Express Calculation and Science: Information Technology (Centre of Excellence)

Express Calculation and Science
Information Technology (Centre of Excellence)
Rajesh Sharma
M. Tech. (Industrial Design)
Training Officer, Model Industrial Training Institute, Bhopal (M.P.)
Prayaag Publication
Bhopal
Acknowledgments
I off my sincere thanks and gratitude to the authors and publishers of
various standard books on the subject Mathematic, Digital Electronics and
Electrical & Electronics Engineering that I have consulted.
I also convey my sincere thanks and gratitude to examination bodies
such as the State Board of Examination, Madhya Pradesh Board of Technical
Education and similar other bodies whose examination questions I have used by
way of illustration for better understanding of the students.
Rajesh Sharma
Preface
The intension of writing the book Express Calculation and Science is to
help the students of ITI course in Information Technology (Centre of Excellence),
for examinations of All India Trade Test to some extent. As elementary topics
have been discussed, it will easier and helpful for the students for their
examinations.
The aim is to write the book in such a manner that the students get a
firsthand knowledge of the subject matter before solving numerical problems.
The book totally contains twenty chapters. The first eight chapters deal
with the general mathematics, next twelve chapter s deals with Electrical,
Electronics and Digital Electronics.
The authors personally feel that this book will serve the long felt needs of
the students of Information Technology (Centre of Excellence).
The author remains thankful to the department of Training, Madhya
Pradesh. Thanks are also due to my family, colleagues and well-wishers for their
encouragement to write this book.
Though every effort has been make to avoid errors, yet it can not be
claimed that all mistakes have been overcome. The author would be grateful to
his readers for pointing out to him any error or mistakes. Constructive
suggestions for improvement of this book will be most gratefully acknowledged.
Rajesh Sharma
Syllabus
MODULE ITBT - 07: WORKSHOP CALCULATION AND SCIENCE
1. Basic algebra algebric formula quadratic equations
2. Trigonometry Trignometric functions calculation of areas
3. Mensuration Find the area and volume of different objects conversion of
feet, inch, cm, mm
4. Find the equivalent resistance on series circuit, parallel circuit
5. Find the equivalent resistance, voltage and current across each component of
aseries circuit, parallel circuit and series parallel circuit.
6. Solve the series parallel and network circuits using Kirchoffs Law
7. Series and parallel circuits of capacitors/Induction
8. Problems on series ac circuits, impedance, power and power factor
9. Series and parallel resonance circuit
10. Find the turns ratio, efficiency and losses in transformers
11. Find the average dc, load current and efficiency, ripple factor, in half wave and
full wave rectifiers
12. Find the IB, IC, IE in various types of biasing circuits and transistor
configuration circuits
13. Calculate the voltage gain, current gain and power gain in dB units in single
stage emitter following amplifier
14. Problems related to Zener regulator, series regulator and series parallel
regulator circuits
15. Find the frequency of oscillation in various oscillator circuits
16. Problems on conversion of Decimal numbers to binary and Hex
17. Addition and subtraction of Binary and Hex, numbers
18. Problems on Boolean algebra
19. Calculation of SI & Compound Interest
20. Calculations on pulse duration, pulse width, frequency
21. Percentage gain, profit and loss
22. Simple calculation of preparation of results, income tax, etc.
23. Representation and fractions in different format e.g. experimental format,
decimal and percentage formats
24. Conversion and number in bit, byte, kilo byte, mega byte, gega byte, etc.
25. Simple calculation of material cost e.g. sheets, wires, battons, papers, cables,
etc.
Contents
1
4
5
UNITS & MEASUREMENT..................................................................................... 5

1.1 Measurement.......................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Unit ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Classification of units ............................................................................................ 5
1.4 SI Units .................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Inter-relationship between British and Metric systems of units ............................ 6
1.5.1. Length............................................................................................................. 6
1.5.2. Area ................................................................................................................ 7
1.5.3. Volume ........................................................................................................... 7
1.5.4. Weight ............................................................................................................ 7
1.5.5. Pressure........................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Temperature conversion ........................................................................................ 7
GENERAL SIMPLIFICATIONS............................................................................. 9
2.1 Fraction .................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.1. Conversion of fractions ................................................................................ 10
2.2 Powers and roots.................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Factors and expansions ........................................................................................ 12
2.4 Square Roots ........................................................................................................ 13
Exercise .......................................................................................................................... 14
RATIO AND PROPORTION ................................................................................. 17
3.1 Ratio..................................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Proportion ............................................................................................................ 17
Excercise......................................................................................................................... 18
PERCENTAGE ........................................................................................................ 19
Excercise......................................................................................................................... 20
ALGEBRA ................................................................................................................ 21
5.1 Working with algebraic expression ..................................................................... 21
5.2 Addition and Subtraction ..................................................................................... 21
5.3 Multiplication and Division ................................................................................. 21
5.4 Equations ............................................................................................................. 22
5.5 Quadratic equation............................................................................................... 24
Excercise......................................................................................................................... 26
SIMPLE INTEREST AND PROFFIT & LOSS.................................................... 30
6.1 Simple interest: .................................................................................................... 30
6.2 Profit & Loss........................................................................................................ 31
TRIGONOMETRY.................................................................................................. 33
7.1 Relations in Right Triangles ................................................................................ 33
7.2 Solving Right Triangles ....................................................................................... 33
7.3 Relations in Oblique Triangles ............................................................................ 35
7.3.1. The Law of Sines: ....................................................................................... 35
7.3.2. The Law of Cosines: ................................................................................... 35
7.3.3. The Law of Tangents: ................................................................................. 35
7.3.4. Newton's Formulae:...................................................................................... 35
7.3.5. Mollweide's Equations: ................................................................................ 35
7.3.6. Other relations: ............................................................................................. 35
7.4 Solving Oblique Triangles ................................................................................... 36
7.5 Definitions of Trigonometric Functions .............................................................. 37
7.6 Values at special angles: ...................................................................................... 37

7.7 Trigonometric Identities ...................................................................................... 37
Exercise .......................................................................................................................... 45
8
GEOMETRY ............................................................................................................ 48
8.1 Two dimensional.................................................................................................. 48
8.1.1. Triangle......................................................................................................... 48
8.1.2. Quadrilateral ................................................................................................. 51
8.1.3. Regular Polygon ........................................................................................... 55
8.1.4. Circle ............................................................................................................ 57
8.1.5. Ellipse ........................................................................................................... 58
8.1.6. Segment of a Parabola .................................................................................. 58
8.2 Three dimensional................................................................................................ 61
8.2.1. Rectangular Parallelepiped........................................................................... 61
8.2.2. Cube:............................................................................................................. 62
8.2.3. Prism............................................................................................................. 62
8.2.4. Pyramid......................................................................................................... 62
8.2.5. Regular Polyhedron ...................................................................................... 63
8.2.6. Circular Cylinder .......................................................................................... 65
8.2.7. Cone.............................................................................................................. 66
8.2.8. Sphere ........................................................................................................... 67
8.2.9. Ellipsoid........................................................................................................ 68
8.2.10.
Circular or Ring Torus.............................................................................. 68
Excersice......................................................................................................................... 72
9
ELECTRICITY ........................................................................................................ 75
9.1 Common terms of electricity ............................................................................... 75
9.1.1. Resistance ..................................................................................................... 75
9.1.2. E.M.F............................................................................................................ 75
9.1.3. Potential Difference...................................................................................... 75
9.1.4. Current.......................................................................................................... 75
9.1.5. Voltage ......................................................................................................... 75
9.1.6. Volt ............................................................................................................... 75
9.2 Ohms law............................................................................................................ 75
9.2.1. Relation derived from Ohms Law............................................................... 76
9.3 Resistance in series .............................................................................................. 76
9.4 Resistance in parallel ........................................................................................... 77
9.5 Voltage Divider Formulae ................................................................................... 78
Exercise .......................................................................................................................... 83
10
KIRCHHOFF'S CIRCUIT LAWS ...................................................................... 85
10.1
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) ......................................................................... 85
10.2
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) ........................................................................ 85
Exercise .......................................................................................................................... 89
11
CAPACITOR......................................................................................................... 90
11.1
Capacitance ...................................................................................................... 90
11.2
Capacitor in series ............................................................................................ 90
11.3
Capacitor in parallel ......................................................................................... 90
11.4
Voltage across series-connected capacitors ..................................................... 91
Exercise .......................................................................................................................... 93
12
AC CIRCUIT ......................................................................................................... 94
12.1
Purely Resistive Circuit.................................................................................... 94
12.2
Purely Inductive Circuit ................................................................................... 94
12.3
Purely Capacitive Circuit ................................................................................. 94
12.4
Impedance traingle ........................................................................................... 94
12.5
Power................................................................................................................ 95
12.5.1.
Power Factor ............................................................................................. 95
12.6
LCR Series Circuit ........................................................................................... 96
13
RESONANCE ........................................................................................................ 99
13.1
Resonance with capacitors and inductors ........................................................ 99
13.2
Resonance in series .......................................................................................... 99
13.3
Resonance in parallel circuit .......................................................................... 100
13.4
Resonance effect ............................................................................................ 100
14
TRANSFORMER................................................................................................ 102
14.1
Voltage transformation ratio .......................................................................... 102
14.2
Losses in transformer ..................................................................................... 104
14.2.1.
Core or Iron loss: .................................................................................... 104
14.2.2.
Copper loss ............................................................................................. 104
14.3
Efficiency of transformer ............................................................................... 105
Exercise ........................................................................................................................ 108
15
DIODES AND RECTIFIER............................................................................... 110
15.1
P-N junction Diode ........................................................................................ 110
15.1.1.
Forward Characteristic............................................................................ 110
15.1.2.
Reverse Characteristic ............................................................................ 110
15.1
Zener Diode.................................................................................................... 110
15.1.1.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator.......................................................... 111
15.2
Rectifier.......................................................................................................... 111
15.2.1.
Half-wave rectification ........................................................................... 112
15.2.2.
Full-wave rectification............................................................................ 112
16
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS.......................................................... 115
16.1
Transistor Biasing .......................................................................................... 115
16.2
Transistor currents.......................................................................................... 115
16.3
Transistor configuration ................................................................................. 116
16.3.1.
Common-base (CB) configuration.......................................................... 116
16.3.2.
Common-emitter (CE) configuration...................................................... 116
16.3.3.
Common-collector (CC) configuration................................................... 116
16.3.4.
Relation between and :...................................................................... 116
17
AMPLIFIERS ...................................................................................................... 118
17.1
Common base (CB) amplifier ........................................................................ 118
17.1.1.
Various gains of a CB amplifier ............................................................. 119
17.2
Common emitter (CE) amplifier .................................................................... 119
17.2.1.
Various gains of a CE amplifier ............................................................. 120
17.3
Common collector (CC) amplifier ................................................................. 120
17.3.1.
Various gains of a CC amplifier ............................................................. 121
18
OSCILLATORS .................................................................................................. 122
18.1
Classification of oscillator circuits................................................................. 122
18.2
Frequency of oscillator................................................................................... 122
19
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS................................................................................ 124
19.1
Numbers used in digital electronics ............................................................... 124
19.2
Decimal number system................................................................................. 124
19.2.1.
Base or Radix:......................................................................................... 124
19.2.2.
Position Value:........................................................................................ 124
19.3
Binary number system.................................................................................... 125
19.4
Binary to Decimal conversion........................................................................ 125
19.5
Decimal to Binary conversion........................................................................ 126
19.5.1.
Integers.................................................................................................... 126
19.5.2.
Fractions: ................................................................................................ 126
19.6
Binary operation............................................................................................. 126
19.6.1.
Binary addition: ...................................................................................... 127
19.6.2.
Binary substraction: ................................................................................ 127
19.6.3.
Binary multiplication: ............................................................................. 127
19.6.4.
Binary division:....................................................................................... 127
19.7
Hexadecimal number system ......................................................................... 127
20
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA ...................................................................................... 129
20.1
Boolean arithmetic ......................................................................................... 129
20.2
Laws of Boolean algebra................................................................................ 133
21
QUESTION PAPERS ......................................................................................... 135
21.1
2006................................................................................................................ 135
21.2
2007................................................................................................................ 136
21.3
2008................................................................................................................ 137
21.4
2009................................................................................................................ 138
21.5
2009................................................................................................................ 139
1 UNITS&MEASUREMENT
1.1
Measurement
Inscience,measurementistheprocessofobtainingthemagnitudeofaquantity,
suchaslengthormass,relativetoaunitofmeasurement,suchasameterorakilogram.
Ameasurementanswersthegeneralquestion,"howmany?",asinhowmanymiles,or
millimeters, or gigahertz. As measurement is basically about counting, measurement is
conducted in numbers and is quantitative, in comparison to other observations which
maybemadeinwordsandarequalitative.Thetermmeasurementcanalsobeusedto
refertoaspecificresultobtainedfromthemeasurementprocess.
1.2
Unit
In our daytoday life we come across the measurement of different things viz.
quantityofsugar,vegetableinformofweight,distancewetravelfromhometoinstitute
oroffice,timeofclassetc.duringthismeasurement,theformofmeasurementmustbe
the same, not only locally but also universally. The stability and progress of physical
science mainly depends upon the accuracy and consistency of physical laws discovered
andestablishedfromtimetotime.
The establishment of these laws involves measurements of different quantities
i.e.measurementofelectriccurrent,temperature,time,force,volume,distance,weight,
energyetc.
1.3
Classificationofunits
Unitsaremainlyclassifiedintotwocategories:FundamentalunitsandDerived
units.Fundamentalunitsaretheunitsoffundamentalquantitiesi.e.unitsoflength,mass
andtime.UnitsarefurtherdividedintoCGSsystem,MKSsystemandFPSsystem.
Derivedunitsaretheunits,whichareusedtoexpressaquantitybycombinedtwo
ormoreofthefundamentalunits.Forexample,unitsofarea,volume,energy,poweretc.
1.4
SIUnits
AnSIunitmeansSystemInternationaldeunitsorInternationalSystemofUnits.
ThisisamodifiedformofMKSsystemofunits.Therearefourfundamental
Quantities, which belong to other branches of physics. These are temperature,
electriccurrent,luminousintensityandtheamountofsubstance.
S. No.
Quantity
Units
Symbol
1.
Length
Metere
2.
Mass
Kilogram
kg
3.
Time
Second
4.
Electric current
Ampere
UNITS & MEASUREMENT
5.
Temperature
Kelvin
6.
Luminous intensity
Candela
cd
7.
Amount of substance
Mole
mol
rad
Supplementary units
8.
Plane angle
Radian
9.
Solid angle
Steradian
sr
Derived units
1.5
10.
Area
Square meter
m2
11.
Volume
Cubic meter
m3
12.
Liner velocity
Meter per second
m/s
13.
Angular velocity
Radian per second
rad/s
14.
Acceleration
Meter per second square
m/s2
15.
Density
Kg per cubic meter
16.
Force
Newton
17.
Pressure
Newton per square meter (Pascal)
18.
Work/Energy
Joule
19.
Power
Watt
20.
Torque
Newton meter
21.
Specific heat
Joule per kg Kelvin
kg/m3
N
N/m2
Nm
J/kg. K
InterrelationshipbetweenBritishandMetricsystemsofunits
1.5.1. Length
1inch=2.54cm=25.4mm=0.254meter
1foot=30.48cm=0.3048meter
1yard=0.9144meter
1mile=1.609km
1meter=100cm=1000mm
1micron=106meter
UNITS & MEASUREMENT
1.5.2. Area
1squareinch=6.4516squarecm
1squarefoot=0.0929squaremeter
1squareyard=0.8361squaremeter
1acre=4800squareyard=0.4047hectare
1hectare=2.4711acre=10000squaremeter
1squaremeter=10.765squarefoot
1.5.3. Volume
1cubicfoot=6.23gallons
1liter=0.22gallons=1000cc
1cubicinch=16.4cc
1cubicfoot=0.028317cubicmeter=28.317liters
1gallon=4.546liters
1cubicmeter=1000liters
1.5.4. Weight
1lbs=453.6grams=16ounces
1ounce=28.35grams
1kilogram=2.205pounds=1000grams
1quintal=100kg
1tonne=1000kg
1.5.5. Pressure
1pound/sqinch=0.0703kg/sqcm
1pound/sqfoot=4.88kg/sqmeter
1kg/sqcm=14.225pounds/sqinch
1kg/sqmeter=0.205pound/sqfoot
1Atmosphericpr.=14.7pound/sqinch=1.033kg/sqcm
1.6
Temperatureconversion
Therelationbetweenunitsoftemperaturemaybegivenas:
9
F = C + 32 :
5
K = C + 273 :
5
C = ( F 32)
9
C
F 32 R
=
=
100
180
80
K = F + 460
UNITS & MEASUREMENT
Where,F=TemperatureindegreeFahrenheit
C=TemperatureindegreeCentigrade
R=TemperatureindegreeReaumer
K=TemperatureindegreeKelvin
Example 1.1Convert the following:

(i) 45o C to o F
(ii) 25 gallons into liters
(iii)36 inches into cm
(iv) 33 pound into kg
(v) 1000 liters in gallons
(vi) 25 psi into kg/cm2
Solution:
9
(i) We know that F = C + 32
5
9
F = 45 + 32 = 81 + 32 = 113o C
5
(ii) 1 gallon = 4.546 liters

