the oil, the
original crude oil could be reproduced by mixing together all of the output
streams and components in the appropriate proportions.
These two simple distillation processes however do not produce the amount
of distillate oil products that is consistent with the increasing worldwide
demand. Therefore subsequent and more complex refinery processes,
known as secondary conversion processes, are required.
Atmospheric distillation
The first step in the refining process is the separation of crude oil into various
fractions by distillation. Distillation is carried out as a continuous process in a
fractionating tower, which is fitted with perforated trays. The crude is heated
to approximately 350C and pumped into a section near the base of the
tower, see Figure 3. The temperature is restricted so as not to induce thermal
decomposition of the crude oil.
As the crude oil enters the tower all except the heaviest hydrocarbons
evaporate and rise through the tower as vapours. The process takes advantage of the fact that the crude contains a complex mixture of hydro-carbons,
which have different boiling points. When crude oil is heated, the lightest and
most volatile hydro-carbons boil off as vapours first and the heaviest and least
volatile last. If the vapours are cooled they condense back into liquids in the
reverse order, the heaviest first and the lightest last.

Further
processing

Petroleum gas
(LPG)
Vapours rise

Further
processing

Camping gas
Industrial gas

gas

Gasoline
Petrol

Further
processing

Naptha
Chemical feedstock

Further
processing

Kerosene

Further
processing

Aviation fuel
Domestic heating oil
Industrial heating oil

Gas oil
Diesel oil

Further
processing

Lubricants
and waxes

Liquids fall

Lubricating oil
Wax

Preheated
crude oil

Further
processing

Residue
Fuel oil
Bitumen

Figure 3. Atmospheric distillation of crude oil.

As the vapours rise through the tower, some of the vapour condenses due to
the reduction of temperature caused by the cooler liquid in the trays. At the
same time the heat of the vapour causes some of the condensed liquid to
re-evaporate thus steadily enriching each fraction with its correct components.
At successively higher points in the tower, various fractions are drawn off for
further processing.
Those components with the lowest boiling points collect at the top of the
tower and those with the highest boiling points are collected at the base of
the tower. Boiling points vary from approximately 60C at the top to over
300C at the base.
All of the crude oil, however, is not fractionated into distillate products. Some
of the vapours flow out of the top of the tower as gases. Fractions of crude
that have a boiling temperature above 300C fall to the base of the tower; this
product is known as atmospheric residue which can become a component of
a residual fuel oil.
Atmospheric distillation is a simple physical process, where the fuels are
separated according to specific boiling ranges. The type of crude determines
the percentage of each product that can be obtained. Low-density, lowviscosity crude oil yields more distillate fuel and a smaller proportion of the
atmospheric residue than high-density, high-viscosity crude.
As mentioned, the use of the atmospheric distillation process alone to refine
crude oil does not satisfy the worldwide demand for fuel. To satisfy demand,
additional refining processes, which reduce the amount of residual fuel and
increase the amount of distillate fuel, must be employed.
Vacuum distillation
Vacuum distillation is another refinery process that is similar to atmospheric
distillation but takes place under vacuum conditions. Since liquids in a
vacuum boil at lower temperatures, the atmospheric residue evaporates
thus enabling more of the light distillate fractions to be drawn off without
exceeding the temperature at which thermal cracking will take place.
As in atmospheric distillation not all the liquid vaporizes; what is removed
from the base of the unit is called vacuum (or short) residue, which can
become a component of a marine residual fuel. Despite the addition of

vacuum distillation as another means to refine crude oil by means of

physical separation, worldwide demand for light distillate fuel still outstrips
the supply.
Secondary conversion processes
In order to satisfy the demand for distillate fuel products, refineries use
secondary conversion processes, which use some of the product streams
from the distillation processes and alter the chemical structure of the oil.
This reduces the amount of residual fuel oil and increases the amount of
distillate fuel.
Secondary conversion processes include cracking processes that break
the long molecules of the heavier fuel fractions into shorter molecules that
can more easily be processed into fuel oil products that are in demand.
There are two basic types of cracking processes: thermal cracking and
catalytic cracking.
Thermal cracking
Thermal cracking uses temperature, pressure and time to provoke a chemical
reaction that alters the structure of the oil. Thermal cracking can be carried
out on both distillate fuels and on residual fuels. Typical thermal cracking
processes include visbreaking which significantly lowers the viscosity of a
heavy residue to enable blending with other fuel oils and coking which
destroys the fuel oil, producing only distillate fuel and coke which is a form
of carbon.
Catalytic cracking
Catalytic cracking processes also alter the chemical composition of residual
fuel oil. They use a catalyst rather than high pressure to break down complex hydrocarbons into simpler molecules. The catalyst is a substance that
assists the process of the chemical reaction, but does not change its
own properties.
The most common process is fluid catalytic cracking (FCC), which can convert gas oil and residual oil into high-octane gasoline and diesel fuel. Here the
catalyst in the form of fine particles that are approximately 20 to 100 microns
in diameter circulates between a reactor and a regenerator in a fluidised bed
process (Figure 4). Large catalytic crackers will contain about 500 metric tons
of expensive catalyst.

