1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The activities of man give rise to a wide range of waste products, many
of which become waterborne and must be carefully treated before being
released to the environment. Such waste-waters may contain excreta,
household wastes, industrial discharges, agricultural run-offs, and urban
storm drainage. All these wastes, individually or collectively, can pollute
and contaminate the environment.

There is an increasing need for low-cost methods of treating wastewaters,

particularly municipal sewage and industrial effluents. The operation
of such methods, and the maintenance of the necessary plant and equipment,
must be within the capability of developing urban centres and industrial
complexes.

As migration from rural to urban areas continues, the control of wastewater

will become increasingly difficult. This problem has two aspects :
water must be supplied for the carriage of household and industrial wastes,
and the waterborne wastes from a community that has an adequate water
supply must be safely disposed off.

As urbanization continues household privies, septic tanks, sand-filter

drains, and other methods of disposing of excreta may create economic and
health problems. Such practices as the disposal of night-soil by burial or
the disposal of waste-waters in cesspools (underground pits) can also contribute
significantly to the pollution of soil and water if attempted on the
scale required for a large urban centre. Expenditures must be equitably
distributed between the collection and treatment of community wastes. An
elaborate treatment scheme, whether biological or chemical, is impractical
without a satisfactory collection system.

It is generally recognized that some form of biological treatment provides

the most economical solution for handling domestic and most industrial
waste-waters. Waste stabilization pondsthe form of biological
treatment with which this project is concernedare most suitable for
locations where land is inexpensive, organic loadings fluctuate, currency
restrictions are in force, and there is a shortage of trained operating personnel.
The design of a waste stabilization pond depends on the treatment objectives.
A pond system is usually designed to receive untreated domestic or
industrial wastes, but may also be designed to treat primary or secondary
treatment plant effluents, excess activated sludge, or diluted night-soil.
The ponds may be used to pretreat wastes, to remove most of the biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), and to reduce the concentration of disease-causing
agents.
In waste stabilization ponds, the decomposable organic wastes are
stabilized by micro-organisms and the numbers of disease-causing agents
are reduced significantly, primarily due to the long detention period required
for stabilization. In some types of pond, aerobic conditions can be maintained
by the natural photosynthetic processes of algae. These green plants
provide most of the oxygen required for aerobic stabilization. The remainder
of the oxygen is transferred from the air to the water by natural
surface mixing processes.
An inspection of costs will show that it is considerably cheaper to treat
waste-water in stabilization ponds than by other methods, provided land
costs are not prohibitive. The cost of reducing the putrescible content of
waste-water in waste stabilization ponds is usually less than half that of
other methods of treatment. Furthermore, the costs per caput of the population
for small pond systems do not increase rapidly with decreasing size, as they do
with other methods of treatment.

1.1 Importance of Waste Stabilization Ponds and Constructed

Wetlands in Wastewater Treatment in Sub-Tropical Climates
Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSP) and Constructed Wetlands (CW) have proven
to be effective alternatives for treating wastewater, and the construction of low

energy-consuming ecosystems that use natural processes, in contrast to complex

high-maintenance treatment systems, will hopefully lead to more ecologicallysustainable wastewater treatment in the future. CWs and WSPs also have the
capability of meeting the demand for a high percentage removal of pathogenic
organisms, compared to conventional technologies. CWs and WSPs combined,
and joined with other technologies, may be important for even more improved
performance of water cleaning systems. WSPs and CWs are now wellestablished methods for wastewater treatment in sub-tropical climates. Their
many advantages include: simplicity, low cost, low maintenance, low energy
consumption, robustness, and sustainability. While WSPs are most commonly
used for treating domestic wastewaters, they are also successfully used for
treating industrial wastewater, including water that contains agro-industrial
wastes. One of the potential advantages of using constructed wetlands is that
they do not allow mosquitoes to breed (sub-surface flow wetland). The process
of designing WSPs and wetlands, and predicting their performance, is
improving rapidly as we gain more experience with these systems.

