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CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER-3 PROBLEM DEFINITION AND MOTIVATION TO DO THE WORK
CHAPTER-4 DESIGN OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF DEVICE
A. Design Of Front Fork Linkages
Graphical methods of dimensional synthesis
Mathematical Formulas and Calculations
Design Of Parallel Side Bogie
Designing Robot Structure
Selection Of Motors
Minimum Required Torque For Front Motor
B. Design on AutoCAD
CHAPTER-5 FABRICATION OF DEVICE
CHAPTER-6 SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
REFERENCES
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1
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this project is to design and manufacturing a rescue robot bogie. In
rescue like operations, a person may encounter difficulties in seeking and assisting the
victims properly, especially in unstructured environment. Therefore using a robot to search
for injured persons as well as describing the best path to reach a victim reduces the risk in a
rescue operation. In contrast, it will increase the accuracy, safety, and the speed of a rescue
operation.
One of the challenging issues in the design of the rescue robots is their ability to
handle unstructured and unstable physical conditions of the working environment.
In order to fulfill a good rescue operation especially in uneven and unstable terrains a rescue
robot must have some features listed:
1. Adaptation and smooth movement on the uneven terrains.
2. Passing obstacles of different sizes.
3. A Tip over stability.
4.
Ability to come out of holes and continue motion even when problems occur for
individual wheels.
The main structure is based on a shrimp mechanism. As a general rule, rover robots are
more adaptable and stable than walking robots. They are less complicated and more efficient
in unstructured environments. The only deficiency in shrimp rovers is that they cannot
generally climb too high.
In order to fulfill the above requirements the ARDRO will have the mechanical design as per
given below:
The ARDRO has six wheels that operate separately; back and front wheels and four
side wheels that are mounted in parallel bogies system. Its special design, flexible elbows, a
spring fitted in the front elbow that work as a pushing force, makes it possible for robot to
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adjust rough areas and obstacles such that all six wheels touch the ground
simultaneously(fig.1).
Each wheel is driven by its own motor. The rear motor is fixed permanently to the chassis
body, and the remaining five motors are on pivoting legs.
Each side of the chassis has a pair of wheels mounted on legs. The legs are connected by two
cross plates and pivot at two points.
kinematics of the front fork is considered; then the other parameters will be optimized
according to the mentioned goals.
Fig.2 Parallel mechanisms a) virtual rotation axis of a bogie b) front fork kinematics.
Because the instantaneous rotation center is placed below the wheel axis, the fork passively
folds for climbing an obstacle.
The Center of Gravitys path:
The robot is designed to be able to climb stairs with 20 cm in height. While passing through
obstacles, front and side wheels mechanism cause the center of gravity to move gently.
Robot behavior while passing stairs is shown in Fig.3. In this picture, path of C.G on stairs is
very close to the behavior of a slope with the average stair slope. To soften the movement,
two parameters of size and location of bogies play an important role. Path of C.G while
climbing stairs is shown in Fig.4 for different values of bogies size.
Fig.4 The path of center of gravity for various bogies size (all dimensions are in cm)
APPLICATIONS OF ARDRO:
Rescue operations for natural disasters like earth quakes, fire rescue etc.
ARDRO can also be used in military mine detection, combat, search operations.
The CRAB has two parallel bogies connected at the bottom through the middle wheel
and at the top with a rotational joint to prevent hyper-statism. The vertical middle levers of
the bogies are placed at a 2/3 1/3 ratio from the middle wheel in order to distribute the
weight of chassis and payload evenly on all wheels because the COM is exactly above the
middle wheel.
C. RCL-E; Fig.7
Fig.7 Concept E (RCL-E) of Rover Science and Technology Company developed for ESA
The RCL-E has one parallel bogie on each side in front. The back wheels are
mounted on a transversal parallel bogie that serves as a leveling mechanism in case of
asymmetric obstacles. However, this mechanism has no influence on 2D terrains and can be
replaced by a rigid link between chassis and back wheel without changing the kinematics of
the rover. The COM is situated above the middle wheel.
D. RCL-C; Fig.8
E. CRAB-S; Fig.9
The CRAB-S concept is similar to the CRAB, but the parallel bogies were replaced by
regular bogies and connection joints were added to the bogies to provide the required degrees
of freedom. The system is symmetric with the COM in the middle.