Reactor
Flue gas

Gasoline

Light cycle oil

Regenerator

Heavy cycle oil

Catalyst

Air

Fractionator

Feed

Steam

Decant oil

Origin of catalytic
fines in HFO

Figure 4. Equipment for the catalytic cracking process.

The hot catalyst from the regenerator mixes with the feedstock and then
enters the reactor. Upon contact with the catalyst the feedstock vaporizes
and the vapours in turn react, breaking the chemical bonds to achieve the
desired product quality. The reaction causes some carbon to be deposited
onto the catalyst. The catalyst and the vapours are separated in the reactor.
The vapours rise and flow into a fractionating tower for further processing.
The catalyst flows back into the regenerator, which heats the catalyst to burn
off the carbon prior to mixing it with the feedstock and passing it back into
the reactor.
The continual recycling of the catalyst causes the catalyst structure to break
up primarily due to attrition and some of these small particles are carried over
into the fractionator. Although refiners attempt to minimise the loss of catalyst
from the catalytic cracking process some carryover of the expensive catalytic
fines from the unit is inevitable.
The product drawn off the bottom of the fractionator is called slurry oil, which
is also known as decant oil or FCC bottoms. Highly aromatic, the slurry oil
has a high density, generally about 1000 kg/m3 at 15C and a low viscosity
of approximately 30 to 60 cSt at 50C. It is an ideal blending component for
residual fuels due to its high aromaticity, which confers stability to the finished
fuel. It is from this refinery source that catalytic fines enter residual fuel.

10

Courtesy of DNVPS

Gases

Catalytic fines
The composition of catalytic fines varies depending on the type of feedstock
and on whether the main unit of the cracker is intended to optimise gasoline
(light) grades or diesel (heavier) grades. Exact catalyst compositions are never
quoted today but all of them contain some form of synthetic crystalline zeolite
material.
The zeolite is dispersed in a matrix, which consists of an active matrix, clay
and binder. Both the zeolite and the active matrix are forms of aluminium
oxide and silicon oxide. The ratio of silicon to aluminium in the catalyst varies
considerably, ranging from 0.65:1 to 2:1.
In the mid 1990s, Det Norske Veritas (DNV) determined that the annual worldwide average ratio of silicon to aluminium was 1.64:1 based on analyses of
fuel oil samples. Recent analyses indicate that the worldwide average ratio is
currently about 1.2:1 and that this ratio is likely to fall because modern catalysts tend to contain a higher concentration of aluminium.
Catalytic fines are formed through the break up, primarily due to attrition, of
the catalyst, as it is recycled through the cat cracker plant. Catalytic fines are
variable in size with a range from sub-micron to approximately 30 microns and
occasionally up to 100 microns. Whilst they are considered to be spherical
particles this is not necessarily the case.
A typical particle size distribution of catalytic fines in heavy fuel oil is shown in
Figure 5.

BP investigation

Particle size
distribution
(micron)

By number

510
1015
1535
35100

57
27
15
1

(%)

510
1015
1535
35100

Figure 5. Particle size distribution of catalytic fines.

11

ISO 8217 Fuel Standard

ISO 8217:1996 is the current international standard for specifications for
petroleum products for marine diesel engines and boilers. These specifications
define the limit for catalytic fines in fuel oils, expressed as Al + Si (aluminium
plus silicon), at 80 ppm. This limit will remain the same in the revised edition
(third edition), which will soon be issued1.
It is generally accepted that onboard fuel cleaning systems, including settling,
purification and filtration, will reduce the level of catalytic fines in bunker fuel at
delivery below the 15 ppm level that is acceptable in order to inject the fuel
into an engine.
In September 2004 DNV published statistics indicating that the percentage of
bunker fuel deliveries that contained specific ranges of aluminium and silicon2.
Nearly 80 percent of all bunker deliveries in the marine market contain less
than 20 ppm of aluminium plus silicon.

Al + Si (mg/kg)

% of deliveries

>80
>60, <=80
>20, <=60
< 20

0.3
1.7
19
79

Source: Fuel Quality Statistics, Det Norske Veritas, September 2004.

References:
1. Wanda Fabriek: Further Development of the International Marine Fuel Standard Third Edition of ISO 8217,
13th Sibcon 2004.
2. Det Norske Veritas, Fuel Quality Statistics, Volume 24, Number 3, September 2004.