1.2 Design Tools and Rapidly-Developing Technology

WSP and designers come from many different backgrounds or disciplines,
including civil engineering, environmental engineering, microbiology, chemical
engineering, soil science, or natural resources management. Many of the WSP
and CW design tools and models have been 4 adopted from countries with
temperate climates. Thus, not all models can be transferred and used in tropical
climate countries. For example, the hydrology and climate in tropical African is
significantly different to that of most States in the United States or South East
Asia. Nutrient removal in these countries has a high priority, whereas the
removal of pathogenic organisms has a high priority in tropical countries. Most
empirical model or design tools developed and used on-site or regionallyspecific WSPs data. Different characteristics, in terms of climate and hydrology,
can lead to problems when models are transferred without appropriate
modification for local conditions. Further, using simple tools or rule of thumb
methods, in lieu of appropriate design techniques, often results in malfunctions
or a reduced efficiency in the effect of WSPs .

1.3 Objectives
The objectives of this waste stabilization pond report are as
follows:
Provide theoretical background on the biological, chemical
and physical processes of WSPs, the current state of the
technology and technical knowledge on how to design, operate
and maintain the systems; and
Provide theoretical knowledge on how the models can be
used in the best manner to describe the system.

Photo 1. Wastewater-fed fish ponds in Calcutta, India. A canal system to distribute

untreated wastewater to the fish ponds is in the foreground and center.

CHAPTER 2

WASTE
WATER
CHARACTERISTICS
AND
BIOLOGICAL STABILISATION
Water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence is
termed as waste water. In other words, waste water may be defined as water in
which impurities are present in such quantity and of such nature as to impair its
use for a stated purpose or designated use. It usually comprises liquid waste
discharge by domestic residences, industries, and/or agriculture and can
encompass a wide range of potential contaminants and concentrations.

2.1 Constituents found in wastewater

The composition of wastewater varies widely. This is a partial list of what it
may contain:

Water (more than 95 percent), which is often added during flushing to

carry waste down a drain;

Pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and parasitic worms;

Non-pathogenic bacteria;

Organic particles such as faeces, hairs, food, vomit, paper fibers, plant
material, humus, etc.;

Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit sugars,

soluble proteins, drugs, pharmaceuticals, etc.;

Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics, etc.;

Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia, road-salt, seasalt, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, etc.;
Animals such as protozoa, insects, arthropods, small fish, etc.;
Macro-solids such as sanitary
napkins, nappies/diapers, condoms, needles, children's toys, dead animals or
plants, etc.;

Gases such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.;

Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants,

emulsified oils, etc.;

Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.

Pharmaceuticals and hormones and other hazardous substances

2.2 Constituents of Concern in Wastewater Treatment

The important constituents of concern in wastewater treatment are listed as
follows:
Table 1 : Principal constituents of concern in wastewater treatment
CONSTITUENTS
Suspended Solids

REASON FOR IMPORTANCE

Suspended solids can lead to the development of
sludge deposits and anaerobic conditions when
untreated waste water is discharged in the aquatic
environment

Biodegradable organics

Composed primarily of proteins, carbohydrates, and

fats, biodegradable organics are measured most
commonly in terms of BOD and COD. If discharged
untreated into the environment, their biological
stabilization can lead to the depletion of natural
oxygen resources and to the development of septic
conditions

Pathogens

Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the

pathogenic organisms that may be present in
wastewater

Nutrients

7
Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with carbon, are
essential nutrients for growth. When discharged to the
aquatic environment, these nutrients can lead to the
growth of undesirable aquatic life. When discharged in
excessive amounts on land, they can also lead to
groundwater pollution

Priority pollutants

Organic and inorganic compounds selected on the

basis of their known or suspected carcinogenicity,
mutagenicity, tertatogenicity, or high acute toxicity.
Many of these compounds are found in wastewater

Refractory organics

These organics tend to resist conventional methods of

wastewater treatment. Typical examples include
surfactants, phenols and agricultural pesticides

Heavy metals

Heavy metals are usually added to wastewater from

industrial and commercial activities and may have to
be removed if the waste water is to be reused

Dissolved inorganics

Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium and

sulphate are added to the original domestic water
supply as a result of water use and may have to be
removed if the waste water is to be reused

2.2 WASTE CHARACTERISTICS

The amount and composition of the wastes, whether waterborne or not,
are of prime importance to the designer and operator of a treatment facility.
Although there is considerable similarity in basic content, the volume and
character of wastes obviously vary from one country to another. Climatic
conditions and social customs are but two of the many factors that cause the
type and volume of wastes to differ.
Waste characteristics is basically classified under the following heads:

Physical Characteristics
Inorganic Chemical Characteristics
Organic Chemical Characteristics
Biological Characteristics

In waste stabilization ponds, greater emphasis is given to the removal of

decomposable organic wastes.