Hence, 25 gallons = 25 4.546 = 113.65 liters
(iii)1 inch = 2.54 cm
Hence, 36 inches = 36 2.54 = 91.44 cm
(iv) 1 pound = 0.4536 kg
Hence, 33 pounds = 33 0.4536 = 14.9688 kg
(v) 1 liter = 0.22 gallon
Hence, 1000 liters = 1000 0.22 =220 gallons
(vi) 1 psi = 0.0703 kg/sq cm
Hence, 25 0.0703 = 1.7575 kg/sq cm
UNITS & MEASUREMENT
2 GENERALSIMPLIFICATIONS
Itinvolvewiththeoperationofaddition,subtraction,multiplicationanddivision
findingoutofsquareroots,cuberoots,commonfractionanddecimalfractions.
2.1
Fraction
Fractionmeanspartofnumber.Fractionsareclassifiedintocommonfractionand
decimal fraction. Figure above the line called numerator whereas below the line called
denominator.
Example 2.1Simplify the following:
5
6
5 4(6) + 5 24 + 5 29
4+ =
=
=
6
6
6
6
3
(ii) 5
7
3 5(7) 3 35 3 32
5 =
=
=
7
7
7
7
3 25
(iii)
20 15
3 25 3 5 5 1
= =
=
20 15 20 3 20 4
5 18
(iv)
12 15
5 18 5 15 5 5 25
= = =
12 15 12 18 12 6 72
(i) 4 +
1
3
1
1
18
Example 2.2Find the value of 2 of 5 + 3 of 9 10
4
7
8
3
35
1
3
1
1
18
Solution: 2 of 5 + 3 of 9 10
4
7
8
3
35
9 38 25 28 368
= +
4 7
8 3
35
171 175 368
=
+
14
6
35
2565 + 6125 2208
=
210
8690 2208
=
210
6482
91
=
= 30
210
105
GENERAL SIMPLIFICATIONS
Example 2.3: Find the value of 1 +

1+
1
3+
Solution:
1+
1+
3+
1+
1
2
= 1+
1+
1
7
2
= 1+
2
7
7 16
= 1+ =
9 9
1+
1
9
7
Example 2.4 Calculate the value of
Solution:
1
2
7
15
9 5
+
8 10
7
15
9 5
+
8 10
1
2
1
2
7
1
= 15
45 + 20 2
40
7
1 7 40 1
= 15 =
65 2 15 65 2
40
=
56 1 112 195
=
195 2
390
83
390
2.1.1. Conversionoffractions
Common fraction may be converted into decimal fractions. In such a way,
decimalfractionmaybeconvertedintocommonfraction.
10
3
to decimal.
8
Example 2.5 Convert

Solution:
3
means 3 8
8
8) 30 (0.375
24
60
56
40
40
0
3
= 0.375
8
Example 2.6 Convert 0.625 into fraction.

Solution: 0.625 may be written as 625
=
25 5
=
40 8
Example 2.7 Simplify

Solution:
1
625
=
1000 1000
6.4 0.085
.
0.0017 16
6.4 0.085
may be written as
0.0017 16
64 85 10000 1

16
10 1000 17
64 85 10000 64 85
= 5 4 = 20
=
10000 17 16 17 16
2.2
Powersandroots
a>0,b>0,x,yreal
a x a y = a x+ y ,
ax
= a x y ,
ay
a x b x = (ab) x
ax
1
= (a / b) x ,a x =
x
b
x
11
2.3
Factorsandexpansions
Algebraic expressions may be written as product of factors. The procedure for

findingoutfactorstothegivenalgebraicquantityisknownasfactorization.
a,breal;npositiveinteger
(a b) = a 2ab + b
(a b) = a 3ab + 3ab b
(a b)4 = a4 4ab + 6ab 4ab + b4
a - b = (a - b)(a + b)
a + b = (a - bi)(a + bi)
a - b = (a - b)(a + ab + b)
a + b = (a + b)(a - ab + b)
a4 + b4 = (a + 2ab + b)(a - 2ab + b)
an - bn = (a - b)(an-1 + an-2b + ... + bn-1), for n even
an + bn = (a + b)(an-1 - an-2b - ... - bn-1), for n odd
Example 2.8 If x
1
1
2
= 2 , prove that x 3 3 2 x 2 2 = 2
x
x
x
2
Solution:
1
1
1
2
x = x + 2 2( x)
x
x
x
= x2 +
1
2
x2
( 2) = x2 +
2
1
1
2, or x 2 + 2 = 6
2
x
x
Again:
1
1
1
1
3
x = x 3 3( x) . x
x
x
x
= x3
( 2)
1
1
3 x
3
x
x
= x3
1
1
3 ( 2 ) or x 3 3 = 14
3
x
x
Now, put these values to given problem, we get:

x3
1
2
2 x2 2
3
x
x
= x3
1 2 1
x + 2
x3
x
x3
1
2
2 x 2 2 = 2 Hence proved
3
x
x
= 14 2(6) = 2
12
Example 2.9 If a 3 + b3 = 407; a + b = 11 , then find the value of a and b.

Solution: Let us apply formulae for ( a + b)3 and to substitute the value, we get
(a + b)3 = a 3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
(11)3 = 407 + 3ab(11)
1331 = 407 + 33ab

1331 407 = 33ab or ab =
ab = 28 or a =
924
= 28
33
28
b
Since a + b = 11 , then put the value of a, therefore

28
+ b = 11
b
Or b 2 11b + 28 = 0
b 2 7b 4b + 28 = 0
Or b(b 7) 4(b 7) = 0 (b 4)(b 7) = 0

b = 4, b = 7 , putting these values in above any expression, we get
a = 7, a = 4
Example 2.10 Factorize 8 x 3 64 y 3 .

Solution:
8 x 3 64 y 3 = (2 x)3 (4 y )3
= (2 x 4 y ){(2 x) 2 (4 y ) 2 + (2 x)(4 y )}
using a b = (a b)( a + ab + b )
= (2 x 4 y )(4 x 2 16 y 2 + 8 xy )
2
Example 2.11 Factorize x + 13 x + 40 .
Solution:
x 2 + 13 x + 40 = x 2 + 8 x + 5 x + 40
= x ( x + 8) + 5( x + 8)
= ( x + 5)( x + 8)
2.4
SquareRoots
When a number is multiplied by itself, the product of that is called square. The
2
converseofsquareistermedassquarerooti.e. x = x .
When a number is multiplied thrice, the product of that is called cube. The
3 3
converseofcubeisknownascuberooti.e. x = x
13
Exercise
1 Simplify the following
a) 0.5(1.38 + 4.42 + 6.20) 0.6(8.20 5.70) (Ans: 4.5)
4a 2b 2 c 2
abc
1 1 1
1 2
2 2 2
c)
23
b)
(Ans:2)
(Ans: 5 16 )
2 Calculate the following

8
a) 0.75 + + 3 + (10 5.5)
9
(Ans: 58.371)
2
8
b) + (1.5 )
9
c)
(Ans: 13
1 1 1
1
+ + +
8 16 32 64
13
)
324
(Ans:

a)
0.47 2 + 0.35 4.1 0.45 2.0

0.12
(Ans: 12.29)
b)
7.15 (2.5) 2 (2.8 + 6.2)1 2

2.7 1.2
(Ans: 27
2
6
1
c) 1 of 3
20 7 7
9
(Ans:
19
)
24
9
)
10
4 Calculate the following

3 4 1 2
3
a) 2 5 + 5 8
8 9 8 5
20
(Ans: 1)
3 1 3 11
b) 1 3 6 2
4 8 4 14
(Ans: 1)

a)
1.44
1
2
1
1+
1
2+
0.5
(Ans: 1)
14
b)
(Ans: 1
1
1
1+ +
3 2+ 1
5
33
)
59
6 A cricket team scored 440 runs. The average score of the first seven batsmen was
52. What is the average score of last four batsmen? (Ans: 19 runs)
7 The average marks of 4 students in a test are 66. If the 5th student is also included,
then the average marks become 60. What are marks of 5th student? (Ans: 36
marks)
8 The average of 15 trainees in a class 13.5 years. The average age of first seven
and last seven is 14.5 years and 12.5 years respectively. Find the age of 8th trainee.
(Ans: 13.5 years)
9 A train runs at 60 km per hour for 20 minutes, 90 km per hour for 10 minutes and
40 km per hour for 15 minutes. Calculate (i) average speed of the train, and (ii)
how much distance it has travelled from 15th minute to 40th minutes? (Ans: 60
km/hour, 37.66 km)
10 The outside diameter and inside diameter of a steel pipe are 185 mm and 170 mm
respectively. Find the mean diameter and thickness of pipe. (Ans: 177.5 mm, 7.5
mm)
11 A cable weight is 2.4 kg per feet. What will be the weight of one piece of 200 mm
cut from it? (Ans: 1.575 kg)
12 A conduit pipe weights 0.6 kg per meter. Find the weight of 9 conduit pipes each
measuring 4.3 meters. (Ans: 23.22 kg)
13 A picture projected on screen is 15 times the actual size. What is the measure of
the actual size if it is 143.56 cm in the projected image? (Ans: 9.571 cm)
14 A man purchases a radio for Rs. 520.50. He paid cash Rs. 113 and the balance he
paid in equal installments. If the installment is Rs. 40.75, how many installment,
will be there? (Ans: 10 installments)
15 A water tank has a capacity of 2000 liters. It is filled at the rate of 10 liters per
minute. Calculate the time taken to fill tank completely. (Ans: 3 hours 20 minutes)
16 The floor of a rectangular hall is to be covered with a carpet of 1.5 meter wide. If
the length and breadth of hall are 20 meters and 18 meters respectively. Find the
cost of the carpet at the rate of Rs. 10 per meter. (Ans: Rs. 3600)
17 A wall measuring 5 meters by 4 meters is to be white-washed. Calculate the cost @
Rs. 3 per sq meter. (Ans: Rs. 60)
18 Find the square roots of the following up to three decimal places:
19 (i) 2 (ii) 5 (iii) 0.0045 (iv) 0.000625 (Ans: (i) 1.414 (ii) 2.236 (iii) 0.067 (iv) 0.079
20 Find the square roots of the following:
21 (i) 324 (ii) 338.56 (iii) 62500 (iv) 0.9 (Ans: (i) 18 (ii) 18.84 (iii) 250 (iv) 0.94868
22 Find the value of following
a)
(2.70) 2 + (4.75) 2
(Ans: 5.464)
15
b)
1 11
1
8 16
(Ans: 0.89048)

a)
8 + 18 2 2
(Ans: 3 2 )
b)
1
3 2
(Ans: 3.146)
c)
2 (1.6) 2 0.7
(Ans: 2.534)

a)
b)
64 + 36 5
1
0.2
1
5
8 + 2
6
3
9 2 + 82
4
5
5 + 2
6
3
(Ans: 1)
(Ans: 9.8836)
25 The pitch of a certain type of thread is given by the formulae:

P = 0.24 D + 6.25 0.175 . Find the value of P if D = 1.5. (Ans: 0.49316)
26 Find the value of t in the equation
1 2
at = 625 , when a = 9.81(Ans: 11.29)
2
16
3 RATIOANDPROPORTION
3.1
Ratio
Ratiomeanscomparisonofrelationshipbetweensimilarquantities.Thesymbolof
ratiois:andtermedasisto.
3.2
Proportion
Wheneveranychangeinonecauseacorrespondingchangeinotherinsucha
way that they consists of relationship between them; such a relation is known as
proportion.
if
a c
ab cd
ab cd
= , then
=
=
, and
b d
b
d
a+b c+d
Example 3.1 A : B = 9 : 12 and C : D = 8 : 10. Find the ratio A : B : C

Solution:
A: B =
A 9
9 8 72
=
=
=
B 12 12 8 96
B :C =
B 8
8 12
96
=
=
=
(multipying with 12)
C 10 10 12 120
(multipying with 8)
Now, we can observe that the value of B is same in both cases i.e. 96
Hence, A : B : C = 72 : 96 : 120
Let us bring this to smaller by dividing suitable figure
A:B:C=3:4:5
Example 3.2 25 workers can complete a work in 30 hours. Find the number of hours
required to complete the same work by 10 workers.
Solution: Since 25 workers complete work in 30 hours, then 10 workers complete work in
x hours.
x=
25
30 = 75 hours
10
Example 3.3 An alloy of tin and lead is in the ratio of 3 : 2. The cost of tin and lead is Rs.
50 and Rs. 20 per kg respectively. Calculate the cost of 12 kg of the alloy.
Solution:
tin : lead = 3 : 2
Total ratio = 3 + 2 = 5
Hence, weight of tin =
3
12 = 7.2kg
5
Hence, weight of lead =
2
12 = 4.8kg
5
Cost of tin = 7.2 X 50 = Rs. 360

Cost of lead = 4.8 X 20 = Rs. 96
Cost of 12kg alloy = 360 + 96 = Rs. 456
RATIO AND PROPORTION
17
Excercise
1 Profit of Rs. 1200 is to be divided among three partners A, B and C in the ration of
1:2:3. How much money each will get? (Ans: Rs 200, Rs 400 and Rs 600)
2 Rs. 380 are to be divided among 3 partners in such a way that the ratio of A and B
= 5:6 and the ratio of B and C = 3:4. (Ans: Rs 100, Rs 120 and Rs 160)
3 A solder is made of copper, zinc and tin in the ratio of 9:5:2. Find the mass of each
metal in 224 kg of solder. (Ans: 126 kg, 70 kg and 28 kg)
4 The perimeter of a rectangle is 320 meters. Its sides are in the ratio of 5:3. Find
the area of the rectangle. (Ans: 6000 sq meters)
5 Find the perimeter of the triangle whose sides are 3:4:5 and the longest side is 15
cm. (Ans: 36 cm)
6 If one worker assemble 7 machines in 2.5 days, how many days he will take to
assemble 50 machines. (Ans: 18 days aprox)
7 An army has a stock of wheat for 1500 men for 28 days. If 500 men come and join
it, how many days that stock of wheat will run? (Ans: 21 days)
8 8 workmen take 6 days to complete a job. How many days it will take for 4
workmen to complete the same job? (Ans: 12 days)
9 If 20 workers can finish a job in 15 days, how many more workers are needed to
finish the same job in 10 days? (Ans: 10 workers)
10 In a hotel, there is enough rice for 70 men, for 20 days. If 30 more join the hotel,
how long will the rice last? (Ans: 14 days)
RATIO AND PROPORTION
18
4 PERCENTAGE
Cent means 100. Therefore percent means per 100. It is a regular habit of
comparingtheinterrelationshipofengineeringquantities,capacityofamachine,profit
andlossofabusinesscapital,intermsofpercent.
Example 4.1 Find out 4% of Rs. 30.

= 30
4
= 1.2
100
Convert 0.352 into percentage.

0.352 =
35.2
= 35.2%
100
Example 4.2 A certain solder consists of 35% tin and 65% lead. What will be the total
weight of a certain quantity of solder if tin is 14 grams?
Solution:
Let the total weight of solder is x grams

Percentage of tin = 35%
Hence, weight of tin =
35 x
100
Given weight of tin = 14 grams
35 x
= 14,
100
x =
100 14
= 40 grams
35
Total weight of solder = 40 grams

Example 4.3 A brass rod of 14 cm diameter and 25 cm long is made of 60% copper and
40% zinc. If the density of brass is 9 grams/cc, calculate the weight of copper and zinc.
Solution:
Diameter of brass rod d = 14 cm

Length of brass rod h = 25 cm
Volume of rod V =
=
Now, weight of brass rod
d 2h =
142 25
22 14 14 25
= 3850cc
74
= volume X density
= 3850 X 9 = 34650 grams = 34.6 kg
=
Weight of copper
Weight of zinc
60
34.65 = 20.79kg
100
40
34.65 = 13.86kg
100
PERCENTAGE
19
Excercise
1 If the radius of a sphere is decreased by 25%, find out the percentage decreased in
its surface area. (Ans: 43.75%)
2 A man spends 15% of his income on ration, 21% on family and 24% on education
of children. If he saves Rs 360, find out his total income. (Ans: Rs 900)
3 A 125 kg alloy contains 60% aluminum and 40% zinc. It is requires to change the
percentage to 55% and 45% respectively. Find how much of the two metals should
be added or subtracted? (Ans: either 13.9 kg aluminum subtracted or 11.36 kg zinc
added)
4 A piece of metal weighs 45 kg. It contains three metals in the ratio of 6%, 19% and
75%. Find the weight of each metal. (Ans: 2.77 kg, 8.5 kg and 33.75 kg)
5 From a square plate of side 150 cm, how many circular plates of 25 mm diameter
could be cut and what will be the percentage of wastage? (Ans: 3600, 21.42%)
6 An examination paper had 20 questions of equal marks. An apprentice got 75%
marks. How many question he answered correctly? (Ans: 15 questions)
7 A copper alloy weighing 180 kg contains 5% zinc, 5% tin and 5% lead and
remaining is copper. Find the copper contain in it. (Ans: 153 kg)
8 A soft solder of tin and lead in the ratio of 1:1 is to be converted into fine solder of
60% tin and 40% lead. Calculate the additional amount of tin required per 100 kg
of the fine solder. (Ans: 20 kg)
9 Evaluate the following
a) 11.25% of Rs 750
(Ans: Rs 84.38)
b) 17.523% of 710 kg
(Ans: 124.413 kg)
10 A candidate secured 20% marks in an examination and failed by 10 marks.