12

Measuring catalytic fines content

Several methods for directly measuring catalytic fines in the fuel have been
developed, tried and discarded. The current and approved method, ISO
10478, measures catalytic fines using an indirect method whereby a weighed
quantity of a homogenised fuel oil sample is heated in a platinum crucible and
the combustible material is removed by burning. The residue and crucible are
then transferred to a muffle furnace held at 550 25C to reduce the carbon
residue and provide the ash. The ash is then fused with a lithium tetraborate/
lithium fluoride flux and the fused mixture is dissolved in a mixture of tartaric
acid and hydrochloric acid and diluted with water to achieve the desired
volume.
The solution is then aspirated in the plasma of an inductively coupled plasma
emission spectrometer or absorption spectrometer, and the aluminium and
silicon elements are detected by radiation emissions. The quantity of catalytic
fines is then derived through the comparison of the emission results with
standard calibration solutions. It goes without saying that the contents of
aluminium and silicon measured in this way are independent of particle size
distribution.
Catalytic fines in residual fuel oil future trends
As the world demand for distillate fuels continues to increase, the adoption of
more advanced refining processes will slowly populate the globe. The natural
consequence of this is that more marine residual fuels will contain some levels
of catalytic fines. However with the combined forces of marine fuel specifications and properly designed and maintained centrifuges it is highly likely that
the issue will pass unnoticed by the shipping community.

13

Marine diesel engines

Two-stroke marine diesel engines today are able to operate
within the ISO 8217 fuel standard and the CIMAC HFO 55
No. 21 recommendation.
The condition is that the fuel is properly cleaned in the centrifuge. Both
ISO 8217 and CIMAC fuel recommendation specify that the content of
catalytic fines in the fuel oil delivered on board may not exceed a maximum
of 80 ppm, an abbreviation for parts per million which is expressed as a
weight-to-weight ratio.
To clean the fuel oil of catalytic fines and other impurities before injection
into the engine, fuel cleaning systems are required on board. Engine builders
generally anticipate that the maximum level of 80 ppm catalytic fines will be
reduced by the fuel cleaning system on board to a maximum of 15 ppm
before the fuel oil is injected into the engine. As the level of catalyst fines in
the bunkered fuel is lowered, the engine builders expect a related reduction
in the amount of catalyst fines in the fuel entering the engine.
The design of the fuel cleaning system to be used on board is the critical
factor for optimal reduction of catalytic fines content in fuel oil from 80 ppm
upon delivery to the ship to 15 ppm before injection into the engine. This is
to ensure safe operation and optimal engine performance.

Max. 80 ppm
catalytic fines

Max. 15 ppm
catalytic fines

Separator

Fuel conditioning module

Figure 6. Reduction of the catalytic fines by the fuel cleaning system on board.

14

Engine

Catalytic fines and engine performance

Catalytic fines are small particles of spent catalyst, that remain in the fuel after
employing catalytic cracking processes to refine crude oil into more valuable
fractions, leaving residual fuel oil as a bottom phase, enriched in contaminants.
These particles vary in size anywhere from submicron to tenths of microns,
ranging from a speck of dust or pollen to the width of a strand of coarse
human hair. Though virtually invisible to the human eye, catalytic fines are
very hard and capable of severely scratching, if not cutting, metal.
All catalytic fines, that remain in the fuel oil after centrifugal separation have
the potential to cause abrasive wear and damage to the engine, which in turn
can lead to potentially unsafe operating conditions. That is why the level of
catalytic fines must be reduced as much as feasibly possible by the fuel
cleaning system. Catalytic fines smaller than five microns are considered to
be less harmful than larger cat fines.
The higher the amount of catalytic fines is, the greater the risk for unsafe
operating conditions due to engine wear and breakdown. Under such operating conditions, there is an increased risk for breakdown and it is likely that
the engine will require more frequent maintenance than what has been
recommended by the engine manufacturer.
If the amount of catalytic fines is removed at optimum efficiency by the fuel
cleaning system, according to experience the engine has a controlled and
acceptable wear, defined as mean time between overhaul, which is specified
by engine suppliers.
The importance of fuel cleaning
Marine diesel engines are designed to be capable of accepting all commercially available fuel oils, provided they are adequately treated on board. For
this purpose, a well-designed fuel cleaning system is a must. Centrifuges in
combination with a settling tank are generally accepted within the marine
industry as the fuel cleaning system of choice. Filters are only considered
as a safety to pick up larger particles so that these particles do not reach
the engine, and do not as such clean the fuel.
To ensure safe operation, a heavy fuel oil that meets ISO 8217 and the
CIMAC fuel recommendations should be cleaned by an onboard fuel cleaning
system that satisfies these conditions:

15

 Preheating the fuel oil to the correct temperature before the centrifuges;
Correct capacity/layout of the centrifuge (i.e., correct throughput of fuel
through the centrifuges); and,
Proper operation and maintenance of the centrifuges.
Because of continuous advances in centrifuge technology, it is virtually
impossible for any engine builder to specify the exact size requirements for
the individual centrifuges that are part of an onboard fuel cleaning system.
The correct sizing of the centrifuges depends on the daily fuel consumption
and on the design viscosity of the system. Engine builders can only provide
recommendations for optimal engine performance, which must then be confirmed by centrifuge manufacturers. See Sizing of centrifuges.
Settling and service tanks
Heavy components of large sizes, such as large catalytic fines, in the fuel oil
settle on the tank bottom due to gravitational force. However, at high sea and
rough sea conditions, these components can be hurled up and fed into the
centrifuges. The presence of such heavy components influences the purity of
fuel after the fuel cleaning system. It is therefore important to drain the settling
and service tanks regularly.
Centrifuges
If properly operated, a centrifuge has the capability to remove nearly 100 percent of all catalytic fines that are larger than 10 microns. However, the majority
of catalytic fines smaller than five microns will not be removed due to small
size and their relative light weight.
In order to check the efficiency of the centrifuges, it is recommended that
samples be taken before and after the centrifuges at least every four months
and sent to an established institution for analysis. Samples should be taken
more frequently whenever operating on fuel oil with more than 25 ppm of
catalytic fines when the fuel is bunkered.
Homogenisers
Some fuel cleaning systems use homogenisers, which split any water present
in the fuel into small uniform droplets. Positioning homogenisers upstream
from the centrifuges, however, is not currently recommended. This is because

16

catalytic fines are hydrophilic, which means that they are attracted to any
water present in the fuel oil. It is therefore expected that it will be difficult for
the centrifuge to remove the small homogenised water droplets, which include
any salt water and attached catalytic fines.
Filters
Filters in relation to fuel cleaning are to be considered as additional protection,
guarding the engine from large particles.
Engine wear and damage from catalytic fines
Abrasive wear is mainly caused by the failure of the centrifuges to remove
catalytic fines from the fuel oil. Rust, sand and dust are other components,
which are also removed by the centrifuges; however, they are normally less
harmful and are found in the fuel in much smaller quantities.
Fuel injection system
The fuel pump is the first component on the engine that is subject to the
harmful effects of catalytic fines. The fuel pump pressurises the injectors,
which enables the injectors to deliver the correct amount of fuel to the engine
under the different operating conditions.
The fuel pump consists of a plunger that slides back and forth within the fuel
pump barrel. There are relatively small tolerances between the components.
Any catalytic fines that approximate the size of these clearances will be forced
between the plunger and barrel and may become embedded in the material of
the plunger and/or the barrel (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Fuel pump spindle guide with scuffing and excessive wear.

17

Excessive wear of the plunger or the barrel affects the injection pressure and
thereby performance. If abrasive wear to the fuel pump has occurred, it is
impossible to maintain the correct compression pressure for the individual
cylinder units.
Catalytic fines that manage to pass through the fuel pump will reach the fuel
injectors, where excessive wear can change the size and shape of the injector
holes. Any change in the size and shape of the holes alters the injector pattern
of the fuel oil, which in turn can decrease combustion efficiency. Changes in
the fuel injection pattern also result in fouling of combustion chamber components and increase the amount of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) emissions in
the exhaust gas.
Combustion chamber
When the fuel is ignited, the catalytic fines become trapped in between the
various working components of the combustion chamber between the piston
ring and ring groove or between the piston ring and liner. This creates a
potentially high-risk situation in the combustion chamber. Any catalytic fines
that are not taken out by the exhaust gas or drained to the bottom of the
cylinder unit can become embedded in the softer material of the piston rings.
This quickly creates wear on both the liner and the chrome-plated piston ring
or piston ring grooves (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Catalytic fines embedded in the surface of a piston ring.

18

Case study: Land-based power plant

The quality of fuel delivered to a land-based power plant varied widely in the
levels of catalytic fines. At various times and with various fuels, the amount of
catalytic fines contained in the fuels was measured at up to 125 ppm.
Moreover, the fuel quality after cleaning was not acceptable due to complications relating to the operation of the fuel cleaning equipment. Good maintenance practices are critical to the proper operation of auxiliary machinery; it
is virtually impossible for engine designers to predict the mean time between
overhauls (MTBO) if the engines and fuel cleaning system are not properly
maintained and the fuel oil specifications are not followed.
The high level of catalytic fines resulted in heavy wear and scuffing on the
cylinder liners and pistons. Catalytic fines became embedded in the piston
ring surface, causing excessive wear on the cylinder (see Figures 8 and 9).
Before determining that catalytic fines were the root cause of engine malfunction, several possible reasons for excessive wear were investigated.
The situation for this plant could have been avoided if the fuel had been in
accordance with ISO 8217 and CIMAC recommendations and the fuel
cleaning system had been functioning properly.

Figure 9. Wear on a cylinder liner.