1.2.1 Physical Characteristics

The most important physical characteristic of wastewater is its total solids
content (TS), which is composed of floating matter, settleable matter, colloidal
matter, and matter in solution. Other important physical characteristics include
particle size distribution, turbidity, color, transmittance, temperature,
conductivity, and density, specific gravity, and specific weight.

1.2.2 Inorganic Chemical Characteristics

Inorganic chemical constituents of concern include nutrients, nonmetallic
constituents, metals and gases. The sources of inorganic chemical constituents
in wastewater derive from the background levels in water supply and from the
additions resulting from domestic use, from the addition of highly mineralized
water from private wells and groundwater, and from industrial use. Constituents
of priority under this head are pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, alkalinity, chlorides,
sulfur, other inorganic constituents and gases.

1.2.3 Organic Chemical Characteristics

Organic constituents of interest in wastewater are classified as aggregate and
individual. Aggregate organic constituents are comprised of a number of
individual compounds that cannot be distinguished separately. Both aggregate
and individual organic constituents are of great significance in the treatment,
disposal and reuse of wastewater. Constituents of priority under this head are
five-day carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD5), ultimate
carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand ( UBOD or BODu or BOD1 ),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), NOD, TOC etc.

1.2.4 Biological Characteristics

The biological characteristics of wastewater are of fundamental importance in
the control of diseases caused by pathogenic organisms of human origin, and
because of the extensive and fundamental role played by bacteria and other
microorganisms in the decomposition and stabilization of organic matter, both
in nature and in wastewater treatment plants. The characteristics considered

under this head are coliform organisms (MPN), bacteria, protozoa, helminthes,
viruses, and toxicity (Toxic Unit Acute and Toxic Unit Chronic).

2.3 MODE OF DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER

The decomposition of organic material may take place under aerobic or
anaerobic conditions. The aerobic process requires a continuous supply of free
dissolved oxygen and is the most efficient method for reducing the organic
content of dilute liquid wastes. However, where solids must be liquefied and
where the wastes are highly concentrated, as in the case of settled organic solids
from domestic wastewaters, night-soil, and wastes from abattoirs, the anaerobic
process is extremely effective.

2.3.1 Aerobic process

In the aerobic metabolism of organic matter, much of the carbon serves
as a source of energy for the organisms and is respired as carbon dioxide
(CO2). The organisms involved are mostly bacteria, but also include fungi
and protozoa. They use the remainder of the carbon, together with phosphorus
and nitrogen, to form new cells. In typical domestic waste-waters,
the weight of cells produced is roughly equal to 40 % and 60 %, respectively,
of the weight of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and BOD5 removed.
The major reactions likely to occur in an aerobic waste stabilization pond
system are as follows :
(CH2O)X + xO2 XCO2 + XH2O
Protein (organic N) ammonia nitrite nitrate
Organic sulfur sulfate
Organic phosphate H3PO4 CaPO4
The quantity of oxygen required to stabilize the organic material in the
waste depends on the BOD satisfied during treatment. This BOD is the
oxygen that must be supplied to waste stabilization ponds by photosynthetic
means, transferred across the air-water interface, or obtained from oxygen
containing compounds such as nitrates, phosphates, and sulfates. Similarly,
the rate at which oxygen is used is an important factor in the design of a

10

treatment plant.
Aerobic micro-organisms have the ability to synthesize new cell material
from wastes containing complex organic compounds. Thus some of the
organic material is used to make protoplasm and some of the waste is
degraded into low-energy compounds. Oxygen must be supplied continuously
during the aerobic process, for it acts as the final hydrogen acceptor
during the oxidation of organic matter and the reaction ceases if it is not
available. Liberation of energy occurs during this hydrogen transfer.