Another secured 42% and got 1 mark more than bare minimum to pass. Determine
the maximum marks and the necessary marks to pass. (Ans: 50 and 20)
11 Reading of an ammeter is 4.65 amperes. If the correct reading is 3.5 amperes, find
the percentage error. (Ans: 32.86%)
12 A man sold two motor cycles at Rs 2970 each and lost 10% in one, while gained
10% on the other. Find his net percentage profit or loss. (Ans: Net loss of 1%)
13 A square plate of side 40 cm is cut into a circular shape of diameter 40 cm. find the
percentage of area of the material wasted. (Ans: 21.43%)
14 Composition of an alloy steel is 0.2% carbon, 9.2% chromium, 12.5% nickel and
remaining iron. Calculate the weight of chromium, nickel and iron required to
manufacture 600 kg of this alloy steel. (Ans: 55.2 kg, 75 kg, 468.6 kg)
15 A round bar of 50 mm diameter 100 mm long is drilled with a 12 mm diameter
drill up to 30 mm of its length from one end. Calculate the percentage of metal
removed. (Ans: 1.728%)
PERCENTAGE
20
5 ALGEBRA
Algebraisageneralizedformofmathematicsinwhichlettersareusedinsteadof
figures. All operations i.e. addition, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, square root,
cuberootsetc.canbewiththehelpoflettersitself.
5.1
Workingwithalgebraicexpression
ImportantruletosolvealgebraicexpressionPEMDAS
PdooperationsinsideParentheses
EevaluatetermswithExponents
MDdoMultiplicationandDivisioninorderfromlefttoright
ASAddandSubtracttermsinorderfromlefttoright
5.2
AdditionandSubtraction
Algebraicquantitiesofsimilartermsmaybeaddedorsubtracted.
Example 5.1 Add 2 x + 5 y , 4 x 8 z and 15 z 2 y

Solution: Since this is only addition put + to each term
(2 x + 5 y ) + (4 x 8 z ) + (15 z 2 y )
= 2 x + 5 y + 4 x 8 z + 15 z 2 y
= 2 x + 4 x + 5 y 2 y 8 z + 15 z
= 6x + 3y + 7z
2
2
3
Example 5.2 Subtract x + 3xy from 3x + 8 xy + y
Solution:
(3x 2 + 8 xy + y 3 ) ( x 2 + 3 xy )
= 3x 2 + 8 xy + y 3 x 2 3xy
= 3x 2 x 2 + 8 xy 3xy + y 3
= 2 x 2 + 5 xy + y 3
5.3
MultiplicationandDivision
Whiledealingwithmultiplications,firstofallmultiplythesymbols,subsequently
coefficients, afterwards letters. Division is nothing but reverse operation of
multiplication.
Example 5.3 Evaluate (5a 2 2b3 ) (2a 3 + 5b 4 )

Solution:
(5a 2 2b3 ) (2a 3 + 5b 4 )

= 5a 2 (2a 3 + 5b 4 ) 2b3 (2a 3 + 5b 4 )
= 10a 5 + 25a 2b 4 4b3 a 3 10b 7
ALGEBRA
21
Example 5.4 Evaluate (a 2 + 7a 3) (a 3)

Solution:
(a 2 + 7a 3) (a 3)
a 3) a 2 + 7 a 3 ( a + 10
a 2 3a
10a 30
10a 30
0
Example 5.5 If x = 2; y = -3; and z = 4, find the value of 4 x 2 + 2 y 2 4 z + 3xyz
Solution:
Substituting the value of x, y and z we got

4 x 2 + 2 y 2 4 z + 3xyz
= 4(2) 2 + 2(3) 2 4(4) + 3(2)(3)(4)
= 4(4) + 2(9) 4(4) + 3(2)( 3)(4)
= 16 + 18 16 72 = 54
5.4
Equations
Equation is brought from the term equal. Hence whenever two or more
algebraicquantitiesarewrittenasequalquantities,saidasequation.
Example 5.6 The sum of three consequent numbers is 42. Find the numbers.
Solution: Let the numbers are: x, x + 1 and x + 2
Sum of these numbers is ( x ) + ( x + 1) + ( x + 2) = 3 x + 3

According to problem 3 x + 3 = 42 or x =
42 3
= 13
3
x = 13
Hence, the numbers are x + 1 = 14
x + 2 = 15
Example 5.7 Solve
Solution:
2x +1 6x 2
.
=
5x
9x + 2
2x +1 6x 2
=
5x
9x + 2
By cross-multiplication
5 x(6 x 2) = (9 x + 2).(2 x + 1)
30 x 2 10 x = 18 x 2 + 4 x + 9 x + 2 or 30 x 2 18 x 2 10 x 4 x 9 x 2 = 0
12 x 2 24 x 2 = 0
12 x ( x 2) + 1( x 2) = 0
ALGEBRA
22
(12 x + 1).( x 2) = 0
Either (12 x + 1) or ( x 2) may be zero.

If 12 x + 1 = 0 then x =
1
12
If x 2 = 0 then x = 2
Hence x =
1
or x = 2
12
Example 5.8 Solve the equations 6 x 12 y = 1 and 8 x + 9 y = 18 .

Solution:
6 x 12 y = 1
------------(i)
8 x + 9 y = 18
------------(ii)
In above equations, it may be observed that the term of y is negative in eq. (i) while
positive in eq. (ii). Hence equate the y being equal.
54 x 108 y = 9
------------(iii) Multiplying eq. (i) by 9
96 x + 108 y = 216
------------(iv) Multiplying eq. (ii) by 12
By adding eq. (iii) and (iv)

54 x 108 y = 9
96 x + 108 y = 216
150 x
x=
= 225
225 3
=
150 2
Example 5.9 Solve the equations

Solution:
6 12
12 6
+ = 7 and + = 8 .
x y
x y
6 12
+ =7
x y
----(i)
12 6
+ =8
x y
----(ii)
Let 1/x = a and 1/y =b

Now put the values in above equations
6a + 12b = 7
----(iii)
12a + 6b = 8
----(iv)
Multiply eq. (iii) by 2

12a + 24b = 14
----(v)
Now subtract eq. (iv) by (v)
ALGEBRA
23
12a + 24b = 14
12a + 6b = 8
18b = 6
b = 1/ 3
Substitute the value of b in eq. (iii), we get
1
6a + 12 = 7 or 6a + 4 = 7
3
a = 1/ 2
Now,
1
1 1
=a =
x
x 2
x = 2
1
1 1
=b =
y
y 3
y =3
Example 5.10 Solve the equations x + 3 y = 4 , x + 3z = 7 and z + 4 x = 6 .

Solution:
x + 3y = 4
----(i)
x + 3z = 7
----(ii)
z + 4x = 6
----(iii)
First solve equation (ii) and (iii) for x

x + 3z = 7
12 x + 3z = 18 , and we get x = 1
11x
= 11
Substituting this value of x into eq. (i), we get
x + 3 y = 4 or 1 + 3 y = 4 y = 1
Substituting this value of x into eq. (ii), we get
x + 3z = 7 or 1 + 3z = 7 z = 2
x = 1; y = 1; z = 1
5.5
Quadraticequation
Considertheequation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 wherea,bandcarerealconstantsknown
values,whilexisunknown.Equationofthismodelisknownasquadraticequation,and
thevalueofxisgivenby:
b b 2 4ac
x=
2a
Here,themaximumpowerofequationistwo,hencethevalueofxshouldhave
twovalues;letsaythat and .
b + b 2 4ac
And
2a
ALGEBRA
24
b b 2 4ac
2a
b
a
+ = And
. =
Example 5.11 Calculate the value of x, if x +

Solution:
3
=4.
x
3
x2 + 3
=4
We have, x + = 4 or
x
x
By cross-multiplication we get, x 2 + 4 x 3 = 0
Now, compare above expression with standard quadratic equation
Here, a = 1; b = 4 and c = 3
x=
=
(4) (4) 2 4(1)(3)

b b 2 4ac
,=
2(1)
2a
4 16 12 4 4 4 2
=
=
2
2
2
Taking positive sign x =
4+2 6
=
2
2
x = 3
Taking negative sign x =
42 2
=
2
2
x =1
ALGEBRA
25
Excercise
a) (2A + B) (A+2B)
(Ans: 2 A2 + 2 B 2 + 5 AB )
b) (3x + 2) (3x 2)
(Ans: 9 x 2 4 )

a) (2 p + 2q)3 27 p 3 + 8q 3
(Ans: 5 p 2 q + 36 pq 2 )
1
1
b) 1 + a 2 + 2
3a
3a
(Ans: a 3 +
1 a
1
+ + 3)
3a 3 9a
3 Find the product of following

a) ( x3 + y 3 )( x 2 + y 2 )( z )
(Ans: x5 z + y 5 z + x3 y 2 z + x 2 y 3 z )
b) ( x 2 + y 2 )( x y )( z )
(Ans: x3 z y 3 z x 2 yz + xy 2 z )
4 Divide the following

a) (12a 2 11ac 36c 2 ) (4a 9c) (Ans: 3a + 4c )
b) ( x5 + 2 x 4 5 x3 x 2 + 4 x 1) ( x 2 1) (Ans: x 3 + 2 x 2 4 x + 1 )
5 If x = 3 and y = 2 , find the value of x 4 + xy 2 2 x 2 y 2 (Ans: 21)
6 Find the value of F from the following expression if C = 25.5
C F 32
=
5
9
(Ans: 77.9)
7 If 5 y 3 3 y + 2( x + y ) = 136 and y = 3 find the value of x. (Ans: 2)
8 Factorize the following:
a) x 2 16
(Ans: ( x 2 + 4)( x + 2)( x 2) )
b) x 2 5 x 24
(Ans: ( x + 8)( x 3)
c) x 2 + 15 x + 56
(Ans: ( x + 7)( x + 8) )
d) 10 xy 4 10 x 4 y
(Ans: 10 xy ( y x)( x 2 + y 2 + xy )
9 Expand the following:

a)
(7 x + 3 y )3
b) (2 x 3 y )3
(Ans: 343 x3 + 27 y 3 + 441x 2 y + 189 xy 2 )

(Ans: 8 x3 27 y 3 36 x 2 y + 54 xy 2 )
10 If A + B = 5 and AB = 6 , find the value of A2 + B 2 . (Ans: 13)

11 If ( x 2 + 2 xy ) = 9 and y 2 = 16 , find the value of x + y and x(Ans: 5, 1)
12 If m +
1
1
= 7 , find the value of m 2 + 2 . (Ans: 47)
m
m
ALGEBRA
26
13 If x
1
1
= 4 , find the value of x + . (Ans:
x
x
20 )
14 If a b = 4 and ab = 32 , find the value of a 3 b 3 . (Ans: 448)

15 If x
1
1
= 4 , find the value of x 4 + 4 . (Ans: 322)
x
x
16 Solve the following equations:

a) x 2 y 2 = 72 and x + y = 12
(Ans: x = 9; y = 3 )
b) x 2 + y 2 = 89 and xy = 40
(Ans: x = 8; y = 5 )
c) x 2 + y 2 + 48 = 100 and x 2 y 2 = 20
d) a 2 b 2 = 16 and a + b = 8
(Ans: x = 6; y = 4 )
(Ans: a = 5; b = 3 )
17 If 4( x 2) = 2( x + 2) , find the value of x.
(Ans: x = 6 )
18 If 3( x 5) 2( x + 7) = 4( x + 12) .
2
(Ans: x = 25 )
3
19 Solve 2 x +
1
1
= x+ .
2
3
20 Solve 3( x 2) (2 x + 1)
1
(Ans: x = )
6
2
=0.
3
(Ans: x = 4 )
3x 2 x 2
+ x = 5.
21 Solve
2 3x
(Ans: x = 2
8
)
11
22 Solve
6 x + 5 3x + 5
=
4x + 7 2x + 6
(Ans: x = 1 )
23 Solve
x+3 x+5 x+4 x+6

.
4
6
5
7
(Ans: x = 1 )

a) x 2 + 4 x 21 = 0
(Ans: x = 3 or x = 7 )
b) 2 x 2 5 x 42 = 0
(Ans: x = 3
c) 4 x 2 13 x 12 = 0
(Ans: x =
1
or x = 6 )
2
3
or x = 4 )
4

a) x + y = 100; x y = 80
(Ans: x = 90; y = 10 )
b) 6 x + 7 y = 7; 4 x + 3 y = 8
1
(Ans: x = ; y = 2 )
2
c) 3 x + 4 y = 25; 4 x + 5 y = 30
(Ans: x = 5; y = 10 )
d) 2 x + 3 y = 12;3 x + 4 y = 15
(Ans: x = 3; y = 6 )
ALGEBRA
27
26 Solve the following:

a)
x y = 3; x + y = 13
(Ans: x = 11; y = 2 )
x
b) y = 2 + ; x = 2 y
3
(Ans: x = 12; y = 6 )
c)
x2
= 9; x + 2 y = 40
y2
(Ans: x = 24; y = 8 )
d)
x y
= 10; 2 x + 5 y = 17
x+ y
(Ans: x = 8
e)
x y
+ = 4;5 x 6 = 3 y
2 3
(Ans: x = 4
3
15
;y=6 )
23
23
8
7
;y=5 )
19
19
27 Find the value of x, y and z from the following equations:

a)
xy
1 yz
1 zx
1
= ;
= ;
=
x + y 12 y + z 16 z + x 20
b) ( x + y + z ) = 8; 2 x y = 4; y + z = 4
x + y + 3 z = 16;
1
1
1
(Ans: x = ; y = ; z = )
8
4
12
(Ans: x = 4; y = 4; z = 0 )
c) x + 2 y + 6 z = 13;
3 x + y 4 z = 16
2
3
(Ans: x = 19; y = 19 ; z = 5 )
7
7
d) x + 3 y = 4; x + 3 z = 7; z + 4 x = 6
(Ans: x = 1; y = 1; z = 2 )
e) x 2 y 2 = 15; x + y = 5; x y z = 1
(Ans: x = 4; y = 1; z = 4 )
28 Rs 60 is to be divided between A, B and C. If A receives twice as much as B, and B

receives thrice as much as C, find how much C receives? (Ans: Rs 6)
29 Population of a village is 1000; numbers of men are double that of women and
number of women are 200 more than that of children. How many children are
there? (Ans: 100 children)
30 Population of a city is 9 lakhs. If there is an increase of 5% in mens population
and 8% in womens population, then population becomes 9 lakhs 60 thousand.
Find out the population of men and women separately. (Ans: 4 lahks and 5 lakhs)
31 Sum of three consecutive numbers is 126. Find the numbers. (Ans: 41, 42, 43)
32 If the sum of two numbers is 12 and their product is 35, find the numbers. (Ans: 5
and 7)
33 The sum of two numbers is 15 and their difference is 5. Find the numbers. (Ans: 10
and 5)
34 The sum of two numbers is 49 and their ratio is 7:8. Find the numbers. (Ans: 27
and 22)
35 In a right angle triangle, the sum of the two acute angles is equal to the third angle
and the difference between them is 50 degrees. Find each angle of triangle. (Ans:
70, 20 and 90 degree)
ALGEBRA
28
36 One side of a right angle triangle is 126 meters, the difference between hypotenuse
and the other side is 42 meters. Find the two unknown sides. (Ans210 and 168)
37 The sum of the digits of a certain two digit number is 9. If 9 is added to the
number, the digit are reversed. Find the numbers. (Ans: 45)
38 Find two numbers which differ by 3 and the sum of whose square are 117. (Ans: 9
and 6)
39 In a class of 48 students, the number of girls is 1/7 times the number of boys. Find
the number of boys. (Ans: 42)
40 5 tables and 11 chairs together cost Rs 790 while 13 tables and 8 chairs together
cost Rs 1230. Find the price of one table and one chair. (Ans: Rs 70 and Rs 40)
41 7 apples and 12 oranges together cost Rs 66 while 12 apples and 7 oranges cost Rs
86. Find the price of one apple and one orange. (Ans: Rs 6 and Rs 2)
42 After 15 years Robin will be four times old as he is now. Determine his present
age. (Ans: 5 years)
43 5 years back Shams age was 4 times that of Kittys. If the present age of Sham is 3
times of Kittys, find Shams age. (Ans: 45 years)
44 A father is 50 years old and his sons age is 22 years. After how many years,
fathers age will be twice the age of his son? (Ans: 6 Years)
45 A rectangle has an area of 5.4 sq. meters. If length is 0.3 meter grater than
breadth, find its dimension. (Ans: 2.479 m, 2.179m)
46 One side of a rectangular field exceeds the other by 2 feet. If the area of field is
195 sq. feet, find its sides. (Ans: 15 feet, 13 feet)
47 The length of a rectangle is 2 times of breadth. If the perimeter of rectangle is 36
meters, what will be the area? (Ans: 72 sq. meter)
48 The area of a rectangular sheet is 48 sq. cm. If its length is reduced by 2 cm, it
becomes square in shape. Find out the length and breadth of the rectangular sheet.
(Ans: 8 cm, 6 cm)
49 The length of a rectangular plot is twice its breadth. The plot is surrounded by 4
meters wide path. If the area of path is 784 sq. meters, find the dimension of plot.
(Ans: 60 meters and 30 meters)
50 Radius of a circular ground is 60 meters. If a 1200 cm wide uniform road is to be
constructed around it, calculate the area of the road. (Ans: 4978.3 sq. m)
51 The difference of perimeter and diameter of a circle is 30 cm. Find out its radius.
(Ans: 7 cm)
ALGEBRA
29
6 SIMPLEINTERESTANDPROFFIT&LOSS
6.1
Simpleinterest:
Whensomeonelendsmoneytosomeoneelse,theborrowerusuallypaysafeeto
thelender.Thisfeeiscalled'interest'.'Simple'interest,or'flatrate'interest.Theamount
ofsimpleinterestpaideachyearisafixedpercentageoftheamountborrowedorlentat
thestart.
Thesimpleinterestformulaisasfollows:
Interest = Principal Rate Time

where:
'Interest'isthetotalamountofinterestpaid,
'Principal'istheamountlentorborrowed,
'Rate'isthepercentageoftheprincipalchargedasinteresteachyear.Therateis
expressedasadecimalfraction,sopercentagesmustbedividedby100.Forexample,if
therateis15%,thenuse15/100or0.15intheformula.
'Time'isthetimeinyearsoftheloan.
Thesimpleinterestformulaisoftenabbreviatedinthisform:
I=PRT
ThreeothervariationsofthisformulaareusedtofindP,RandT:
P=
I
I
I
, R=
, T=
RT
PT
RP
Simple interest problems can involve lending or borrowing. In both cases, the
sameformulasareused.
Whenever money is borrowed, the total amount to be paid back equals the
principalborrowedplustheinterestcharge:
total repayments = ( principal + interest )