19

Fuel cleaning systems

As mentioned earlier, the efficient cleaning of heavy fuel oil is
mandatory for the reliable and cost-effective operation of marine
diesel engines.
Cleaning is required to remove impurities, such as water and catalytic fines.
As the level of catalytic fines increases in a fuel then it is important to ensure
that that fuel is handled with increasing levels of care. Fuels in excess of the
80 ppm limit as specified in ISO 8217 and recommended by CIMAC should
be handled with great care.
Fuel from the storage tank is fed into a vessels settling tank where the force
of gravity causes contaminants (water and coarse solid particles) to sink to the
bottom of the tank. However, in order to achieve complete separation of the
contaminants from fuel oil, fuel cleaning is required.
A fuel cleaning system that includes a settling tank and/or a service tank,
centrifuges and protection filter(s) is the general practice of the marine industry.
Centrifugal separation is widely accepted as the most effective means to clean
fuel oils before injection into diesel engines. When the fuel cleaning system is
correctly dimensioned this will ensure the reduction of catalytic fines to an
acceptable level in order for the fuel oil to be injected into the engine, and for
the efficient operation of the engine.
The modern approach
Since 1980s, centrifuges without gravity discs have been the standard
solution for fuel cleaning. Until now, it has been virtually impossible to
compare centrifuge performance because the manufacturers maximum
recommended capacity (MRC) tables were the only way to gauge
performance.
However, the new separation performance standard which was defined in
August 2005 now enables buyers, on a given separation performance level,
to compare the capacity and price of different centrifuges before making
their purchasing decision. This modern approach will be explained in the
New Standard for Separation Performance.

20

Stokes Law
The operating principles of centrifugal separation are based on Stokes Law.
The general formula for Stokes Law is:

V = gd2 (pl) / 18
V
g
d
p
l

=
=
=
=
=
=

settling velocity (m/sec)

acceleration in centrifugal field (m/sec2)
diameter of particle (m)
density of particle (kg/m3)
density of medium (kg/m3)
viscosity of medium (kg/m, s).

The rate of settling (V) for a given capacity is determined by Stokes Law.
This expression takes into account the particle size, the difference between
density of the particles and the medium, which in this case is fuel, and the
viscosity of the medium.
Density and viscosity are important parameters for efficient separation.
The greater the difference in density between the particle and the medium
is, the higher the separation efficiency. The settling velocity increases in
inverse proportion to viscosity. However, because both density and viscosity
vary with temperature, separation temperature is the critical operating
parameter.
Particle size is another important factor. The settling velocity increases rapidly
with particle size. This means that the smaller the particle, the more challenging
the separation task. In a centrifuge, the term (g) represents the centrifugal
force, which is several thousand times greater than the acceleration due to
gravitational force. Centrifugal force enables the efficient separation of particles
that are only a few microns in size.
Operating parameters
Various operating parameters affect separation efficiency. These include
temperature, which controls both fuel viscosity and density, flow rate and
maintenance.

21

Capacity for same separation (%)

100

90

80

70
88

90

92

94

96

98

100

cSt at 50C
180 cSt

300 cSt

700 cSt

Figure 10. Relationship of throughput and temperature.

Temperature of HFO before centrifuges

It is often seen that the HFO preheaters are too small, or that the steam
supply of the preheater is limited or that they have too low a set point in
temperature. Often the heater surface is partly clogged by deposits. These
factors all lead to reducing separation temperature and hence the efficiency
of the centrifuge.
In order to ensure that the centrifugal forces separate the heavy contaminants in the relatively limited time that they are present in the centrifuge, the
centrifuge should always be operated with an inlet temperature of 98C
for HFO.
Figure 10 shows the relationship between temperature and suitable throughput. For example, a centrifuge operating with an inlet temperature of 90C
would require a reduction in the throughput of at least 23 percent in order to
obtain the same separation efficiency as a centrifuge operating with an inlet
temperature of 98C.

22

Because the throughput is normally controlled by a constant flow pump,

it is not possible to reduce the flow of fuel to the centrifuges if the preheating temperature is reduced below 98C. Maintaining an inlet temperature of 98C for fuels above 180 cSt (at 50C) is therefore of critical
importance.
Flow rate
It is known that separation efficiency is a function of the centrifuge's flow
rate. The higher the flow rate, the more particles are left in the oil and therefore the lower the separation efficiency. The flow rate is usually constant and
based on the highest viscosity. As the flow rate is reduced, the efficiency
with which particles are removed increases and cleaning efficiency thus
improves. It is, however, essential to know at what capacity adequate
separation efficiency is reached in the typical case.
Up until now, there has not been any common practice among the suppliers
of centrifuges for sizing equipment. The new separation performance standard establishes a uniform method to find the capacity at which a particular
level of performance is achieved. See the New Separation Performance
Standard.
Maintenance
Proper maintenance is an important, but often overlooked, operating parameter that is difficult to quantify. If the bowl is not cleaned in time, deposits
will form on the bowl discs, the free channel height will be reduced, and flow
velocity increases. This in turn tends to drag particles with the liquid flow
towards the bowls centre. This decreases separation efficiency.