2.3.2Anaerobic process
Putrefactive breakdown of organic material takes place during anaerobic
fermentation. This is a two-step process. First, a special group of acid producing
bacteria known as facultative heterotrophs degrade organic matter into fatty
acids, aldehydes, alcohols, etc. Then a group of methane bacteria convert the
intermediate products to methane (CH4), ammonia (NH,), carbon dioxide
(CO2), and hydrogen (H2). Like the aerobic process, the anaerobic process
converts carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients to cell protoplasm.
However, the mechanisms of anaerobic decomposition are exceedingly complex
and are not thoroughly understood. Oxygen is also required for the anaerobic
process, but its source is chemical compounds, not free dissolved oxygen. In
anaerobic decomposition the end products are quite complicated; the reactions
are slower and the products may be odoriferous. There is always some
anaerobic activity in the bottom mud and sediments, even in ponds designed to
operate aerobically. In deep ponds, too, there is likely to be a layer of liquid near
the bottom that will support anaerobic organisms.
The biochemical reactions that occur in the anaerobic decomposition
of wastes might be expressed as follows:
(CH2O)X xCH3COOH
CH3COOH CH4 + CO2
Organic nitrogen ammonia

11

*Organic phosphate undergoes reduction

2.4 BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS

The biological organisms in a wastewater treatment plant may produce many
biochemical changes. The major biological reactions occurring in waste
stabilization ponds include:
(a) oxidation of organic material by aerobic bacteria,
(b) nitrification of protein and other nitrogenous material by aerobic
bacteria,
(c) reduction of organic material by anaerobic bacteria living in bottom
deposits and liquids, and
(d) oxygenation of surface liquids by algae.
Certain basic facts regarding the oxidation of organic wastes are now accepted :
(a) the dissolved oxygen is reduced during stabilization of organic material ; (b)
the rate of oxidation is independent of the amount of dissolved oxygen
available; (c) the type and number of organisms present is important; and (d)
changes in oxygen content can serve as a measure of the quantity and character
of oxidizable organic matter.
CHAPTER 3

WASTE STABILISATION
PONDS: CLASSIFICATION,
LAYOUT AND COMPONENTS
Stabilization ponds are open, flow-through earthen basins specifically designed
and constructed to treat sewage and biodegradable industrial wastes,
stabilization ponds provide comparatively long detention periods extending
from a few to several days. During this period putrescible organic matter in the
waste is stabilized in the pond through a symbiotic relationship between
bacteria and algae, Pond systems, in which oxygen is provided through
mechanical aeration rather than algal photosynthesis, are called aerated lagoons.

12

Lightly loaded ponds used as tertiary step in waste treatment for polishing of
secondary effluents and removal of bacteria are called maturation ponds.
On the basis of mode of decomposition of organic waste, or the biological
activity, waste stabilization ponds can be broadly classified as:

WASTE
STABILISATI
ON PONDS

AEROBIC
PONDS

ANAEROBIC
PONDS

FACULTATIV
E PONDS

3.1 AEROBIC PONDS

In aerobic wastewater treatment ponds, aerobic microorganisms use dissolved
oxygen to degrade the organic matter into carbon dioxide, water, and cell
biomass. With regard to dissolved oxygen, O2 is supplied mainly through
mechanical or diffused aeration rather than by algal photosynthesis. The
submerged systems can include perforated tubing or piping, with a variety of
diffusers attached. A partial mix system provides only enough aeration to satisfy
the O2 requirements of the system. It does not provide energy to keep all solids
in suspension. In some cases, the initial cell in a system might be a complete
mix unit followed by partial mix and settling cells. A complete mix system
requires about 10 times the amount of energy required for a similarly sized
partial mix system (Aerated Facultative Ponds).

13

Aerobic ponds are designed to maintain completely aerobic conditions. They are
used for soluble wastes (primary effluent) which allow penetration of light
throughout the liquid depth. The ponds are kept shallow with depth less than 0.5
m and BOD loadings of 40-120 kg/ha.d for a detention period of 3 to 5 days. In
some cases the detention period reaches to 10 days depending on the nature of
waste. The pond contents may be periodically mixed. Such ponds develop
intense algal growth and have been used on experimental basis only.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of aerobic ponds include reliable BOD5
removal, significant nitrification of NH3 with sufficient mean
cell residence time, treatment of influent with higher BOD5 in
less space, and reduced potential for unpleasant odours. On
the other hand, aerobic ponds are more complicated to design
and construct, which increases capital and O&M costs. A larger
staff is needed for whom training must be provided on a
regular basis. Finally, sludge removal is more frequent and
requires secondary treatment for disposal offsite.