Usuallythemoneyispaidbackinregularinstalments,eithermonthlyorweekly.
Tocalculatetheregularpaymentamount,youdividethe totalamounttoberepaidby
thenumberofmonths(orweeks)oftheloan.Likethis:
monthly payment amount=
Principal + interest
loan period in month
Toconverttheloanperiod,'T',fromyearstomonths,youmultiplyitby12,since
thereare12monthsinayear.Ontheotherhand,toconvert'T'toweeks,youmultiply
by52,becausethereare52weeksinayear.
Example 6.1 A student purchases a computer by obtaining a simple interest loan. The
computer costs Rs.15000, and the interest rate on the loan is 12%. If the loan is to be paid
back in weekly instalments over 2 years, calculate (i). The amount of interest paid over the
2 years, (ii) the total amount to be paid back, (iii) the weekly payment amount.
SIMPLE INTEREST AND PROFFIT & LOSS
30
Solution: Given: principal: 'P' =Rs.15000, interest rate: 'R' = 12% = 0.12, repayment
time: 'T' = 2 years
Part 1: Find the amount of interest paid.
Interest: 'I' = PRT

= 15000 0.12 2
= 3600
Part 2: Find the total amount to be paid back.
Total repayments = principal + interest

= 15000 + 3600
= 18600
Part 3: Calculate the weekly payment amount
weekly payment amount=
Principal + interest
loan period weeks
weekly payment amount =
18600
2 52
= Rs 178.8 per week
6.2
Profit&Loss
The situations described in this topic are from the point of view of the person
sellingsomethingtosomeoneelse.
The 'cost price' is how much the item cost the shop owner.
The'sellingprice'iswhatheissellingitfor.
Iftheshopsellsathingformorethantheypaidforit,thenthedifferenceisthe
'profit':
profit = selling price - cost price

If the shop sells a thing for less than they paid for it, then the difference is the
'loss':
loss = cost price - selling price

Bothprofitandlosscanbeexpressedeitherindollars,ORasapercentageofthe
costprice.
Example 6.2 A shopkeeper buys scientific calculators in bulk for 150 each. He sells them
for 400 each. Calculate the profit on each calculator, and as a percentage of the cost
price.
Solution: Given: cost price = Rs. 150, selling price = 400
profit = selling price - cost price

= 400 - 150
= 250
31
Expressing the profit as a percentage of the cost price:

profit % =
profit
100%
cos t price
profit % =
250
100% = 166.7%
150
Example 6.3 A school bookshop sells an outdated biology textbook for Rs. 49.35, making a
6% loss. What was the cost price of the book, and what is the cash value of the loss?
Solution:
selling price = 49.35, and loss = 6% of cost price

but, (cost price) = (selling price) + loss
Expressing as percentages of the cost price:
cost price(100% ) = selling price ( x%) + loss(6%)
This means that the selling price is (100-6) = 94% of the cost price.
So:
selling price =
94
cos t price
100
cos t price =
100
100
selling price =
49.35 = 52.50
94
94
loss = (cost price) - (selling price)

= 52.50 - 49.35
= Rs. 3.15
32
7 TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometryisthatbranchofmathematics,whichstudiesthemeasurement,or
relationshipofthethreesidesandthreeanglesoftriangle.
Mostly the angles in trigonometry are represented by Greek symbols (theta),
(alpha), (beta), and (gamma). There are six main words, which are made use of
trigonometry.Thesewordsarealwaysusewithananglesuchassin ,cos ,tan ,cot ,
sec ,andcosec .
7.1
RelationsinRightTriangles
IntherighttriangleABCwithrightangleC=
Figure 7-1
A+B=
, c2 = a2 + b2,
sin A = cos B =
a
c
cos A = sin B =
cot A = tan B =
b
a
sec A = cos ecB =
ha = b
7.2
b
c
tan A = cot B =
c
b
hb = a
a
b
co sec A = s ecB =
c
a
hc = ab/c
SolvingRightTriangles
CaseI:YouaregivenaandA.B=
CaseII:YouaregivenaandB.A=
A ,c=acosecA,b=acotA
CaseIII:YouaregivencandA.B=
B ,c=asec(B),b=atan(B).
A ,a=csin(A),b=ccos(A).
CaseIV:Youaregivenaandb.tan(A)=a/b,B=
CaseV:Youaregivenaandc.sin(A)=a/c,B=
TRIGONOMETRY
A ,c=acosec(A).
A ,b=acot(A).
33
Example 7.1 If tan =

Solution:
24
find the value of sin and cos .
7
We know that in a right angle triangle tan =

tan =
perpendicular
base
perpendicular 24
,
=
7
base
Hence perpendicular = 24 and base = 7

Now applying Pythagoras theorem
( Hypotenuse) 2 = ( Perpendicular ) 2 + ( Base) 2
( Hypotenuse) 2 = (24) 2 + (7) 2 = 576 + 49 = 625
Hypotenuse = 25
Now, sin =
Example 7.2 If sin =
Solution:
perpendicular 24
base
7
=
and cos =
=
hypotenuse
25
hypotenuse 25
1
, find the other trigonometrically ratio and .
2
We know that sin =
perpendicular
1
=
hypotenuse
2
perpendicular = 1 and hypotenuse = 2
Now applying Pythagoras theorem

( Hypotenuse) 2 = ( Perpendicular ) 2 + ( Base) 2
( 2) 2 = (1) 2 + ( Base) 2
Hence, Base = 2
1
base
1
sin
2 =1
Q cos =
Q tan =
1
hypotenuse
cos
2
2
Q cosec =
1
1
1
sin
= 2
2
Q sec =
1
hypotenuse
2
or
= 2
base
cos
1
Q cot =
1
1
=1
tan 1
From any above relation we can calculate the angle easily.

Q cos =
base
1
=
hypotenuse
2
TRIGONOMETRY
1
o
= cos 1
= 45
2
34
Example 7.3 Find the area of the triangle whose two sides are respectively 55mm and
65mm and the angle between them is 40o .
Solution:
Area of triangle =
1
ab sin C
2
Given: a = 55 mm, b = 65 and C = 40o

1
1
Area of = 55 65sin 40o = 55 65 0.642
2
2
= 1149mm 2
7.3
RelationsinObliqueTriangles
A+ B +C = ,
s=
a+b+c
, half the perimeter,
2
r = radius of inscribed circle,

R = radius of circumscribed circle,
Figure 7-2
K = area.
7.3.1. TheLawofSines:
a
b
c
=
=
= 2 R ,
sin A sin B sin C
Thisimpliesthata<=b<=cifandonlyifA<=B<=C.
7.3.2. TheLawofCosines:
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 2bc cos A , b 2 = c 2 + a 2 2ca cos B , c 2 = a 2 + b 2 2ab cos C
7.3.3. TheLawofTangents:
a + b tan( A + B) / 2
=
a b tan( A B) / 2
b + c tan( B + C ) / 2
=
b c tan( B C ) / 2
c + a tan(C + A) / 2
=
c a tan(C A) / 2
b + c cos( B C ) / 2
=
a
sin A / 2
c + a cos(C A) / 2
=
b
sin B / 2
b c sin( B C ) / 2
=
a
cos A / 2
c a sin(C A) / 2
=
b
cos B / 2
b = c cos A + a cos C
c = a cos B + b cos A
7.3.4. Newton'sFormulae:
a + b cos( A B ) / 2
=
c
sin C / 2
7.3.5. Mollweide'sEquations:
a b sin( A B ) / 2
=
c
cos C / 2
7.3.6. Otherrelations:
a = b cos C + c cos B
TRIGONOMETRY
35
7.4
SolvingObliqueTriangles
Case I: You are given any two angles and one side c.
The third angle is determined from A + B + C = Now the Law of Sines can be
c sin B
c sin A
used to find b =
and c =
sin C
sin C
Case II: You are given two sides and the angle opposite one of them, say a, c, and A.
Sub case A: a < c sin (A). There is no solution.
Sub case B: a = c sin (A). There is one solution:
C=
, B=
A, b = c cos A .
2
2
Sub case C: c > a > c sin (A). There are two solutions. Use the Law of Sines to
c sin A
find sin C =
< 1. There are two angles C and C' = - C having that sine,
a
one acute and one obtuse. Then compute B = A C and B = A C " . Now
a sin B
a sin B '
and b =
. The solutions are
use the Law of Sines again to find b =
sin A
sin A
(a,b,c,A,B,C) and (a,b',c,A,B',C').
Sub case D: a >= c. There is one solution. Use the Law of Sines to find
c sin A
sin C =
<= 1. Then angle C must be acute, so it can be found uniquely
a
from sin(C). Then compute B = A C . Now use the Law of Sines again to find
a sin B
.
b=
sin A
Case III: You are given two sides and the included angle, say a, b, and C.
You can compute the third side c by using the Law of Cosines. Then the Law of
a sin C
Sines can be used to find the sines of the other two angles sin A =
and
c
b sin C
. The angles opposite the two shortest sides are then acute, and
sin B =
c
uniquely determined from their sines, and the third, largest angle is found
A + B + C = . Alternatively, you can use the Law of Tangents. You know that
(A+B)/2 = ( -C)/2, which is easily computable. Then by the Law of Tangents, tan
[(A-B)/2] = cot(C/2) (a-b)/ (a+b), so you can find (A-B)/2 uniquely. Then A = ( C)/2 + (A-B)/2, and B = ( -C)/2 - (A-B)/2. Then c = a sin(C)/sin (A).
Case IV: You are given all three sides.
You can use the Law of Cosines to find A, then use the Law of Sines to compute
b sin A
c sin A
sin B =
and sin C =
.
a
a
Alternatively, you can find r = ( s a )( s b)( s c) / s , and use to find A/2, and
hence A, and similarly for B and C.
( s b)( s c)
A
Alternatively, you can use sin =
to find A/2 (since A/2 < /2), and
2
(b c)
hence A, and similarly for B and C.
TRIGONOMETRY
36
7.5
DefinitionsofTrigonometricFunctions
Draw a unit circle with center O. Let a central angle with initial side OP and
terminalsideOQcontainxradians(thatis,thearcPQhaslengthx).Dropaperpendicular
from Q to OP meeting it at R. Then OR = cos(x) and RQ = sin(x). If those directed line
segmentsareuportotheright,thelengthsarepositive.Iftheyaredownortotheleft,
thelengthsarenegative.
Figure 7-3
7.6
Valuesatspecialangles:
0o
Sin
Cos
Tan
Cosec
Sec
Cot
30o
1
2
45o
1
60o
90o
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
2
3
2
3
1
3
3
2
1
3
1
0
7.7
TrigonometricIdentities
sec =
1
1
1
sin
cos
, cos ec =
, cot =
, tan =
, cot =
cos
sin
tan
cos
sin
sin( ) = sin
co sec( ) = co sec
sin( ) = cos
2
cos( ) = cos
sec( ) = sec
cos( ) = sin
2
TRIGONOMETRY
tan( ) = tan
cot( ) = cot
tan( ) = cot
2
37
cos ec( ) = sec

2
s ec ( ) = co sec
2
cot( ) = tan
2
sin( + ) = cos
2
cos( + ) = sin
2
tan( + ) = cot
2
cos ec( + ) = sec

2
s ec( + ) = co sec
2
cot( + ) = tan
2
sin( ) = sin
co sec( ) = cos ec
cos( ) = cos
sec( ) = sec
tan( ) = tan
cot( ) = cot
sin( + ) = sin
cos ec ( + ) = cos ec
cos( + ) = cos
s ec ( + ) = s ec
tan( + ) = tan
cot( + ) = cot
sin(2 + ) = sin
cos ec (2 + ) = cos ec
cos(2 + ) = cos
s ec (2 + ) = s ec
tan(2 + ) = tan
cot(2 + ) = cot
sin 2 + cos 2 = 1
sec 2 tan 2 = 1
co sec 2 cot 2 = 1
sin( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B , sin( A B ) = sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos( A + B ) = cos A cos B sin A sin B , cos( A B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
tan A tan B
,
tan( A + B ) =
tan( A B ) =
1 tan A tan B
1 + tan A tan B
A
1 cos A
A
1 + cos A
A
1 cos A
sin( ) =
cos( ) =
tan( ) =
2
2
2
2
2
1 + cos A
,
,
sin(2 A) = 2 sin A cos A
cos(2 A) = cos 2 A sin 2 A , 2 cos 2 A 1 , 1 2sin 2 A

2 tan A
tan(2 A) =
1 tan 2 A
sin(3 A) = 3sin A 4sin 3 A ,

cos(3 A) = 4 cos3 A 3cos A ,
3 tan A tan 3 A
tan(3 A) =
1 3 tan 2 A
sin( nA) = 2 sin([ n 1] A) cos A sin([ n 2] A)
cos( nA) = 2 cos([n 1] A) cos A cos([n 2] A)
tan[(n 1) A] + tan A
tan(nA) =
1 tan[(n 1) A] tan A
sin( A + B ) + sin( A B )
,
sin A cos B =
2
sin( A + B ) sin( A B )
cos A sin B =
2
cos( A B ) + cos( A + B )
,
cos A cos B =
2
TRIGONOMETRY
38
cos( A B ) cos( A + B )
2
( A + B)
( A B)
,
sin A + sin B = 2sin
cos
2
2
( A + B)
( A B)
sin A sin B = 2 cos
sin
2
2
( A + B)
( A B)
,
cos A + cos B = 2 cos
cos
2
2
( A + B)
( A B)
cos A cos B = 2sin
sin
2
2
sin( A + B )
,
tan A + tan B =
cos A cos B
sin( A B )
tan A tan B =
cos A cos B
sin A sin B =
sin A + sin B
( A + B)
,
= tan
cos A + cos B
2
sin A sin B
( A B)
= tan
cos A + cos B
2
sin A + sin B
( A B)
,
= cot
cos A cos B
2
sin A sin B
( A + B)
= cot
cos A cos B
2
sin A + sin B tan( A + B ) / 2
=
sin A sin B tan( A B) / 2
sin 2 C sin 2 D = sin(C + D) sin(C D)
cos 2 C cos 2 D = sin(C + D) sin(C D)

cos 2 C sin 2 D = cos(C + D ) cos(C D)
1 cos 2
,
sin 2 =
2
1 + cos 2
,
cos 2 =
2
1 cos 2
tan 2 =
1 + cos 2
3sin
sin 3
,
sin 3 =
4
3cos + cos 3
cos3 =
4
3 4 cos 2 + cos 4
,
sin 4 =
8
3 + 4 cos 2 + cos 4
cos 4 =
8
TRIGONOMETRY
39
Example 7.4 Evaluate:

Solution:
sin .cos(90 ) + cos .sin(90 )

tan .sec(90 ).sin(90 )
cos(90 ) = sin , sin(90 ) = cos and sec(90 ) = cosec
sin .cos(90 ) + cos .sin(90 ) sin .sin( ) + cos .cos( )

=
tan .sec(90 ).sin(90 )
tan .cosec( ).sin( )
sin 2 + cos 2
= sin 2 + cos 2 = 1
sin 1
.
.cos
cos sin
5sin 3cos
.
5sin + 2 cos
Example 7.5 If 5 tan = 4 , find the value of

Solution:
We have 5 tan = 4 or tan =

Divide the given expression
4
5
5sin 3cos
by cos , we got
5sin + 2 cos
1
(5sin 3cos )
5 tan 3
cos
=
1
5 tan + 2
(5sin + 2 cos )
cos
=
5 tan 3
5(4 / 5) 3
43
=
=
5 tan + 2
5(4 / 5) + 2
4+2
1
1
=
6
6
Example 7.6 Prove that

Solution:
sin A + sin B
A+ B
.
= tan
cos A + cos B
2
Taking LHS
sin A + sin B
cos A + cos B
A+ B
A B
sin A + sin B = 2sin
cos
and
2
2
A+ B
A B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos
cos
2
2
A+ B
A B
A+ B
2sin
cos
sin
2
2 =
2
=
A+ B
A B
A+ B
2 cos
cos
cos
2
2
2
A+ B
= tan
= RHS
2
TRIGONOMETRY
40
Example 7.7 If sin =

Solution:
1
, find the value of sin 2 cos 2 .
2
2
2
2
2
We know that sin + cos = 1 or cos = 1 sin
sin 2 cos 2 = sin 2 (1 sin 2 )