How fuel oil quality affects separation

Fuel oil quality varies considerably, despite the fact that the fuel oils may be
nominally classified as the same type. Because of wide variations in quality
it is impossible to predict the separability of a given batch of fuel oil based on
its chemical analyses. This in turn makes it impossible to foresee the actual
separation result and therefore equally impossible to provide any process
guarantees.
Characteristics that differ between fuel oils and affect separation efficiency
include:

23

Polarity
This defines how the molecules of the oil are arranged according to the positive and negative charges of the molecules. Polarity is critical in determining
how susceptible the fuel oil is to the formation of hard-to-handle emulsions as
well as the degree of surface tension of water droplets, which is an important
factor for water splitting and emulsions.
Heavily cracked fuels are typically more difficult to treat than the straight-run
fuel oils from less sophisticated refining methods.
Stability
This is the ability of a fuel oil to remain in a constant state despite conditions
that may cause the structure of the fuel oil to break down. When a fuel oil is
unstable, it contains precipitated asphaltenes that can be separated when the
particles created have amassed to a sufficient size.
However, these precipitated asphaltenes tend to produce asphaltenic sludge
as a function of time and/or temperature, or both. Mixing or blending two
incompatible fuels together may also cause the coagulation of precipitated
asphaltenes and the formation of a substantial amount of asphaltenic sludge.
Contaminants
Beside catalytic fines, contaminants include water and any insoluble residues,
such as sand, dirt and rust scale that taint fuel quality. These small particles
are not derived from processing fuel but come from other sources, such as
the storage tank or pipes used to transfer of the fuel oil, and may contribute to
the creation of stable emulsions, which make the separation process difficult.
Series or parallel operation?
Centrifuges can be operated in series or in parallel. Over the years, there has
been much discussion about which method of operation provides the best
separation efficiency in theory and in reality.
Fuel cleaning systems typically consist of centrifuges that are sufficiently large
enough to handle the flow of fuel that will be burned. Stand-by centrifuges are
also part of a typical installation.
More than 20 years ago when centrifuges with gravity discs were common,
the standard industry practice was to operate purifiers as stand-alone units.

24

To achieve optimum separation results using purifiers with gravity discs, the
interphase level has to be positioned just outside the disc stack, close to the
edge of the top disc. Any fluctuation in the operating parameters will cause
the interphase level to shift.
In order to avoid alarms under normal operating conditions, the interphase
level setting was therefore often positioned too close to the centre of the disc
stack. However, this effectively blocked the upward flow outside the discs and
directed an excessive portion of the flow through the lower part of the disc
stack, which quickly became overloaded and resulted in poor separation.
To compensate for this effect and to best utilize the centrifuges installed, the
recommendation in the 1980s was to start up the stand-by centrifuge and
operate it as a clarifier in series after the purifier.
However, with the introduction of modern centrifuges without gravity discs,
the recommendation is now to operate all available centrifuges in parallel.
This is because modern centrifuges operate correctly without the need for
constant adjustments, which created problems as described above.
Operating centrifuges in parallel instead of series enables the reduction of
the throughput of each centrifuge in half. This ensures the longest possible
residence time in the centrifuges and thus increases separation efficiency.

25

New standard for separation

performance
Purchasers of fuel cleaning systems will now have access to
an industry standard for separation performance, which makes
it possible to verify that a new type of centrifuge operates with
an agreed efficiency at a flow rate, which is specific for the
centrifuge in question. This enables more accurate dimensioning
and the fair comparison of different centrifuges from different
suppliers.
The new standard makes it possible to relate operational experiences of both
ship operators and centrifuge suppliers to well-defined separation efficiency.
On the one hand, operators may refer to wear and maintenance data of their
diesel engines. On the other, centrifuge suppliers may refer to their experiences using data from a large installed base in order to ensure satisfactory
separation performance.
Up to now, manufacturers of centrifuges supply buyers with maximum
recommended capacity (MRC) tables. However, buyers cannot be sure that
the centrifuges that they specify and buy using these tables actually remove
a sufficient amount of solids and abrasives particles, such as catalytic fines,
from heavy fuel oils.
The separation performance standard is based on a new test method that
closely approximates normal operating conditions, but provides highly accurate
and highly reproducible results. It provides independent verification of separation performance according to separation efficiency rather than throughput.
The new standard enables manufacturers to establish a certified flow rate
(CFR) for every centrifuge. Certified flow rate is defined as the throughput rate
in litres per hour at which 85 percent of five-micron mono-dispersed artificial
particles, which simulate harmful catalytic fines, are removed from a synthetic
fuel oil, which simulates a high viscosity fuel oil.
The separation performance standard will contribute to the safety of the ship
by safeguarding the engine from excessive wear. It is scheduled for distribu-

26

tion by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) in August 2005.

The intention is to advance the new European standard into a full international
standard recognised by the International Organization for Standardization.
Model test method
In order to compare different centrifuges, Alfa Laval successfully developed a
model test method that simulates normal operation and provides highly accurate and highly reproducible results. Based on actual separation tests, this test
method enables fair comparison of the performance of different centrifuges.
The test method is known as the Dyno Test Method due to the spherical
plastic dynosphere particles that are dispersed in a particle-free synthetic oil of
defined viscosity. Identically sized, these five-micron particles simulate harmful
catalytic fines (Figure 11).
The five-micron particles also help discriminate between good separation and
poor separation at those capacities recommended by centrifuge suppliers.