3.2 ANAEROBIC PONDS

An anaerobic pond is a non-aerated, non-heated, and non-mixed deep
impoundment, essentially free of dissolved oxygen (DO). The biochemical
processes take place in deep basins, and such ponds are often used as
preliminary treatment systems. Because they are typically more than 8 feet
deep, the effects of oxygen (O2) diffusion from the surface of an anaerobic pond
are minimized, allowing anaerobic conditions to dominate. The process is
analogous to that of a single-stage unheated anaerobic digester. Preliminary
treatment in an anaerobic pond includes separation of settleable solids, digestion
of solids, and treatment of the liquid portion. They are conventionally used to
treat high-strength industrial wastewater or to provide the first stage of
treatment in municipal wastewater pond treatment systems.

14

Depending on temperature and waste characteristics, BOD load of 400-3000

kg/ha.d and 5-50 day detention period would result in 50-85% BOD reduction.
Such ponds are constructed with a depth of 2.5-5 m to conserve heat and
minimize land area requirement. Usually they have an odour problem.

MICROBIOLOGY OF ANAEROBIC PONDS

In anaerobic ponds, stable products, such as carbon dioxide (CO 2) and methane
(CH4), are converted (degraded) from organic materials by anaerobic
microorganisms. The degradation process involves two separate but interrelated
phases: acid formation and methane production. During the acid phase, bacteria
convert complex organic compounds (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) to
simple organic compounds, mainly short-chain volatile organic acids (acetic,
propionic, and lactic acids). The anaerobic bacteria involved in this phase are
called acid formers, and they are classified as non-methanogenic
microorganisms. During this phase, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is low
and BOD5 reduction occurs, because the short-chain fatty acids, alcohols, and
other organic compounds can be used by many aerobic microorganisms. The
methane production phase involves an intermediate step. First, bacteria convert
the short-chain organic acids to acetate, hydrogen gas (H2), and CO2. This
intermediate process is referred to as acetogenesis. Subsequently, several
species of strictly anaerobic bacteria called methane formers convert the
acetate, H2, and CO2 into CH4 through one of two major pathways. This process
is referred to as methanogenesis. During this phase, waste stabilization occurs,
indicated by the formation of CH4. The two major pathways of methane
formation
are: And Disadvantages
Advantages
1. The breakdown of acetic acid to form methane and carbon dioxide:
CH
3COOH CH4 + CO2
Anaerobic
ponds have been especially effective in treating high-strength organic
wastewater. Applications include industrial wastewater and rural community
2.
The reduction
of carbon
dioxide
hydrogen
gas toorganic
form methane:
wastewater
treatment
systems
that by
have
a significant
load from industrial
CO
2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O
sources. The advantages of anaerobic ponds are several: Sludge removal is
infrequently needed, 80 to 90% BOD5 removal can be expected, the energy
requirements to run the plant are low or none, and operation and maintenance (O&M)
are relatively uncomplicated.
Following are the disadvantages of anaerobic ponds: Anaerobic ponds are not an appropriate design for locations that do not have
sufficient land available.
The potential to give off odors, if not properly managed, makes them less a
reliable choice for municipal wastewater treatment.
Finally, the anaerobic process may require long retention times, especially in
cold climates, as anaerobic bacteria are inactive below 15C.
Anaerobic ponds are deep and generally have a relatively longer hydraulic
retention time (HRT), which allows solids to settle, sludge to be digested, and
BOD5 concentrations to be reduced.