2
1
= 2sin 2 + 1 = 2 1
2
1
1
1
= 2 1 = 1 =
2
2
4

Solution:
sin 2 cos 2 = 1
1
= sec A + tan A .
sec A tan A
1
sec A tan A
Taking LHS
Multiplying the LHS by sec A + tan A

sec A + tan A
1
sec A + tan A
=
sec A tan A sec 2 A tan 2 A
Since sec 2 A tan 2 A = 1

sec A + tan A
sec A + tan A
=
2
2
sec A tan A
1
1
= sec A + tan A
sec A tan A

Solution:
1 + cos
= (cosec + cot ) 2 .
1 cos
Taking LHS
1 + cos
1 cos
Multiplying LHS by 1 + cos , we get
(1 + cos ) (1 + cos ) (1 + cos ) 2

=
(1 + cos ) (1 cos ) (12 cos 2 )
=
1 + cos 2 + 2 cos
sin 2
1
cos 2 2 cos
=
+
+
sin 2 sin 2 sin 2
= cosec 2 + cot 2 + 2 cot .cosec
= (cosec + cot ) 2
1 + cos
= (cosec + cot ) 2
1 cos
TRIGONOMETRY
41
1
Example 7.10 Prove that 3sin 2 30o 2 tan 2 60o 5cos 2 45o = 4 .
4
Solution:
2
o
2
o
2
o
Taking LHS 3sin 30 2 tan 60 5 cos 45
We know that: sin 30o =
1
1
tan 60o = 3 cos 45o =
2
2
Putting these values to given expression, we get

2
1
3 2
2
( )
1
3 5
2
2
5 17
1
3
5 3
= 2 ( 3) = 6 =
=4
2 4
4
4
2 4
3sin 2 30o 2 tan 2 60o 5cos 2 45o = 4

Solution:
1
4
1 cos 2 A
= tan A .
sin 2 A
Taking LHS
1 cos 2 A
sin 2 A
Since, cos 2 A = cos 2 A sin 2 A and sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A

1 cos 2 A 1 (cos 2 A sin 2 A)
=
sin 2 A
2sin A cos A
Since, 1 = sin 2 A + cos 2 A
1 (cos 2 A sin 2 A) sin 2 A + cos 2 A (cos 2 A sin 2 A)
=
2sin A cos A
2sin A cos A
2sin 2 A
=
= tan A
2sin A cos A
1 cos 2 A
= tan A
sin 2 A
cos 2 20o + cos 2 70o

.
Example 7.12 Evaluate
sin 2 59o + sin 2 31o
Solution:
cos 20o = cos(90o 70o ) = sin 70o and sin 31o = sin(90o 59o ) = cos 59o
Substituting these values into the given problem, we get
cos 2 20o + cos 2 70o sin 2 70o + cos 2 70o
=
sin 2 59o + sin 2 31o sin 2 59o + cos 2 59o
Since, sin 2 A + cos 2 A = 1
sin 2 70o + cos 2 70o 1

=
sin 2 59o + cos 2 59o 1
cos 2 20o + cos 2 70o

=1
sin 2 59o + sin 2 31o
TRIGONOMETRY
42
Example 7.13 A divider having legs of equal length of 100 mm is opened so that its points
are 45 mm apart. Find the angle between legs.
Solution: Let A and B are points of legs.
AB = distance between legs point = 45 mm

AC = BC = length of legs = 100 mm
Draw a perpendicular CD, from point C,
so that
AD = DB =
AB
= 22.5 mm
2
As per geometry ADC = 90o
Let = angle between legs
= half
angle between legs

sin
22.5
= 0.225 or
100
= sin 1 (0.225) = 13o
Figure 7-4
= 2 13o = 26o
Example 7.14 In a triangle ABC, if a = 150 mm; b = 130 mm and B = 60o . Then
calculate the rest of the angle and side of triangle.
Solution: Given data are:
a = 150 mm, b = 130 mm and

As per sine rule, we know
B = 60o
a
b
c
=
=
sin A sin B sin C
a.sin B 150.sin 60o 150. 3 2

sin A =
=
=
= 0.999
b
130
130
A = sin 1 (0.993) = 87o54 '

Again applying sine rule
C = 180 87o54 ' = 32o 6 '
a
c
=
sin A sin C
a.sin C 150.sin 32o6 '

c=
=
= 79.7 mm
sin A
sin 87o54 '
c = 79.7 mm,
A87o54 ',
C32o 6 '
TRIGONOMETRY
43
Example 7.15 In a triangle ABC, if a = 70 mm; b = 60 mm and C = 60o . Then find out
rest of side c
a = 70 mm, b = 60 mm and
C = 60o
a 2 + b2 c2
As per cosine rule cos C =
2ab
cos 60o =
702 + 602 c 2
4900 + 3600 c 2
or 0.5 =
2 70 60
8400
By cross multiplication
c 2 = 8500 4200 = 4300 or c = 4300 = 65.58 mm
c = 65.58 mm
Example 7.16 Two persons standing on the opposite side of a tower see the top of a tower
at an angle of 30o and 60o respectively. If the height of tower is 40 meters, find the distance
between two persons.
60o
30o
Figure 7-5
Let the persons are standing at A and C and tower is at point B

As per geometry tan 30o =
AB =
40
40
=
= 40 3 = 69.29 meters and
o
tan 30 1 3
tan 60o =
AB =
40
AB
40
BC
40
40 40
=
=
= 23.10 meters
o
tan 60
3
3
Hence, distance between persons = AC = AB + BC

AC = 69.29 + 23.10 =92.39 meters
TRIGONOMETRY
44
Exercise
1 If cos =
1
, find other trigonometric ratio.
2
1
2 If sin = , find the value of tan + sec
3
3 If sin =
4
, find the value of sin 2 and sin 2
5
4 If sin 2 + cos 2 + tan 2 = 1 , find the value of

5 Find the value of sin 2 30o + sin 2 45o + sin 2 60o
6 Simplify cos 4 sin 4
3
sin cot
7 If cos = , find the value of
5
2 tan
8 Find the value of sin105o using sin( A + B ) formulae.

9 If 5 tan = 4 , find the value of
5sin 3cos
5sin + 2 cos
10 Evaluate: sin .cos(90o ) + cos .sin(90o )
cos(90o + ).sec( ).tan(180o )

11 Simplify:
sec(360o + ).sec(180o + ).cot(90o + )
Prove the following trigonometric identities:
1. cot .sin = cos
2. tan + cot =
1
sin .cos
3. cosec cot =
1
cosec + cot
4. sin A.cot A + sin A.cosec A = 1 + cos A

5. (1 + tan 2 ).cos2 = 1
6.
1 + sin
cos
=
cos
1 sin
7.
2 tan
= 2sin cos
1 + tan 2
8.
1 tan 2
= cos 2 sin 2
1 + tan 2
9.
1 + cos
tan 2
=
1 cos (tan 1) 2
TRIGONOMETRY
45
10.
1 + sin
= sec + tan
1 sin

11. sin + cos = 1 sin (Hint: sin = 2sin cos )
2
2
2
2
12. cos = 1 2sin 2
(Hint: cos = cos 2
sin 2
13. sin 4 cos 4 = sin 2 cos 2

14. cos 2 A =
1 tan 2 A
1 + tan 2 A
15.
1 cos 2 A
= tan A
sin 2 A
16.
sin A + sin 3 A
= tan 2 A
cos A + cos 3 A
17.
sin 3 A cos 3 A
=2
sin A cos A
18.
sin A + sin B
A+ B
= tan
cos A + cos B
2
19.
1 sin 60o 1 tan 30o

=
cos 60o
1 + tan 30o
sin 60o + cos 30o

20.
= cos 30o
o
o
1 + sin 30 + cos 60
21. sin( + 45o ) =
1
(sin + cos )
2
22. In a triangular plot ABC; the angle at B is half of the angle at A. The angle at C is
43o and the length of the side AC is 300 meters. Calculate the remaining angles
and length of side. (Ans: a = 419.3m; c = 286.1m A = 91o 20 '; B = 45o 40 ' )
23. A ladder 10 meters long is placed against a wall with its upper end resting to a
height of 5 meters above the ground. Find the inclination of the ladder and the
distance of lower end of ladder from wall. (Ans: 30o ; 8.66 meters)
24. From the top of a lighthouse 48 meters above sea, the angle of depression of a
boat is 30o . How far is boat from lighthouse? (Ans: 27.71 meters)
25. The shadow of a building is 81 meters long. When the angle of elevation of the sun
is 41o30 ' ; find the height of building. (Ans: 71.66 meters)
26. A kite is flying with the string inclined at an angle 60o to the ground. Find the
height of kite from the ground when the length of string is 56 meters. (Ans: 48.5
meters)
27. Calculate the altitude of n equilateral triangle whose sides are 1 meter each. (Ans:
0.866 meter)
TRIGONOMETRY
46
28. Two towers, one 40 meters high and another 25 meters high, stand on the same
ground level. The angle of elevation from the top of the shorter to the top of the
longer is 30o . Find the distance between them. (Ans: 25.98 meters)
29. A shadow of an electric pole is reduced by 4 meters when the sun changes its angle
of elevation from 30o to 45o . If the pole is buried in the ground by 2 meters, find the
total length of the pole. (Ans: 7.464 meters)
30. A man is looking two cars from the top of a tower of height 100 meters. If the
angles made by the cars with the horizontal are 60o and 45o . Find the distance
between both the cars. (Ans: 42.26 meters)
31. The top of a pole makes an angle of 15o at a point on ground. If we walk 50 meters
towards the pole, the angle becomes 30o . Calculate the height of the pole. (Ans: 25
meters)
32. A tower 50 meters high stands on the top of a hill. From a point on the ground, the
angle of top and bottom of the tower is 75o and 45o respectively. Find the height of
the hill. (Ans: 18.3 meters)
33. On a level ground from a particular point, the angle of elevation to a chimney top
is 30o . After going 15 meters nearer to chimney, the angle becomes 60o . Calculate
the height of chimney. (Ans: 13 meters)
34. Two tangents are drawn to a 50 mm diameter circle from a point 50 mm away
from the centre of the circle. Find the angles between tangents. (Ans: 60o )
TRIGONOMETRY
47
8 GEOMETRY
Geometry(geo"earth",metria"measurement")"EarthMeasuring"isapartof
mathematicsconcernedwithquestionsofsize,shape,relativepositionoffigures,andthe
propertiesofspace.Geometryisoneoftheoldestsciences.Initiallyabodyofpractical
knowledgeconcerninglengths,areas,andvolumes.
8.1
Twodimensional
8.1.1. Triangle
Apolygon(planefigure)with3anglesand3sides.
Sides: a, b, c
Opposite angles: A, B, C
Altitudes: ha , hb , hc
Medians: ma , mb , mc
Angle bisectors: ta , tb , tc
Perimeter: P
Semi perimeter: s
Area: K
Radius of circumscribed circle: R
Radius of inscribed circle: r
Figure 8-1
Equilateral Triangle: Atrianglewithallthreesidesofequallength.
a = b = c, A = B = C =
P = 3a s =
3a
3 2
K=
a
2
4
h a = ma = t a =
R=a
3
a
2
3
3
r=a
3
6
Figure 8-2
GEOMETRY
48
Isosceles Triangle: Atrianglewithtwosidesofequallength.

a = c, A = C
B + 2 A = radians = 180o
P = 2a + b
K =b
ha =
s =a+
b
2
4a 2 b 2
sin B
sin A
= a2
= ab
4
2
2
b 4a 2 b 2
= a sin B = b sin A
2a
a 2 + 2b 2
ma =
2
ta = b
a (2a + b)
b sin A
=
( a + b)
sin(3 A / 2)
hb = mb = tb =
4a 2 b 2
b
= a cos
2
2
Figure 8-3
a 2b
a
b
R=
=
=
4 K 2sin A 2sin B
r=
K b 2a b
=
s 2 2a + b
Figure 8-4
GEOMETRY
49
Right Triangle: Atrianglewithonerightangle.
C=A+B=
radians = 90o
c2 = a2 + b2 (Pythagorean Theorem)
P=a+b+c
s=
a+b+c
2
K=
ab
2
c
ab
R = ,r =
= sc
2
a+b+c
ha = b hb = a hc = ab/c
ma =
4b 2 + a 2
mb =
2
Figure 8-5
4a 2 + b 2
2
mc = c/2
ta =
2bc cos( A / 2)
bc(1 a 2 )
=
b+c
(b + c) 2
tb =
2ac cos( B / 2)
ac(1 b 2 )
=
a+c
(a + c) 2
tc = ab
2
a+b
Figure 8-6
Scalene Triangle: Atrianglewithnotwosidesequal.

(Notethatthefollowingformulasworkwithalltriangles,notjustscalenetriangles.)
s=
P = a + b + c,
ta =
a+b+c
2
2bc cos( A / 2)
1 a2
= bc
b+c
(b + c)2
(Heron's or Hero's Formula)
r=
2K K
( s a)( s b)( s c)
= =
P
s
s
R=
abc
a
b
c
=
=
=
4 K 2sin A 2sin B 2sin C
Figure 8-7
GEOMETRY
50
ha = c sin B = b sin C =
ma =
ta =
2K
a
2b 2 + c 2 a 2
2
2bc cos( A / 2)
1 a2
= bc
b+c
(b + c)2
= c sin
A
B
C
sin cos
2
2
2
Figure 8-8
8.1.2. Quadrilateral
Apolygon(planefigure)with4anglesand4sides.
Sides: a, b, c, d
Angles: A, B, C, D
Around the quadrilateral are a, A, b, B, c, C, d, D,
and back to a, in that order
Altitudes: ha, etc.
Diagonals: p = BD, q = AC, intersect at O
Angle between diagonals: theta
Perimeter: P Semi perimeter: s
Area: K
Figure 8-9
GEOMETRY
51
General
P = a+b+c+d , s =
P a+b+c+d
=
2
2
A + B + C + D = 2 radians = 360o
K = pq
4 p 2b 2 (b 2 + d 2 a 2 c 2 )
4
K=
K=
sin
2
(s a)(s b)(s c)(s d ) abcd cos2
( A + C)
2
4
(Bretschneider's Formula)
Figure 8-10
Square: Aquadrilateralwithfourrightanglesandallfoursidesofequallength.
a = b = c = d A = B = C = D = 90o
radians = 90o
ha = a, p = q = a 2
P = 4a
s = 2a K = a2 R = a
2
2
r=
a
2
Figure 8-11
Rectangle: Aquadrilateralwithadjacentsidesperpendicular,allfouranglesaretherefore
rightangles.
a = c, b = d A = B = C = D = 90o
ha = b, hb = a
p = q = a 2 + b2 ,
P = 2( a + b)
s = a + b, K = ab
R=
p
a 2 + b2
a b
=
r = min of or
2 2
2
2
Figure 8-12
GEOMETRY
52
Parallelogram: Aquadrilateralwithoppositesidesparallel.
a = c, b = d
A = C, B = D
A + b = = 180o s = a + b P = 2( a + b)
ha = b sin A = b cos( B )
2
hb = a sin A = a cos( B )
2
Figure 8-13
K = ab sin A = ab sin B
p = a 2 + b 2 2ab cos A q = a 2 + b 2 2ab cos B p 2 + q 2 = 2(a 2 + b 2 )

Rhombus: Aparallelogramwithallsidesequal.
a = b = c = d A = C, B = D =
A+ B =
ha = hb = a sin A = a cos( B )
2
p = a 2 2 cos A q = a 2 2 cos B
p 2 + q 2 = 4a 2 P = 4a
s = 2a
K = a 2 sin A = a 2 sin B = aha =
pq
2
Figure 8-14
Trapezoid (American)/Trapezium (British): aparalleltoc,m=(a+c)/2
A + B = C + D = radians = 180o
P=a+b+c+d
K = h am =
ha
(a + c)
2
Figure 8-15
If a = c, the trapezoid is actually a parallelogram, so b = d, and the height and area
cannot be determined from a, b, c, and d alone. If a and c are not equal, then
ha2 = (a+b-c+d) (-a+b+c+d) (a-b-c+d) (a+b-c-d)/[4(a-c)2].
If ha2 < 0, no trapezoid having those side lengths exists.
GEOMETRY
53
Kite: Aquadrilateralwithtwopairsofdistinctadjacentsidesequalinlength.
a = b, c = d =
, OB = OD =
p
,
2
a2 p2
OA = h, OC = q h h =
4
q=
a2 p2
c2 p2
+
4
4
P = 2(a + c), K =
pq
2
Figure 8-16
Cyclic Quadrilateral: Aquadrilateralallofwhoseverticeslieonacircle.
Points A, B, C, and D lie on a circle of

radius R.
A + C = B + D = radians = 180o
K = ( s a)( s b)( s c)( s d )

(Brahmagupta's Formula)
K=
R
(ab + cd )(ac + bd )(ad + bc )
4
p=
(ac + bd )(ad + bc)

ab + cd
p=
Figure 8-17
(ab + cd )(ac + bd )
1 (ab + cd )(ac + bd )( ad + bc)
theta = arcsin[2K/(ac+bd)]
R=
ad + bc
4 ( s a )( s b)( s c)( s d )
GEOMETRY
54
Cyclic-Inscrutable: Aquadrilateralwithinwhichacirclecanbeinscribed,tangenttoall
foursides.
Points A, B, C, and D lie on a circle of

radius R.
Sides a, b, c, and d are tangent to a circle of
radius r.
m = distance between the centers of the two
circles.
A+C = b+ d =
a+c =b+d
K = abcd r = abcd / s
r = (ab + cd )(ac + bd )(ad + bc) / abcd / 4