Fig.10 CRAB-8
The CRAB-8 concept is an eight wheeled suspension system that makes use of two
parallel bogies on each side which are connected to the chassis. The system is symmetric
with the COM in the middle.
F. DOUBLE SPRING; Fig.11
One of the major challenging issues for army is to secure the national borders from
terrorists. In case of mountains and hilly areas at a very long height it is difficult to breath for
army persons due to lack of oxygen and pressure.
We all are very well known about the projects from various space organizations like
NASA and ISRO. The robots are sent to the space and they send us the information about the
environment present there. One of the major problems for robots is to move on the surface of
planets. There may be various types of obstacles or hindrances in the paths of such robots
which is to be overcome by them.
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Tendency of the robot to move forward while the front wheel is climbing. Proper
range of ascending and descending.
Sufficient storage of energy in the spring mounted on the mechanism to help the other
parts in climbing.
Meeting the first criterion deserves a large force component on the coupler curve in
the direction which causes the upward motion. Below fig.14 shows the coupler curve of a
mechanism in three different situations.
11
12
T = F h >0
13
14
Join points A1, B1 and A2, B2 to pole P12 .Body rotation of link A1B1 about the pole P12
can now be conceived as rotation of triangle P12B1A1 about imaginary pivot P12.With this
concept clearly,
`
mid-normals of lines joining A1, A2 and B1, B2. The point A is called circle point because an
arc of circle can be passes through the corresponding positions A1 and A2.Corresponding
centre- point in the form of fixed pivot Oa, can in fact be located anywhere along the midnormal of line A1A2 and will be known as center point- conjugate to the circle point A. A link
joining center point to the circle point can guide point A from A 1 to A2. Similar discussion is
valid for circle point B and its conjugate center point (fixed pivot) Ob .
In rigid body guidance (i.e. motion generation) a designer has the choice of selecting
position of line AB anywhere in the body or its extension. Thus in guiding a rigid body
through two positions three free choices exists for selecting a pair of circle point and
corresponding center point: two choices in respect of independent variables x and y for point
a in the coordinate frame and one in respect of location of fixed pivot Oa anywhere along
mid-normal of line joining two positions A1 and A2 of point A. Therefore three infinites of
solution are possible for fixing a pair of circle point and center point in constructing a 4-bar
linkage for rigid body guidance. Even if it is not possible to locate fixed pivot O B on the midnormal of B1B2, it does not matter.
We have applied this synthesis for four bar front fork mechanism for a vertical
displacement of 15 cm and get the lengths of linkages as shown in figure 17.
It is used to find the length of links & also calculate the displacements of links. Consider a
four bar mechanism of ABCD as shown in fig.7 in which O2A=L2, AB=L3, BO4=L4, O2O4=L1.
The link O2O4 is fixed & lies along X-axis .Let the links O 2A, AB, BO4, O2O4 makes angles
2, 3 and 4 respectively along the X-axis or link O2O4.
(1)
(2)
(3)
17
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Let
L1 / L2 = k1, L1 / L3=k2, L2-L3+L4+L1/2L2L4 = k3
(8)
(9)
3 = arccos[(L3+S-L4)/(2*L3*S)]
= arctan [(L2sin2)/ (L1 L2cos2)]
Co-ordinates of point P;
Xp = L2cos2 + L5 cos ( + 3)
(10)
Yp = L2sin2 + L5 sin ( + 3)
(11)
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From this method of dimensional synthesis following design is obtained for front fork:
C
D
AB=21cms
AD=6cms
CD=13.5cm
s
Fig.19
BC=15cms
Within the front fork design section appropriate setting for the front fork was
BE=15cms
discussed and now its implementation and mechanical detail design will be considered. These
conditions ensure effective operation of the mechanism:
Appropriate strength especially against lateral loads and impact forces caused by front
obstacles while designing with minimum clearance.
Providing enough space for a highly adjustable spring.
rugged routes and obstacles, it is imperative to have a good rotational capability in addition
to high stiffness. To overcome the rotation difficulties, two pairs of angular contact ball
bearing have been used for installation of each bogie. Clearance between linkages has been
reduced by proper mounting method.