Figure 11. Catalytic fines in relation to dynospheres.

27

Cin

Cout
Separator

Feed
tank

Reception
tank

Figure 12. Simplified schematic sketch of the test rig for measuring certified flow rate.

All centrifuges are capable of cleaning particles that are larger than 10 micron,
while particles less than 2.5 micron prove too difficult to separate at the
capacities of interest.
During laboratory tests principally shown in Figure 12, the mixture of synthetic
oil and plastic particles is heated to a temperature that provides the same
viscosity as fuel oils (380 cSt and 700 cSt @ 50C), when heated to the
normal separation temperature of 98C. The mixture is then fed through the
centrifuge at different feed rates, and samples are taken at defined intervals
after a discharge.
A 30-minute duration after discharge has been selected because separation
efficiency generally decreases approximately 15 to 20 minutes after a discharge and then stabilises into steady-state condition. Separation efficiency
can only be correctly measured after this steady-state condition has been
achieved.
The certified flow rate of a centrifuge is defined as the capacity at which 85
percent of plastic particles are removed 30 minutes after the start of the test.
Capacity and efficiency are measured accordingly.

28

Correlation to actual operating conditions

It is impossible to create a standard based on the evaluation of tests using
real catalytic fines in real heavy fuel oil. Fuel oils also vary in terms of chemical
characteristics and in terms of physical characteristics, such as density and
viscosity.
Due to these wide variations, it is impossible to obtain repeatable and comparable results from tests using actual bunkers.
While the model test method has little to do with real bunkers and contaminants, it is by far more realistic than any theoretical calculations and simulates
the particles, including catalytic fines, found in heavy fuel oil.
Tests of centrifuges from three different suppliers were conducted in a model
test rig using the synthetic oil as well as real heavy fuel oils. A comparison
of the results indicates that the model test method provides results that are
in line with those of real heavy fuel oils. In other words, the centrifuges that
provided the best performance when using real heavy fuel oils also provided
the best performance when using synthetic oil. In addition, the differences
noted in performance between the different centrifuges were similar regardless of the oil type tested.
Therefore ranking centrifuges according to the results using the model test
method provides a good indication of how the centrifuge will perform under
real operating conditions and that any differences between centrifuges under
test conditions will most likely be the differences that will be experienced
under real operating conditions.
The definition of CFR is based on well-established centrifuge capacities that
have been used in the marine industry for decades. This translates into reliable
separation performance when CFR capacities are employed.
Why a model test method?
Let us look at two different scenarios where fuel oil contains catalytic fines
at the maximum allowable values, but where the distribution of particle size
differs. In the first and best-case scenario, the fuel oil contains only large
particles and the separation efficiency is 100 percent; in the second and
worst-case scenario, it contains all submicron particles and the separation
efficiency is zero (Figure 13).

29

Best case

Worst case

80 ppm

80 ppm
0 ppm

Large particles
all separated

80 ppm

Small particles
nothing separated

Figure 13. Difference in separation performance due to particle size.

In reality, the particle size distribution in heavy fuel oil falls somewhere
between these two extremes. Given the specified limit of 80 ppm of catalytic
fines for fuel oil and the maximum value of 15 ppm that is generally accepted
by engine builders, fuel cleaning systems therefore must deliver a separation
efficiency of a minimum of 81 percent. This indicates why a reliable model
test method that simulates actual operating conditions is required to compare
the performance of different centrifuges.
Type approval
So far, six classification societies have granted type approval for certified flow
rate. Det Norske Veritas is one of these classification societies and has in
addition defined a new voluntary Class Notation Fuel, which includes Type
Approval (CFR). The other five classification societies are:

American Bureau of Shipping

China Ship Classification Society
Germanischer Lloyd
Lloyds Register
Russian Maritime Register of Shipping.

Alfa Laval is the first supplier to receive type approval (CFR). This concerns its
complete range of new SPS-separators.