15

3.3 FACULTATIVE PONDS

Facultative ponds are those in which a combination of anaerobic, aerobic, and
facultative (able to grow in either the presence or absence of oxygen) bacteria
stabilize effluents. The technology associated with conventional facultative
ponds to treat municipal and industrial wastewater has been in widespread use
for more than 100 years. Its depth usually varies up to 4m. The amount of BOD
loading that it can undertake is approximately 240 kg/hect.day and has a
detention period of near about 20 days.
The layer of water near the surface contains sufficient DO from atmospheric
reaeration and photosynthetic oxygenation by microalgae growing in the photic
zone to support the growth of aerobic and facultative bacteria that oxidize and
stabilize wastewater organics. The bottom layer of a conventional facultative
pond includes sludge deposits that are decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. These
shallow ponds tend to integrate carbon and primary solids undergoing
acetogenic fermentation but only intermittent methane fermentation. The
intermediate anoxic layer, called the facultative zone, ranges from aerobic near
the top to anaerobic at the bottom. These three strata or layers may remain
stable for months due to temperature-induced water density differentials, but
normally, twice a year during the spring and fall seasons, conventional
facultative ponds will overturn, and the tree strata will mix bottom to top, top to
bottom. This overturn inhibits CH4 fermentation by O2 intrusion into the
bottom anaerobic stratum, and, as a result, carbon is integrated rather than being
converted into biogas.

16

FIG 1. SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP AND FUNCTIONING OF FACULTATIVE

STABILISATION POND

The presence of algae, which release O2 as they disassociate water molecules

photochemically to assimilate hydrogen during photosynthesis, is essential to
the successful performance of conventional, as well as advanced, facultative
ponds. On warm, sunny days, the O2 concentration in the aerobic zone can
exceed saturation levels. As the algae take up CO2, the pH of the near-surface
water can exceed 10, creating conditions favorable for ammonia removal via
volatilization. At night, when the algae are not photosynthesizing, O2 levels
decrease. Oxygen and pH levels shift together from a maximum in daylight
hours to a minimum at night. The O2 in the upper layers of the facultative pond
is used by aerobic and facultative bacteria to stabilize organic material.
Anaerobic fermentation, which takes place in the absence of O2, is the
dominant activity in the bottom layer of the pond.
Conceptually, conventional facultative ponds are well suited for rural
communities
industries where land costs are not a limiting factor.
Advantages and
and Disadvantages
Conventional facultative ponds have been used to treat raw, screened, or
primary
settled municipal
wastewater
as wellinfrequent
as higher need
strength
biodegradable
The advantages
of facultative
ponds include
for sludge
removal
industrial
wastewater.
They
represent
a
reliable
and
easy-to-operate
process
that
and the effective removal of settleable solids, BOD5, pathogens, fecal coliform,
is cost effective.
and, to a limited extent, NH3. They are easy to operate and require little energy,
particularly if designed to operate with gravity flow. The disadvantages include
higher sludge accumulation in shallow ponds or in cold climates and variable
seasonal NH3 levels in the effluent. Emergent vegetation must be controlled to
avoid creating breeding areas for mosquitoes and other vectors. Shallow ponds
require relatively large areas. During spring and fall dimictic turnover, odors can
be an intermittent problem

17

3.4 MATURATION PONDS

The main purpose of maturation ponds is to provide a high-quality
effluent. Maturation ponds are not intended to relieve facultative waste
stabilization ponds or conventional biological treatment plants that have
proved too small or to reduce expenditure on operating costs and supervision.
The principal factor in the design of a maturation pond is detention time,
but for efficient reduction of the faecal bacteria it is essential that the pondbe
arranged in series with the preceding pond. The detention time in a maturation
pond, as well as the number of ponds, is determined primarily by the degree of
bacterial purification required. Usually the maturation pond should provide 7-10
days' detention, and a liquid depthof 1 m.

3.5 TYPICAL POND LAYOUTS

The waste stabilization pond system may comprise one pond only (facultative)
or several types of pond in series (anaerobic, facultative, and maturation) (Fig.
2). In addition, it may be desirable to construct a number of series of the same
type so as to permit parallel operation. For example, facultative or anaerobic
ponds may be designed to operate singly or in parallel. If a higher degree of
treatment is desired, a maturation pond might be added beyond the facultative
pond. Similarly, wastes from aqua privies may be further treated in facultative
ponds. In some cases, mechanically aerated waste stabilization ponds may be
used for preliminary aerobic treatment of biological wastes.

18

PHOTO 2. WSP SYSTEM AT FORTALEZA IN NORTHEAST BRAZIL

COMPRISING OF AN ANAEROBIC, A FACULTATIVE AND THREE MATURATION
PONDS

19

AN= ANAEROBIC POND , F= FACULTATIVE POND, M=

MATURATION POND

FIG 2. TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF VARIOUS PONDS IN A WSP SYSTEM