Now similarly we applied the graphical method of synthesis for parallel side bogies
and get following results(fig.20), which are checked by Freudensteins equation (equation for
displacement).
AB=CD=20cms
AD=EF=BC=6cms
G
AG=BH=12cms
Fig.20
Since parallel bogies pass the obstacles easier than classical bogies (although both have
similarities in kinematics and in kinetics), they are used in this design (Figure).
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21
Parts of the robot structure are the fork and parallel bogies that were considered
earlier. The other part connects back wheel with those three parts and is explained in this
section. Robot structure is similar to a box that connects the wheels, as its nodes, together
and transfers loads from them to ground. Selection from the various forms available was
based on these notes:
High strength and low weight that have lead to a holed structure.
The structure is made from plates, similar to a house structure. The batteries (one of the
densest and most sensitive parts of the robot), electrical wires, and other parts of robot are
located within these plates.
Finally, the backbone or structure of the middle of the robot is in complete
accordance with available operational space while considering motion of large wheels and
motors.
Despite the expense and large amount of machining time, required for reducing
structure weight, it is very effective in its purpose as robot structure and does its best in
increasing robot beautifully due to its harmony with other parts.
D. Selection Of Motors
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Wheel Forces:
Fig.22 Free body diagrams of towed (a) and driven (b) wheels
A rigid wheel sinks on the soft terrain as in figure 22. sh distance is called sinkage height.
Geometry of wheel, material and ground stiffness affects sinkage height. Depending on the
geophysical properties of soil, different reaction and resistance forces act on wheel. The
towed wheel carries some part of body weight (Ww). The force P which tries to move the
wheel, acts from vehicle axis to center point of the wheel. These two forces are balanced by
vertical ground reaction force (Rv) and resistance force of soil R. In towed wheel, resistance
force has to be as small as possible. Motion resistance force is resultant of soil compaction
resistance, bulldozing resistance, rolling resistance, gravitational resistance and obstacle
resistance. On the driven wheel, additional traction force F acts to the contact point with the
Same direction of motion. Traction force tries to pull the chassis of robot.
Wheel Motion:
While driving on a flat surface, if there is no slipping, wheel center will move on a
line parallel to the surface with constant velocity. Although, obstacle geometries can be
different, most difficult geometry which be can climbed by wheel is stair type rectangular
obstacle.
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Fig23. Wheel passing over same wheel diameter (a) and more than half wheel diameter (b)
height obstacle
In figure 23 (a), height of the obstacle is same or less than the half diameter of the wheel.
For this condition, the wheels instant center of rotation (IC1) is located at the contact point
of the obstacle and wheel. Trajectory of the wheel centers during motion generates a soft
curve, thus, horizontal motion of the wheel center does not break. Since in figure 23 (b),
height of the obstacle is more than the half diameter of wheel, this condition can be classified
as climbing. Climbing motion consist of two sub motions. First one is a vertical motion,
which causes a horizontal reaction force on wheel center. This vertical motions instant center
(IC2) is at infinity. Second one is a soft rotation similar to figure 23 (a) with instant center of
rotation (IC3) at the corner.
Wheel Slip and Rolling Resistance:
The intent is to formulate a holistic model of a robot to optimize the control of the
wheel motor torques to minimize wheel slip. Therefore it is helpful to review the governing
equations on wheel slip and rolling resistance. These equations are later incorporated into a
quasi-static model of a robot. Figure 24 shows the common forces acting on the wheel of a
mobile robot.
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T : friction force
N : normal force
R : wheel's radius
M : motor torque
(12)
(13)
In order to avoid wheel slip, the friction force which depends directly from the motor torque,
M, should satisfy the equation (12)
T=M / R = Ff <= 0 * N
(14)
The above equations suggest that there are two ways to reduce wheel slip. First, assume that
o is known and set:
T <= 0 * N
(15)
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then possible to calculate the forces T and N as a function of the torque and the result is
optimized in order to minimize the ratio T / N. Accounting for the previous assumption:
T / N = n *N / N= n
(16)
T, N : tangential/normal force
R : wheel's radius
Mr : friction torque
Fig.25 Rolling resistance on a motorized wheel
The friction torque, or rolling resistance torque, is opposed to the movement (Hertz-Foppl
model [8]):
Mr = R *T = 0.15 (R / l * E)(1/2) * N (3/2)
(17)
where l is the length of the rectangular contact patch and E is the reduced elasticity module
described by :
E = 2*E1*E2 / (E1+E2)
(18)
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where E1 and E2 are the elasticity of the wheel and the ground. This representation expresses
the friction torque as dependant on the normal force applied on the wheel. A greater normal
force results in a greater resistance torque which follows intuition.