1
1
1
+
= 2
2
2
( R + m ) ( R m)
r
Figure 8-18
8.1.3. RegularPolygon
Number of sides, all equal length = a:n
Number of interior angles, all equal measure = : n
Central angle subtending one side:
Perimeter: P Area: K
(n 2)
radians , =
2
radians
n
n
+ = radians
P = na = 2nR sin
2
2
nR 2
na
na
cot =
sin =
4R2 a2
K=
4
2
2
4
a
a
R = cos ec , r = cot
a = 2r tan = 2 R sin
2
2
2
2
2
2
Figure 8-19
Special Cases of the Regular Polygon
n = 3 (equilateral triangle)
n = 4 (square)
n = 5 (regular pentagon)
n = 6 (regular hexagon)
n = 8 (regular octagon)
GEOMETRY
55
The Regular Pentagon
Number of sides n = 5
Internal angles =
3
2
radians ,Central angles =
radians
5
5
Perimeter P = 5a =
5R
10 2 5
2
Area
K=
5a 2
2
5R 2
5a
1+
=
10 + 2 5 = 5r 2 5 2 5 =
4R2 a2
4
8
4
5
Circumradius R =
a
2
a
2
, Apothem r =
,
2+
1+
2
2
5
5
Side a = 2r 5 2 5 =
R
10 2 5
2
The Regular Hexagon
Number of sides n = 6
2
radians , Central angles = radians

3
3
Internal angles =
Perimeter P = 6a = 6R
Area K =
3 2
3
3
a 3 = R 2 3 = 2r 2 3 = a 4 R 2 a 2
2
2
2
Circumradius R = a
Apothem r = a
3
3
=R
2
2
, Side a =
2r
=R
3
The Regular Octagon
Number of sides n = 8, Internal angles a 2 ,

Central angles =
radians
Perimeter P = 8a = 8 R 2 2
Area K = 2a 2 ( 2 + 1) = 2 R 2 2 = 8r 2 ( 2 1) = 2a 4 R 2 2a 2
Circumradius
R=a
2
+1
2
Apothem
r=
a
R
( 2 + 1) =
2+ 2
2
2
Side a = 2r ( 2 1) = R 2 2
GEOMETRY
56
8.1.4. Circle
Allpointsonthecircumferenceofacircleareequidistantfromitscenter.
Radius: r, Diameter: d,
Circumference: C, Area: K
d = 2r
C = 2 r = d
K = r2 =
d2
Cr
K = C2 =
4
2
C = 2 K
Figure 8-20
Arc of a Circle: Acurvedportionofacircle.
Length: s
Central angle:
(in radians), (in degrees)

s = r = r
180
Figure 8-21
Segment of Circle: Eitherofthetworegionsintowhichasecantorachordcutsa
circle.(However,theformulasbelowassumethatthesegmentisnolargerthana
semicircle.)
Chord length: c
Height: h
Distance from center of circle to chord's midpoint: d
Central angle: (in radians), (in degrees)
Area: K
Arc length: s
d
r
= arccos( ) = 2 arctan(
c = 2 r2 d 2 , d =
c
c
) = 2 arcsin( ) , h = r d
2d
2r
r2 s
1
2
2
4r c , K = ( sin )
2
2 r
GEOMETRY
Figure 8-22
57
Sector of a ircle Thepieshapedpieceofacircle'cutout'bytworadii.
Central angle: Central angle:
(in rad.), (in deg.)

Area: K
Arc length: s
rs r 2
K= =
2
2 360
Figure 8-23
8.1.5. Ellipse
Semi-axes: a, b
Eccentricity: e =
a2 b2
a
Area: K, Circumference: C, K = ab
C = 4aE, where E is an elliptic integral
with k = e, which can be used to derive
the following formulas:
C = (a+b)[1 + x2/4 + x4/64 + ...],
where x = (a-b)/(a+b)
C = (a+b)(1 + 3x2/[10 + sqrt(4 - 3x2)]),
approximately
Figure 8-24
8.1.6. SegmentofaParabola
Height: h, Chord length: c, Area: K
Length: s
s = c[1+2(2h/c)2/3-2(2h/c)4/5+...]
K = 2ch/3
K = 4T/3, where T is the area of
the triangle formed by the chord
and the point of tangency of a
tangent to the parabola parallel
to the chord
Figure 8-25
GEOMETRY
58
Example 8.1 Find the side of a square plot whose area is 38.44 sq. meters.
Solution:
Area of square = a 2 = 38.44 square meters

Side of square = a = 38.44 = 6.2 meters
Side of square plot = 6.2 meters
Example 8.2 Calculate the area of an equilateral triangle having side of 20 cm.
Solution:
Area of equilateral triangle =

=
3 2
a
4
3
1.732
(20) 2 =
400
4
4
= 173.2 square cm
Example 8.3 Find the area of a sector of a circle whose radius is 14 cm and the length of
arc of the sector is 28 cm.
Solution:
Given: radius of circle = 14 cm, length of arc = 28 cm

We know:
Angle of sector =
Area of sector =
length of arc 28
=
= 2o
radius
14
r 2
360o
(14) 2 2
360
= 3.422 sq. cm
Example 8.4 Find out the diameter of grinding wheel if it travels 660 mm in each round.
Solution:
For any revolution wheel travels a distance is equal to its circumference.

Let d = diameter of grinding wheel
Circumference of wheel = d
d =
d=
22
d = 660
7
660 7
= 210 mm
22
d = 210 mm
Example 8.5 The perimeter of one square is 748 cm and that of another square is 336 cm.
find the perimeter of a square which is equal in area of the sum of the two.
Solution:
side of square = perimeter/4

Side of First Square a1 =
748
= 187 cm
4
Area of First Square (a1) 2 = (187) 2 = 34969 cm 2

Side of Second Square a 2 =
336
= 84 cm
4
GEOMETRY
59
Area of Second Square (a 2) 2 = (84) 2 = 7056 cm 2

Sum of area of both Squares a = 4969 + 7056 = 42025 cm 2
Area of Third square = 42025 cm 2
Side of Third Square a 3 = 42025 = 205 cm
Perimeter of Third square = 4a = 4 205 = 820 cm
Example 8.6 A wire is in the form of circle of radius 42 cm. Determine the side of a square
into which it can be bent.
Solution:
radius of circle r = 42 cm
Circumference of circle 2 r = 2 3.14 42 = 264 cm
Let the side of square = a mm
Since the same wire is bent in shape of square, so the
Perimeter of square = Circumference of circle = 264 cm
Side of square a =
264
= 66 cm
4
Side of square = 66 cm
Example 8.7 A circle having radius of 3.6 cm. Calculate the area of sector, when angle of
sector is 36o .
Solution:
radius of circle r = 3.6 cm

Angle of sector = 36o
Length of sector 2 r
Area of sector = r 2
= 3.14 (3.6) 2
360
= 2 3.14 3.6
36
= 2.26 cm
360
360
36
= 4.07 cm 2
360
Example 8.8 A circular disc whose radius is 16.8 cm is divided into three sector of 120o ,
150o and 90o respectively. Calculate the ratio of area of sectors.
Solution:
radius of circle r = 16.8 cm

Angle of sectors 1 = 120o , 2 = 150o and 3 = 90o
Area of sector = r 2
360
Area of first sector = 3.14 (16.8)2
120
= 295.68 cm 2
360
Area of second sector = 3.14 (16.8) 2
GEOMETRY
150
= 369.60 cm 2
360
60
Area of third sector = 3.14 (16.8) 2

Now ratio of areas
90
= 221.70 cm 2
360
= 295.68 : 369.60 : 221.76

= 4:5:3
Example 8.9 A rectangular plate 16 cm long and 12 cm wide, having 6 holes of 4 cm

diameter. Calculate the area of rest of plate.
Solution:
Length L =16 cm, Width W = 12 cm

Radius of circle d = 4 cm
Area of plate without hole = L H = 16 12 = 192 cm 2
Area of one hole
d2 =
22
88
4 4 = cm 2
7 4
7
Hence area of remaining plate

= area of plate without hole 6 X area of one hole
= 192 6
88 816 2
=
cm
7
7
= 116.57 cm 2
8.2
Threedimensional
8.2.1. RectangularParallelepiped
Athreedimensionalfigureallofwhosefaceanglesarerightangles,soallitsfaces
are rectangles and all its dihedral angles are right angles.(A dihedral angle is an angle
createdbytwointersectingplanes.)
Edges: a, b, c, Diagonal: d
Total surface area (total area of all the faces of
the figure): T
Volume: V
d = a 2 + b2 + c2
V = abc
Face diagonals
T = 2( ab + bc + ac)
a2 + b2 , a 2 + c2 , b2 + c2
GEOMETRY
Figure 8-26
61
8.2.2. Cube:
Athreedimensionalfigurewithsixcongruentsquaresides.
a=b=c
d =a 3
T = 6a2
V = a3
Face diagonal a 2
Figure 8-27
8.2.3. Prism
A polyhedron with two congruent, parallel bases that are polygons and all remaining
facesparallelograms.
Height: h
Area of base: B
Length of lateral edge: l
Area of right section: A
Perimeter of right section: P
Lateral surface area: S
Volume: V
S = lP
Figure 8-28
V = hB = lA
8.2.4. Pyramid
A pyramid is a polyhedron of which one side, the base, is a polygon (not necessarily a
regular polygon), and all the rest are triangles sharing a common point, the vertex. A
pyramid is regular if the base is a regular polygon and the other faces are congruent
isoscelestriangles
Height: h, Area of base: B, Slant height: s (regular pyramid), Perimeter of base: P

Lateral surface area: S, Volume: V S = sP/2 (regular pyramid), V = hB/3
Square Pyramid: Thebaseisasquare,andalltriangularfacesarecongruentisosceles
triangles.
Side of base: a,
Other edges: b
Height: h,
Slant height: s
Vertex angle of faces:

Base angle of faces:
Base-to-face dihedral angle:
Figure 8-29
GEOMETRY
62
Face-to-face dihedral angle:

Total surface area (including base): T
Volume: V
a = 2(b 2 h 2 ) = 2 b 2 s 2 = 2 s 2 h 2 , b = h 2 +
a2
a2
= s2
= 2s 2 h 2
2
4
a2
a2
b2 + h2
a2
a2
2
2
2
2
2
= h +
=
h= b
= s
= 2s b , s = b
4
4
2
2
4
2
S = 2as,
T = a(2s+a), V = a2h/3
Frustum of a Pyramid:Theportionofapyramidthatliesbetweenthebaseandaplane
cuttingthroughitparalleltothebase.
Height: h, Area of bases: B1, B2

Slant height: s (regular
Perimeter of bases: P1, P2
pyramid)

Volume: V
S=
s
( P1 + P 2) (regular pyramid)
2
V=
h
( B1 + B 2 + B1 B 2 )
3
Figure 8-30
8.2.5. RegularPolyhedron
A solid, threedimensional figure each face of which is a regular polygon with
equalsidesandequalangles.Everyfacehasthesamenumberofvertices,andthesame
numbersoffacesmeetateveryvertex.Aninscribed(inside)spheretouchesthecenterof
every face, and a circumscribed sphere (outside) touches every vertex. There are five
and only five of these figures called the Platonic Solids the tetrahedron, cube,
octahedron,dodecahedron,andicosahedrons.
Number of vertices: v, Number of edges: e

Number of faces: f, Edge: a
Radius of circumscribed sphere: R
Radius of inscribed sphere: r
Surface area Sn = nAn ( s )
Volume Vn = naAk ( s ) / 3 = aSn / 3 where each face of the
polyhedron has k sides.
GEOMETRY
63
Tetrahedron: A threedimensional figure with 4 equilateral triangles faces, 4 vertices,

and6edges.
v = 4, e = 6, f = 4,
6
R,
3
a=2
S = 3a 2 R =
r=
1
R
3
6
2 3
aV =
a
4
12
delta = arccos(1/3) = 70o 32'

h = height or altitude h =
6
a
3
Figure 8-31
Cube: Athreedimensionalfigurewith6squarefaces,8vertices,and12edges.
v = 8, e = 12, f = 6
a=2
R=
3
3
Rr=
R
3
3
3
a
r=
2
2
S = 6a 2 , V = a 3
Figure 8-32
Octahedron: Athreedimensionalfigurewith8equilateraltrianglesfaces,6vertices,and
12edges.
v = 6, e = 12, f = 8
a=R 2
r=
3
2
a
R R=
3
2
S = 2 3a 2 V =
2 3
a
3
Figure 8-33
Dodecahedron:Ithas20vertices,30edgesand12faces,eachonebeingaregular
pentagon.
GEOMETRY
64
Figure 8-34
Icosahedron: It has 12 vertices, 30 edges and 20 faces, each one being an
equilateral triangle.
Figure 8-35
8.2.6. CircularCylinder
Acylinderwhosebasesarecircles.Thelineconnectingthecentersofthebasesiscalled
theaxis.
Height: h
Area of base: B
Length of lateral edge: l
Area of right section: A
Perimeter of right section: P
Figure 8-36
Total surface area: T

Volume: V
S = lP T = lP + 2B
V = hB = lA
Right Circular Cylinder: A circular cylinder in which the axis is perpendicular to the
bases.(Iftheaxisofacircularcylinderisnotperpendiculartothebases,itiscalledan
obliquecircularcylinder.)
Height: h
Radius of base: r

Total surface area: T
Volume: V
S = 2 rh
V = r 2h
A = B = r2
P = 2 r = d
T = 2 ( r + h)
l=h
Figure 8-37
GEOMETRY
65
8.2.7. Cone
Aconeisasurfacegeneratedbyafamilyofalllinesthroughagivenpoint(thevertex)
andpassingthroughacurveinaplane(thedirectrix).Morecommonly,aconeincludes
the solid enclosed by a cone and the plane of the directrix. The region of the plane
enclosed by the directrix is called a base of the cone. The perpendicular distance from
thevertextotheplaneofthebaseistheheightofthecone.
Height: h Area of base: B Volume: V, V = hB/3

Circular Cone: Aconewhosebaseisacircle.Thelineconnectingthecenterofthebase
tothevertexiscalledtheaxisofthecircularcone.
Right Circular Cone:Inarightcircularcone,theaxisisperpendiculartothebase.(If
theaxisofacircularconeisnotperpendiculartothebase,itiscalledanobliquecircular
one.)The length of any line segment connecting the vertex to the directrix is called
theslantheightofthecone.
Height: h
Radius of base: r
Slant height: s
Total surface area: T Volume: V
B = r 2 s = r 2 + h 2 S = rs T = r ( r + s )
V=
r 2h
Frustum of a Right Circular Cone: Thepartofarightcircularconebetweenthebase

andaplaneparalleltothebasewhosedistancefromthebaseislessthantheheightof
thecone.
Height: h
Radius of bases: r, R
Slant height: s Lateral surface area: S

Total surface area: T Volume: V
s = ( R r )2 + h2
S = (r + R) s
T = [ r ( r + R ) + R ( R + s )]
V=
( R 2 + rR + r 2 )h
GEOMETRY
Figure 8-38
66
8.2.8. Sphere
Athreedimensionalfigurewithallofitspointsequidistantfromitscenter.
Radius: r
Diameter: d
Surface area: S
Volume: V
S = 4 r 2 = d 2
4
d3
V = r3 =
3
6
Figure 8-39
Sector of a Sphere: Thepartofaspherebetweentworightcircularconesthathavea

commonvertexatthecenterofthesphere,andacommonaxis.(Theinteriorconemay
haveabasewithzeroradius.)
Radius: r
Height: h
Volume: V
S = 2 rh
V=
2 2
r h
3
Figure 8-40
Spherical Cap: Theportionofaspherecutoffbyaplane.Iftheheight,theradiusofthe

sphere, andthe radius of the base are equal: h = r (= r1), the figure is called a
hemisphere.
Radius of sphere: r
Radius of base: r1
Height: h
Surface area: S
Volume: V
h 2 + r 12
r=
2h
S = 2 rh , V =
h 2 + 3r 2
1
Figure 8-41
Segment and Zone of a Sphere:

Segment:theportionofaspherecutoffbytwoparallelplanes.
Zone:thecurvedsurfaceofasphericalsegment.
GEOMETRY
67
Radius of sphere: r
Radii of bases: r1, r2
Height: h
Surface area: S
Volume: V
S = 2 rh
V=
(h 2 + 3r 12 + 3r 2 2 ) h
Figure 8-42
Lune of a Sphere: Thecurvedsurfaceoftheintersectionoftwohemispheres.
Radius: r
Central dihedral angle: (in radians), (in degrees)
Surface area: S
Volume enclosed by the lune and the two planes: V
S = 2r 2 =
90
r 2
V=
2 3
3
r=
r
3
270
Figure 8-43
8.2.9. Ellipsoid
A threedimensional figure all planar crosssections of which are either
ellipsesorcircles.
Semi-axes: a, b, c (the semi-axis is half the

length of the axis, and corresponds to the
radius of a sphere)
Volume: V
4
V = abc
3
Figure 8-44
8.2.10.
CircularorRingTorus
Thesurfaceofathreedimensionalfigureshapedlikeadoughnut.
Major radius (of the large circle): R