30

Economical aspects
It is impossible to calculate what economic benefits may be realised by using
certified flow rate (CFR) to dimension centrifuges for marine fuel cleaning
systems rather than manufacturers maximum recommended capacity (MRC)
tables. This is due both to the various process parameters that cannot be
controlled and to the variable quality of the fuel.
Because the capacities specified in MRC tables are higher than those of
CFR tables, a centrifuge installation based on CFR tables will therefore
typically consist of larger and more expensive centrifuges than the same
installation based on MRC tables.
In return, however, the results include improved separation efficiency and a
reduction in the amount of catalytic fines present in the fuel that is injected into
the engine. This not only will lower maintenance costs since there will be less
abrasive wear, but more importantly, will improve the chances of avoiding
engine component breakdown.
Currently, there is not any objective data to compare the actual impact of
using CFR tables rather than MRC tables. However, rough calculations for
pay-off time as a function of assumptions about the reduction in engine wear
are indicated below.
If on average a reduction in wear of five percent may be achieved, then the
installation of a centrifuge based on CFR tables essentially pays for itself within
one to three years. If a reduction in wear of 10 percent is achieved, then the
payback time is considerably shorter anywhere from between six months
and two years.
The investment in a fuel cleaning system is typically between 0.5 and 1.5
percent of the total costs for annual fuel consumption. This indicates that it
would be wise to invest in an amply dimensioned fuel cleaning system. This
one-time investment would then enable cheaper fuel oil to be purchased over
the long run.
In other words, a major upfront investment in a fuel cleaning system based
on the new separation performance standard may deliver more savings in
operating costs in the long run without compromising ship safety.

31

Dimensioning of fuel
cleaning systems
Sizing of centrifuges
Correct sizing of the centrifuges is of utmost importance. When specifying
the total required flow rate of the fuel cleaning system, the fuel consumption
of auxiliary engines and boilers, if any, must be taken into account. Currently,
the appropriate centrifuge is selected from the capacity tables issued by the
centrifuge suppliers and engine manufacturers.
To base oil consumption on the Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) of the
engines, the following formula can be used.

Q =

P b 24
(l/h)
T

Q = Fuel oil consumption (l/h)

P = MCR (kW or HP)
b

= Specific fuel oil consumption (kg/kWh or kg/HPh) specified by the engine supplier

= Fuel oil density (Presumed to be 0.96 kg/l)

= Daily net operating time (Number of operating hours per 24-hour day)

Tests for finding specific fuel oil consumption are normally conducted using
distillate fuel, and the results may have to be adjusted by a factor for so-called
non-ISO conditions. It is assumed that the engine supplier includes this value
in the factor b above.
Certified Flow Rate vs. Maximum Recommended Capacity
Maximum Recommended Capacity
Suppliers of centrifuges determine the maximum recommended capacity
(MRC) for each unit according to individual criteria, which are not commonly
known and not absolutely comparable. Suppliers have been inclined to
recommend higher capacity values for individual units as a simple way to
remain competitive.

32

Certified Flow Rate

A centrifuges certified flow rate (CFR) is measured according to the separation performance standard. Using CFR to specify centrifuges ensures the
selection of the correct centrifuge size for the performance required and
thereby ensures safe engine operation.
Conventional capacity requirement
The capacity requirement takes into account several safety factors, which
together ensure that the selected centrifuge will perform well. The conventional
requirement, which is based on centrifuge size, is not uniform and generally
employs a number of unknown safety margins.
For example, dimensioning a centrifuge using the conditions below will result
in a far higher given requirement for separator size than is actually needed.

Requirement for stand-by centrifuges

Dimensioning for 700 cSt HFO, whereas 380 cSt will typically be burned
Operation on 100% of MCR, whereas 85% is the typical power
A non-ISO factor of for instance 1.18, even if this factor is already
included in the Specific Fuel Oil Consumption (SFOC) provided by the
engine supplier.

This will lead to considerable oversizing of the centrifuge installation, which

has become a generally accepted means of countering functional problems.
This approach can to some extent be explained by the fact that certain installations have historically provided insufficient performance.
Accurate capacity requirement
Using an accurate calculation of fuel consumption and eliminating extra
safety margins provides a requirement that is considerably smaller than the
output using conventional methods.
Matching size to requirement
Given the information above, precision in matching size to requirement would
be gained by eliminating the non-defined margins of both requirement and
of centrifuge capacity. A recommendation therefore is to abandon the wide
margins used to define size requirement and to use CFR to define the correct
centrifuge size.

33

Conclusion
The levels of catalyst fines in bunkered fuels are controlled by the ISO 8217
marine fuel standards and CIMAC fuel recommendation. However it is important that bunkered fuels are cleaned on board all vessels to ensure that the
fuel is suitable for use in the engine. High levels of catalyst fines entering the
engine have catastrophic effects.
It is important that centrifuges are correctly operated on board the vessel,
but equally important that the centrifuge is of a suitable size for its intended
purpose. The new Separation Performance Standard, which uses the test
method that determines the Certified Flow Rate of each centrifuge, will ensure
that vessels are equipped with centrifuges that are correctly sized.

34

www.fotoskrift.se

Alfa Laval AB
SE-147 80 Tumba
Sweden
+46 (0) 8 530 650 00
www.alfalaval.com/marine

BP Marine Ltd
Chertsey Road
Sunbury-on-Thames
Middlesex
TW16 7LN
United Kingdom
+44 (0) 1932 762000
www.bpmarine.com

EMD00078EN 0512

MAN B&W Diesel

MAN B&W Diesel A/S

Teglholmsgade 41
DK-2450 Copenhagen SV
Denmark
+45 33 85 11 00
www.manbw.com