Equation 17 is not linear which can be difficult for analytical solutions. It is therefore
simplified as:
Mr = * 0.15 (R / l * E)(1/2) * N
(19)
where is a coefficient for reducing the simplification error. is identified after an iterative
process that estimates the simplification error.
Minimum Required Torque for Front Motor:
As discussed earlier in the design of the front fork, a horizontal force on the front
wheel will produce a positive torque that pulls up the mechanism on the first step
independent from the torque of the motor. But we have to use this torque to overcome the
spring resistance.
Assuming the weight of the bogie, its components such as batteries, switches, motors
and wheels etc equals to 6kg.
Reaction at each wheel=N=1kg=9.8N
Friction force at the wheel=*N=9.8
Now from above formula it is very well known that friction force depends upon ,
which depends on the wheel-soil interaction.
In such case we assume as 1, which is maximum possible value. Thus,
F friction = 9.8 N
Torque required for overcoming this friction force,
Tf=Ff*r
(20)
(21)
Design on AutoCAD
Design of device is made on AutoCAD according to dimensions obtained from analytical and
graphical method. Few images of robot design are given in following pages:
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U-Cross Section Bars And Cylindrical Rods We have joined 2 U cross section2cm*2cm
having depth and thickness 1.2 cm and 2 mm respectively and cylindrical rods
having diameter 5mm.(fig.30)
.
Fig.30
Rotary Joints Figure shows the rotary joint mechanism used in the device.(fig.31)
Fig. 31
30
.
Fig.32
Side Bogie To Rigid Structure Joints- side bogies are pivoted to main frame or rigid
structure.(fig 33)
Fig.33
31
Fig.34
Fig.35
32
33
Motor
Wheel having larger width
and less thickness
Fig 36.
2. Sensor based navigation:
The objective of the sensor based navigation of a mobile robot is to reach the target in
any unknown workspace, cluttered with obstacles of any shape, size and orientation. The
decision for the proper turn angle of the mobile robot is taken based on the sensory
information and the target location with respect to the current location of the mobile
robot.
3. Solar energy powering system:
Solar energy is a renewable energy resource. And we can use solar cells on ARDRO body
by which the powering system can be more efficient and independent form electric charging
and it will be able to work continuously.
4. Mine detection:
Currently, more than 100 million anti-personnel mines are under the ground all over the
world. These mines not only disturb the economic development of mine-buried nations, but
also injure or kill more than 2000 people a month. As a result, the removal of landmines has
become a global emergency. Under this ultimate environment, a roving robot may be an
effective and efficient means of detecting and removing mines while ensuring the safety of
local residents and people engaged in the removal work.
The mine detection sensor has a mixed sensor which means a metal detector and a radar
sensor. And, anti-personnel mines and anti-tank mines could be detected by the mixed sensor.
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REFERENCES:
1. An Innovative Space Rover with Extended Climbing Abilities Institute of Robotic
Systems, EPFL.
2. "Rocky 7: A Next Generation Mars Rover Prototype."Journal of Advanced Robotics,
11(4), December 1997.
3. "Design and Control of an Innovative Micro-Rover", Proceedings of 5th ESA
Workshop on Advanced Space Technologies Robotics and Automation, The
Netherlands, 1998.
4. Small Marsokhod Configuration, International Conference on Robotics &
Automation, Nice, 1992
5. Theory of machines R.S. Khurmi
6. Theory of machines-P.L. Ballany
7. www.sharif.edu (Center of Excellence in Design, Robotics & Automation School of
Mechanical Engineering Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran)
8. Kalker J.J., Three dimensional elastic bodies in rolling contact,
9. Apostolopoulos, D.S., "Analytical Configuration of Wheeled Robotic Locomotion"
10. "New Planetary Rovers For Long-Range Mars Science And Sample Return",
11. "Engineering Support on Rover Locomotion for Exo-Mars Rover Phase A- "ESROLA
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