Minor radius (of circular cross-section):
r
Surface area: S
Volume: V
S = 4 2 Rr
V = 2 2 Rr 2
Figure 8-45
GEOMETRY
68
Example 8.10 A wall 24 meter long, 6 meter high and 0.4 meter thick is made of bricks
having dimension of 25 cm X 16 cm X 10 cm. Calculate the cost of bricks @ Rs. 2 per
brick.
Solution:
Given:
Length of wall L = 24 meters = 2400 cm
Height of wall H = 6 meters = 600 cm
Width of wall W = 0.4 meter =40 cm
Hence, the volume of said wall V = L H W
= 2400 600 40 = 57600000 cm3
Now, volume of one brick v = l h w

v = 25 16 10 = 4000 cm3
Hence, numbers of bricks required for said wall

V 57600000
=
= 14400
v
4000
Cost of brick = Cost of one bricks X numbers of bricks required

Cost of bricks = 2 X 14400 = Rs. 28800
Example 8.11 A cube of 9 cm is melted to three small cubes. If two cubes are 1 cm and 6
cm respectively, then calculate the size of third cube.
Solution:
Given:
Edge of big cube A = 9 cm
Edge of first cube a1 = 1 cm
Edge of second cube a 2 = 6 cm
Edge of third cube a3 = ? cm
Now, volume of big cube V = A3 cm 3
V = (9)3 = 729 cm3
Obviously, the volume of big cube will be equal to the sum of other three
cubes i.e. V = v1 + v 2 + v3
729 = (1)3 + (6)3 + v 3 or v 3 = 729 216 1 = 512 cm3
Now size of third cube a 3 = 3 512 = 8 cm
Example 8.12 A solid metal cylinder of radii 14 cm and height 21 cm is melted and recast
into spheres, each of radii 3.5 cm. calculate the number of spheres that can be made.
Solution:
Given:
Radius of cylinder = 14 cm
Height of cylinder = 21 cm
Radius of spheres = 3.5 cm
Number of spheres =?
GEOMETRY
69
Volume of cylinder VC = r 2 h
VC = (14) 2 21 = 4116 cm3
This cylinder is melted and recast into spheres each of radius 3.5 cm
4
Volume of each sphere VS = r 3
3
4
VS = (3.5)3 = 57.16 cm3
3
Let there may be x no. of spheres made

4
Total volume of x spheres = x r 3
3
But the total volume of spheres = volume of cylinder

VS = VC or 57.16 ( x ) = 4116
Or x =
4116
= 72
57.16
Hence, 72 spheres can be made from cylinder

Example 8.13 A bucket of base diameter 95 cm rim diameter 125 cm, and height 100 cm,
is full of water. Calculate the volume of water.
Solution: Given:
Base diameter d = 95 cm
Rim diameter D = 125 cm
Height of bucket h = 100 cm
The bucket in the form of frustum of cone and the volume is given by:
V=
V=
V=
h D 2 + d 2 + Dd
12
12
12
100 (125) 2 + (95) 2 + (125)(95)

100 [15625 + 9025 + 11875] =
12
100 36525
V = 956600 cubic cm or 0.9566 cubic meter

Volume of water in liters = Volume in cubic meter X 1000
Hence, volume of water = 0.9566 X 1000 = 956.6 liter
Example 8.14 Find the total surface area and the volume of a right cone having 15 cm
base diameter and 20 cm height.
Solution: Given:
Radius of cone r =
d
= 7.5 cm
2
GEOMETRY
70
Height of cone h = 20 cm
Let S = slant height
S = r 2 + h 2 = (7.5) 2 + (20) 2 = 56.25 + 400
= 456.25 = 21.36 cm
Total surface are of cone = r ( S + r )
= 7.5(21.36 + 7.5) = 7.5 28.86 = 680.1 sq.cm
1
Volume of cone = r 2 h
3
1
= (7.5) 2 20 = 375 = 1179 cu.cm
3
Example 8.15 Find the volume of an equilateral triangular prism having side 8 cm and
length 20 cm.
Solution: Given:
Side of prism a = 8 cm
Height of prism h = 20 cm
Since the base of prism is equilateral triangle
Area of base =
3 2 1.732
a =
(8) 2
4
4
Volume of equilateral triangle prism = base area X height

V=
3 2
1.732
a h =
(8) 2 20
4
4
V = 554.24 cm 3
Example 8.16 A hollow cylinder of height 14 cm has an outer diameter of 7 cm and

thickness of 1 cm. Find its total surface area.
Solution: Given:
Outer radius of cylinder R =
d
= 3.5 cm
2
Inner radius of cylinder r = R t = 3.5 1 = 2.5 cm

Height of cylinder h = 14 cm
Total surface area of hollow cylinder = curved area of cylinder + twice of
area of base
= 2 Rh + 2 ( R 2 r 2 )
= 2 (3.5) (14) + 2 {(3.5) 2 (2.5) 2 }
= 2 (49 + 12.25 6.25) = 3.14 110 = 345.7 cm 2
Hence, total surface area = 345.7 sq. cm
GEOMETRY
71
Excersice
1. A farmer sold his rectangular field of length 400 meters and breadth 100 meters
and purchased a square field of equivalent area. Find out the dimension of the
square field. (Ans: 200 meters)
2. The width of a rectangular slurry tank is two thirds of its length. If the perimeter of
tank is 90 meters, find the length and width of the tank. (Ans: 27 meters; 18
meters)
3. A building is 25 meters long and 10 meters wide. All round the building, 2 meters
wide cement concrete footpath has to be constructed. Find the cost of footpath @
Rs. 50 per sq. meter. (Ans: Rs. 7800)
4. A wire can be bent in the form of a circle of radius 56 cm. If it is bent in a form of
square, calculate the side. (Ans: 88 cm)
5. A triangular plot of land has three sides of length 20 meters, 16 meters and 24
meters. Calculate its area. (Ans: 158.8 sq. meters)
6. An isosceles triangle has a base of 200 mm and its area is 2000 sq. mm. calculate
its length of sides. (Ans: 102 mm)
7. Find the area of an isosceles triangle whose sides is 7 cm and base 5 cm. (Ans:
16.35 sq cm)
8. Find the circumference of a circle whose area is 154 sq. cm. (Ans: 44 cm)
9. Find the area of a circular disc, whose inner radius and outer radius are 13 cm
and 15 cm respectively. (Ans: 176 sq. cm)
10. Find the area of a regular hexagon whose each side measures 1.5 meter (Ans: 5.84
sq. meters)
11. A room 5 m long 3 m wide and 4 m high. There is a door of size 2 m by 1 m. find
the area of wall and ceiling, which are to be whitewashed. (Ans: 77 sq. m)
12. Find the surface area of a cube whose side is 15 cm. (Ans: 1350 sq. m)
13. A trapezium has its two parallel sides 1 meter and 1.7 meters and has the distance
between them is 1 meter. Find the cost of painting @ Rs. 5 per sq. meter on both
sides. (Ans: Rs. 13.5)
14. Find the length of the diagonal of that square plot of land, whose area is equal to
the area of a rectangular plot of length 50 meters and breadth 40 meters. Also,
calculate the perimeter of square plot. (Ans: 62.234 meters; 178.88 meters)
15. The sides of field in the shape of parallelogram are 12 and 17 meters. If one of the
diagonals is 25 meters, find the area of field. (Ans: 180 sq. meter)
16. A circular field of 40 meters diameter is having a path 2.5 meters wide across the
diameter. Calculate the area of remaining field. (Ans: 1157.143 sq. meters)
17. A rectangular plate is 6 meters wide and 12 meters long. Two holes of 2 meters
diameter and one hole of 1 meter diameter have been cut from plate. Calculate the
area of remaining plate. (Ans: 64.93 sq. meters)
GEOMETRY
72
18. A triangle has an area of 30 sq. cm and base 10 cm. What is the height of triangle?
(Ans: 6 cm)
19. The area of a square field is 1.44 hectare. Calculate the total expenditure in
fencing the boundary of above field if fencing cost is Rs. 75 per meter.
20. What is the largest size of a square that can be cut from a metal sheet of 60 mm
diameter? (Ans: 42.42 mm)
21. The perimeter of a right angle triangle is 12 cm. If the hypotenuse is 5 cm find the
area. (Ans: 110.25 sq. cm)
22. An equilateral triangle has each of its sides 60 mm long. Find its area.
23. A cylindrical vessel is to be made 3 meters long and is to have a volume of 9.42
cubic meters. Calculate its diameter and surface area if it is closed from only one
end. (Ans: 2 meters; 22 sq. meters)
24. A solid metal cylinder of radius 77 cm and of height 25 cm is melted and recast
into 350 equal solid cubes, find the dimension of the edge of cubes. (Ans: 11 cm)
25. Three spheres of 3 cm, 9 cm and 6 cm radius are melted down together in a single
sphere. In the process, 5% of the metal is wasted. Calculate the radius of the single
sphere formed. (Ans: 9.738 cm)
26. A square water tank has the capacity to hold 50000 liters of water. Calculate the
sides of the tank if its height is 2 meters. (Ans: 5 meters)
27. A circular water tank has a capacity of 200000 liters of water. The diameter of
tank is 8 meters. What will be the depth of water when the tank is half filled? (Ans:
1.989 meters)
28. The capacity of a tank is 81000 liters. The width of the tank is one-third of its
length and its depth is 3 meters. Calculate the length and width of the tank. (Ans: 9
meters; 3 meters)
29. A cubic block of copper of side 1 cm is drawn into a wire of diameter 1 mm. find
out the length of wire. (Ans: 1.2727 meters)
30. The inner radius of a pipe is 2.5 cm. Find the volume of water in 14 meters length
of this pipe. (Ans: 12571.43 cc)
31. Find the quantities of bricks required for constructing a tank whose internal size is
3 meters x 2 meters x 1.5 meters. Thickness of wall is 0.23 meter. Assume 500
bricks are required for one cubic meter of brick masonry. (Ans: 3842 bricks)
32. A rod of 1 meter long and 150 mm diameter is rolled down to 2.5 cm diameter.
Find the new length of bar. (Ans: 36 meters)
33. Calculate the weight of a hollow sphere having outside diameter of 100 mm and
inside diameter 70 mm. The density of sphere is 6.75 gm/cc. (Ans: 2.32 kg)
34. The capacity of a tank is 81000 liters. The width of the tank is 1/3rd of its length
and its depth is 3 meters. Calculate the length and width. (Ans: 9m;3m)
35. Find the volume of wood required to make an open box of external dimensions 150
X 100 X 80 cm. The wood is 50 mm thick. Assume 10% wastage. (Ans: 0.283 cubic
meter)
36. Find the volume of a cone having base 16 cm and height 21 cm. (Ans: 1408 cc)
GEOMETRY
73
37. Find the volume of bucket whose top and base diameters are 25 cm and 20 cm
respectively and height is 30 cm. (Ans: 11.98 liters)
38. The volume of a cylinder is 5544 cubic cm and its height is 16 cm. Find its radius.
(Ans: 10.5 cm)
39. A hollow cylinder of height 14 cm has an outer diameter of 7 cm and thickness of 1
cm. Find its total surface area. (Ans: 345.7 sq. cm)
40. Calculate the volume of a hollow sphere whose outer and inner diameter are 42
cm and 14 cm respectively. (Ans: 37370.67 cc)
41. A hemisphere of 16 cm diameter is placed on a cylinder of diameter 16 cm and
height is 25 cm. Calculate its total volume. (Ans: 6101.33 cc)
42. Find the total surface area and volume of a cube whose side is 4.5 meters. (Ans:
121.5 sq. meters; 91.125 cubic meters)
43. Find the total surface area and the volume of hexagonal prism, each side is 6 cm
and height is 15 cm. (Ans: 304.832 sq. cm)
44. 50 persons can sleep in a room of 15 m by 25 m. If each person required 45 cubic
meter of air, calculate the height of room. (Ans: 6 meters)
45. A sphere of 10 cm was to be molded using aluminum. To save the metal, the sphere
was made hollow from inside after providing for a wall thickness of 3 cm.
Calculate the amount of aluminum saved. (Ans: 33.52 cc)
46. A solid metal cylinder of radius 77 cm and height 25 cm is melted and recast into
35 equal solid cubes. Find the dimension of cubes. (Ans: 23.7 cm)
47. A cube of metal of side 40 cm is melted and formed into 8000 ball bearings. What
is the diameter of each ball? (Ans: 2.48 cm)
48. Two spheres of 5 cm radius are melted. If out of the two spheres melted, one
sphere is made, find the radius of new sphere. (Ans: 6.299 cm)
49. Find the area of regular pentagonal prism having each side 50 mm and height 200
mm. (Ans: 860.25 cc)
50. A solid metal cylinder of radius 14 cm and height 21 cm is melted and cast into
spheres of radius 3 cm. Calculate the number of spheres that can be made. (Ans:
114)
51. The diagonal of a rhombus are 56 cm and 33 cm. Find its area and sides. (Ans:
924 sq. cm; 32.5 cm)
52. The radius of a circle is 3.6 cm. Calculate the length of peripheral segment for 36
angle. (Ans: 2.263 cm)
53. The needle arm for minutes of a wall clock is 12.5 cm. Find the area covered by
this in 10 minutes. (Ans: 81.845 sq. cm)
GEOMETRY
74
9 ELECTRICITY
What electricity is has not been correctly up till now. It is a sort of force that
neithercanbeseennorbetouched.Itisexperiencedonlythroughexperiments.Inother
words,itcanbesosaidthatelectricityisthatmediumthroughwhichelectricpoweris
takenfromoneplacetoanother.
9.1
Commontermsofelectricity
9.1.1. Resistance
It may be defined as the property of a substance, due to which it opposes the flow of
electricity (i.e. electrons) through it. Or opposition to current flow and dissipation of
energyintheformofheat.SymbolizedRandmeasuredinohms.
Unit of Resistance: Thepracticalunitofresistanceisohm.Aconductorissaidtohavea
resistanceofoneohm,ifitpermitsoneamperecurrenttoflowthroughitwhenonevolt
isimpressedacrossitterminals.
9.1.2. E.M.F.
Force that causes the motion of electrons due to potential difference between two
points.
9.1.3. PotentialDifference
Voltagedifferencebetweentwopoints,whichwillcausecurrenttoflowinclosedcircuit.
9.1.4. Current
It is the flow of electron through a conductor. Also known as electron flow. It is
measuredinamperes.
9.1.5. Voltage
Termusedtodesignateelectricalpressureorforcethatcausescurrenttoflowisknown
asvoltage.
9.1.6. Volt
Unit of potential difference or electromotive force. One volt is the potential difference
neededtoproduceoneamperecurrentthrougharesistanceofoneohm.
9.2
Ohmslaw
Whenever electric current flows through a conductor, the following three factors are
present:
1. The pressure or potential difference V across the conductor (measured in volts)

causing the current flow.
2. The opposition of resistance R of the conductor (measured in ohms) which must be
overcome.
ELECTRICITY
75
3. The current strength I (measured in amperes) which is maintained in the conductor

as a result of pressure overcoming the resistance.
Thereexistsadefiniterelationshipbetweenthethreequantitiesinvolvedandis
knownasOhmsLaw.Itmaybestatedthus:
The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points of a conductor to the current
(I) flowing between them is constant, provided the temperature of the conductor does not
change.
In other words,
V
V
= const. or = R
I
I
Where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered.
If V is measured in volts and I in amperes, then R is given in ohms. For calculations, the
following three forms of the Ohms law should be remembered.
1. I =
V
I
2. V = IR
3. R =
V
I
potential diffrence
resistance
i.e. ,
current =
i.e. ,
potential diffrence = current X resistance
i.e. ,
resistance =
potential diffrence
current
9.2.1. RelationderivedfromOhmsLaw
Power: It is given by the product of voltage (V) and current (I)
W = VI its unit is watt. W =

Resistance: R =
Current: I =
V V2 W
,
,
I W I2
V W
,
,
R V
Voltage: V = IR,
9.3
V2
,W = I 2 R
R
W
,
I
W
R
WR
Resistanceinseries
Whensomeconductorshavingresistanceof R 1 , R 2 and R 3 etc.,arejoinedend

onend, they are said to connected in series. It can be proved that the equivalent
resistanceortotalresistancebetweenpoints.AandDisequaltothesumofthethree
individualresistance.Beingaseriescircuitshouldberememberedthat(i)samecurrent
passesthroughallthethreeconductors(ii)butvoltagedropacrosseachisdifferentdue
to its resistance being different and is given by Ohms law and (iii) sum of the three
voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the three conductors. There is a
progressivefallinpotentialaswegofrompointAtoDasshowninfig.
ELECTRICITY
76
Figure 9-1
V = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 = IR1 + IR 2 + IR3 .Ohms Law

But, V = IR , where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination.
IR = IR1 + IR 2 + IR3 or R = R1 + R 2 + R3
9.4
Resistanceinparallel
Whensomeconductorshavingresistanceof R 1 , R 2 and R 3 etc.,arejoinedsame

polarityorsignoneside(i.e.+ve)andoppositepolarity(i.e.ve)ondifferentsidethen
they are said to connected in parallel. In this case (i) potential difference across all
resistanceisthesame(ii)currentineachresistorisdifferentandisgivenbyOhmslaw
and(iii)thetotalcurrentisthesumofthethreeseparatebranchcurrents.
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 =
Now, I =
V V V
+
+
R1 R 2 R 3
V
, where R = equivalent resistance of the parallel combination.
R
V
V V V
= +
+
R
R1 R 2 R 3
1
1
1
1
= +
+
R
R1 R 2 R 3
Example 9.1 The resistance of two wires is 25 when connected in series and 6 when
connected in parallel. Calculate the resistance of each wire.
Solution: Let the two unknown resistance be R1 and R 2 .
Then, when in series
R1 + R 2 = 25 .... (i)
When joined in parallel
R1R 2
1
1
1
= 6 . (ii)
+
= or
6
R1 R 2
R1 + R 2
Putting the value of R 2 from Eq. (i) in Eq. (ii), we have

R1(25 R1)
= 6 , or ( R1) 2 25 R1 + 150 = 0 , or ( R1 15)( R1 10) = 0
25
R1 = 10, R1 = 15
Hence, the two wires have resistance of 10 and 15
ELECTRICITY
77
Example 9.2 The equivalent resistance of four resistors joined in parallel is 20 . The
current flowing through them are 0.6, 0.3, 0.2 and 0.1A. Find the value of each resistor.
Solution: Total current in the circuit is the sum of four branch currents.
Its value is 0.6 + 0.3 +0.2 + 0.1 = 1.2A

The common voltage across parallel
resistors = 20 1.2 = 24V
24
= 40 ,
0.6
24
R2 =
= 80
0.3
R1 =
24
= 120 ,
0.2
24
R4 =
= 240
0.1
R3 =
9.5
Figure 9-2
VoltageDividerFormulae
Itisusedforfindingvoltagedropsacrossdifferentresistorsconnectedinseries.
Since in a series circuit, same current flows through each resistor, voltage drops are
directlyproportionaltotheirohmicvalues.
Now total resistance of series circuit is

R = R1 + R 2 + R3
According to the voltage divider
formulae, various voltage drops are
V1 = V.
R1
,
R
V 2 =V.
R2
,
R
V 3 = V.
R3
R
Figure 9-3
ELECTRICITY
78
Example 9.3 Find total resistance between point A and B of the circuit shown in figs. Also,
calculate the voltages drop across each resistor if a p.d. of 72V is applied across the two
terminals of the circuit.
Figure 9-4 (a)
Figure 9-4 (b)
Solution: Since, the two resistances of 3 and 6 are in parallel, their combined
R 2 R3
3 x6
resistance will be R 23 =
=
= 2 as shown in figure 9-4 (b).
R 2 + R3 3 + 6
The two series-connected resistances of 2 and 18 can be reduced to a single

resistance of 2 + 18 = 20 as shown in figure 9-5 (a)
Figure 9-5 (b)
Figure 9-5 (a)
Since, the combined resistance of R 23 and R 4 connected in parallel with R 5 , their

equivalent resistance will be:
20 5
= 4
20 + 5
Finally the total resistance of the circuit = 8 + 4 = 12

Total circuit current I =
72
= 6A
12
We would use the voltage divider formulae to find the voltage drop across the two
resistance of fig 9-5 (d)
Drop across 8 resistance = 72
8
= 48V
8+ 4
Drop across 4 resistance = 72 48 = 24V

Now, this 4 resistance represents the parallel combination of 20 and
5 resistance in fig 9-5 (a)
Hence, drop across 5 resistance = 48V
ELECTRICITY
79
Now, drop across 20 resistance is also 48V. However, this 20 resistance

represent two series connected resistance of 2 and 18 as shown in fig 9-4 (b).
Again, applying voltage divider formulae, we get
18
= 43.2V
2 + 18
2
= 4.8V
2 + 18
Now, the 2 resistance represents a parallel combination of 3 and

6 resistances in fig 9-4 (a). Hence, drop across each is the same i.e 4.8V.
Example 9.4 What is the current through S when closed?
Solution: When switch S is closed, the 200 and 500 resistances become connected in
parallel. So do the 300 and 400 resistances. As shown in fig. 9-6 (b) the two parallel
groups are connected in series.
Figure 9-6 (a)
Figure 9-6 (b)
The combined resistance of the two series-connected parallel groups is

1
1
1
=
+
R1 200 500
R1 =
200 500 1000

=
(200 + 500)
7
1
1
1
=
+
R 2 300 400
R2 =
300 400 1200

=
(300 + 400)
7
Hence total resistance of the circuit is

40 +
1000 1200 2480

+
=
7
7
7
Now, current I = 120
2480
= 0.339A
7
ELECTRICITY
80
Example 9.5 What is the equivalent resistance of ladder network shown in fig?
Figure 9-7
Solution: With reference to the ladder network we have
100 100
= 50
(100 + 100)
100 100
R gh = 100 (50 + 50) =
= 50
(100 + 100)
100 100
R ij = 100 (50 + 50) =
= 50
(100 + 100)
R ab = (25 + 50) = 75
R ef = 100 (25 + 75) =
Example 9.6 Calculate the current through R in the network shown in fig.
Figure 9-8
Solution: Between points A and B there are two parallel paths, one of resistance 10 and
the other of (10 + 5) = 15 . Hence,
Rab = 15 10 =
15 10
= 6 and
15 + 10
Rac = 10 (6 + 4) =
10 10
= 5
10 + 10
Hence, resistance as seen by the battery R = 15 + 5 = 20

40
= 2 A , this current divides equally into two equal parts at
20
point A, one ampere flowing along 10 resistance and the other along
(6 + 4) = 10 path. Obviously, current through R is A = 0.5A.
Battery current, I =
ELECTRICITY
81
Example 9.7 In the network given in fig, the values of resistances given are in ohms.
Determine (i) current drawn from the power source, (ii) power supplied by power source,
(iii) power dissipated in R.
Solution:
150 75
= 50
150 + 75
Rad = 200 (150 + 50)
200 200
=
= 100
200 + 200
Rbc = 150 75 =
Figure 9-9
(i) The circuit resistance as seen by the battery (100 + 25) = 125
Current I = 6/125 = 0.048 A = 48 mA
(ii) Power supplied by the battery = 6 x 0.048 = 0.288 W
(iii)The battery current of 0.048 A is divided into two equal parts at point A. hence,
current passing through R = 0.0482/2 0.024 A
Hence, power dissipated in R of 150 is 0.0242 x150 = 0.0864 = 86.4m
ELECTRICITY
82
Exercise
1 The resistance of a voltmeter is 27000 ohms. Find out the current passing through
4
it, when a supply of 220 volts is given to it. (Ans: 8 mille amperes)
27
2 If an incandescent lamp of 80 ohms resistance takes a current of 0.75 ampere,
what voltage is required to light it? (Ans: 60 volts)
3 Three resistances of values 4 ohms, 8 ohms and 12 ohms are connected firstly in
series and secondly in parallel, each time across 22 volts supply. Find the current
flowing through and voltage across each resistance in both the cases. (Ans: Series
current through all resistances = 9.167 amperes; voltage drop = 36.37 V, 73.33
V, 110V. Parallel current = 55 A, 27.5 A, 18.33 A; voltage drop across each
resistance = 220 V)
4 The total resistance of two wires is 25 ohms where connected in series and 6 ohms
when joined in parallel. Calculate the resistance of each. (Ans: 15, 10)
5 When a resistance of 2 ohms is placed across the terminal of a cell, the current is
0.6 ampere. When the resistance across the terminals is increased to 5 ohms, the
current falls to 0.3 amperes. Find the e.m.f. of the cell. (Ans: 1.8 volts)
1. Two resistances of 8 ohms each are put in parallel and the group is connected in
series with 21ohms resistance. Find out:
a. Total resistance of circuit (Ans: 25 ohms)
b. Total current of the circuit if applied voltage is 100 volts. (Ans:4 amperes)
c. The current through each resistance (Ans: 2, 2, 4 amperes)
d. The voltage across each resistance (Ans: 16, 16, 48 volts)
2. A resistance of 10 ohms is connected in series with two resistances each of 15
ohms connected in parallel. What resistance must be shunted across this parallel
combination so that total current should be 1.5 amperes with 20 volts applied?
(Ans: 6 ohms)
3. Three resistances of 6 ohms, 3 ohms and 2 ohms are connected together so that
their total resistance is greater than 6 ohms, but less than 8 ohms. Draw a diagram
to show this arrangement and calculate its total resistance. (Ans: 3 ohms and 2
ohms resistance should be connected in parallel and this should be connected in
series with 6 ohms resistance. Total resistance is 7.2 ohms)
4. There are 8 batteries of 6 volts each. Draw a sketch showing how you will connect
them to get 24 volts supply.(Ans: prepare one set of 4 battery in series and another
set of 4 battery in parallel connect both set in series)
5. Two resistances 16 ohms and 8 ohms are connected in parallel. This combination
is connected in series with another resistance of 24 ohms. 100 volts DC is applied
to the circuit. Calculate:
a. Total resistance of the circuit (Ans: 29.33 ohms)
b. Voltage across each resistance (Ans: 18.18 V, 18.18 V, 81.82 V)
c. Current draw from the supply (Ans: 3.41 amperes)
d. Current in each resistance (Ans: 1.14 A, 2.27 A, 3.41 A)
6. In a fluorescent lamp of 40 watts takes a current of 0.16 amperes, what voltage is
required to light it? (Ans: 250 volts)
ELECTRICITY
83
7. In an electric heater is of 1.5 kW and the voltage supplied is 230 volts, how much
current is flowing through heater? (Ans: 6.522 amperes)
8. Four resistances each of 1 ohm, 2 ohms, 3 ohms and 4 ohms are connected in
parallel.
a. Find the voltage applied across the circuit when a total of 168.75 watts are
used in the circuit. (Ans: 9 volts)
b. Power consumed in each resistance. (Ans: 81W, 40.5W, 27W, 20.25W)
9. A conductor is having a resistance of 8 ohms. The voltage drop across its terminal
is 35 volts, when current flows through it. Find the value of current and electric
motor. (Ans: 4.375 amperes, 153.125W)
10. Calculate the kilo watts are required to light a factory in which 250 lamps each
taking 1.3 amperes at 230 volts are used. (Ans: 74.75 kW)
11. Two bulbs of rating 200V, 100W are connected first in series and then in parallel
to the supply. Calculate the current drawn in each case. What is the resistance of
bulb? (Ans: 0.25 amperes, 1 ampere, 400 ohms)
12. Two lamps of 100W, 220V and 60W, 220V are to be operated in series across
440V supply. Find the resistance to be connected across 60W lamp so that voltage
across each lamp is 220V. (Ans: 1210 ohms to be connected in parallel)
13. Two lamp 100W each are connected firstly in parallel and secondly in series to a
220V supply. Calculate the power taken in each case and the ratio between the
powers taken in both the cases. (Ans: 200W, 50W and 4:1)
14. Two coils having resistances of 5 ohms and 8 ohms respectively are connected in
series across a battery having an e.m.f. of 6 volts and an internal resistance of 1.5
ohms. Calculate:
a. The terminal voltage (Ans: 6 volts)
b. The energy in joules dissipated in the 5 ohms coil if the current remains
constant for 4 minutes. (Ans: 205.5 joules)
15. An electric motor is rated at 119W. It is connected across a potential difference of
440V. How much current will flow through the motor? What is the capacity of
motor in HP? (Ans: 2.542 amperes, 1.521 HP)
ELECTRICITY
84
10
KIRCHHOFF'SCIRCUITLAWS
10.1 Kirchhoff'scurrentlaw(KCL)
This law is also called Kirchhoff's point rule, Kirchhoff's junction rule (or nodal
rule), and Kirchhoff's first rule. The principle of conservation of electric charge implies
that:
Atanynode(junction)inanelectricalcircuit,thesumofcurrentsflowingintothat
nodeisequaltothesumofcurrentsflowingoutofthatnode.
Adoptingtheconventionthateverycurrentflowingtowardsthenodeispositive
andthateverycurrentflowingawayisnegative(ortheotherwayaround),thisprinciple
canbestatedas:
n is the total number of branches with

currentsflowingtowardsorawayfromthenode.
This formula is also valid for complex
currents:
Figure 10-1
Thelawisbasedontheconservationofchargewherebythecharge(measuredin
coulombs)istheproductofthecurrent(inamperes)andthetime(whichismeasuredin
seconds).
10.2 Kirchhoff'svoltagelaw(KVL)
ThislawisalsocalledKirchhoff'ssecondlaw,Kirchhoff'sloop(ormesh)rule,and
Kirchhoff'ssecondrule.
Thedirectedsumoftheelectricalpotentialdifferencesaroundanyclosedcircuit
mustbezero.
SimilarlytoKCL,itcanbestatedas:
Here, n is the total number of voltages

measured.Thevoltagesmayalsobecomplex:
Figure 10-2
KIRCHHOFF'S CIRCUIT LAWS
85
Thislawisbasedontheconservationofenergywherebyvoltageisdefinedasthe
energy perunit charge. The total amount of energy gained per unit charge must equal
theamountofenergylostperunitcharge.Thisseemstobetrueastheconservationof
energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transformed
fromoneformtoanother.
Example 10.1 Consider the circuit below. Find the value of the current going through the
18 V battery.
Figure 10-3
The Procedure:
(i) Begin by labeling all the currents and drawing arrows to show the direction of the
current. Sometimes you won't be able to tell which direction the current will go. In
that case, just guess the direction. If your guess is wrong, when you solve the
problem, the current will just come out with a minus sign.
(ii) To make it easier for someone to follow your work, mark each point where the
current splits or comes back together with a label.
(iii)We will use Kirchhoffs Laws to solve the problem:
a. The sum of the currents entering any point equals the sum of the currents
leaving that point. We will write equations for the points you have labeled
in 2.
b. The sum of the voltages around any closed loop equals zero. To make it
easier for someone to follow your work, show the loops you will use (draw
an arrow to indicate whether you are going around clockwise or
counterclockwise and label the loops.
Here is what our circuit diagram looks like after we have followed the above procedure:
86
Figure 10-4
The Solution:
The Current Equations:

Point A: I = I1 + I2
Point B: I1 = I3 + I5
Point C: I2 + I3 = I4
The following equation is a linear combination of the other 3. That happens in general:
You end up with one too many equations if you use all the points you have labeled.
Point D: I5 +I4 = I
The Voltage Equations:
Loop 1: 18 V 1000 I1 2000 I5 = 0
Loop 2: 4000 I2 + 2000 I3 + 1000 I1 = 0
Loop 3: 2000 I3 2000 I4 + 2000 I5 = 0
We now have 3 current and 3 voltage equations and 6 unknown currents. So, we just
have to solve these equations for the currents.
Here is how we solve the equations:
Use the Point B and Point C current equations to get rid of I1 and I2 in the voltage
equations:
18 1000 (I3 + I5) 2000 I5 = 0
18 1000 I3 3000 I5 = 0
4000 (I4 I3) + 2000 I3 + 1000 (I3 + I5) = 0
7000 I3 4000 I4 + 1000 I5 = 0
2000 I3 2000 I4 + 2000 I5 = 0
87
Now divide the third equation above by 2000 and use it above to get rid of I5 in the
first two equations above:
18 1000 I3 3000 (I3 + I4) = 0
18 4000 I3 3000 I4 = 0
7000 I3 4000 I4 + 1000 (I3 + I4) = 0
8000 I3 3000 I4 = 0
8 I3 = 3 I4
Use the second equation to get rid of I4 in the first

18 4000 I3 8000 I3 = 0
18 = 12000 I3
I3 = 1.5 x 10-3
Now we can work backwards to get the other currents

I4 = 8/3 I3 = 4 = 103
I5 = I3 + I4 = 5.5 = 103
I1 = I3 + I5 = 7 = 103
I2 = I4 I3 = 2.5 = 103
I = I1 + I2 = 9.5 = 103 since R is in ohms and V is in volts, this current is measured in

Amps
88
Exercise
1. A battery of 10 volts and internal resistance 0.5 ohm is connected in parallel with
another battery of 12 volts and internal resistance 0.8 ohm. The terminals are
connected by an external resistance of 20 ohms. Find the current in each battery
and external resistance. (Ans: current of 10V battery I1= 1.212 amperes; current
in 12V battery I1 + I2 = 1.7423 amperes; current in external resistance 20 ohms =
0.5303 amperes)
2. Two batteries P and Q are connected in parallel. The terminals are connected by
an external resistance of 0.8 ohm. Battery P consisting of 50 cells connected in
series. Battery Q consisting of 40 cells connected in series. EMF of each cell is 2
volts and internal resistance of each cell is 0.01 ohm. Find out current flowing in
each battery and in the external resistance. (Ans: 60.87A; 26.09A; 86.96A)
3. Two cells each having an EMF of 2V but having internal resistance of 0.3 ohm and
0.2 ohm respectively are joined in parallel and are connected across a resistance
of 0.68 ohm. What current flow through this resistor and what current is drawn
from each cell? (Ans: 2.5A; 1A; 1.5A)
4. A network PQRS is made as: PQ a battery of 4V and negligible resistance with
positive terminal connected to P; QR is a resistance of 60 ohms; PS is a battery of
5V and negligible resistance with positive terminal connected to P. RS is a
resistance of 260 ohms. If a milli-ammeter of 20 ohms resistance is connected
between P and R, calculate the reading of milli-ammeter. (Ans: 60.91mA)
5. A Wheatstone bridge ABCD is arranged as: AB = 300 ohms; BC = 500 ohms; CD
= 200 ohms; DA = 400 ohms. A galvanometer of 800 ohms resistance is connected
across BD. Calculate the current through the galvanometer when a potential
difference of 2V is maintained across AC. (Ans: 0.52mA)
89
11
CAPACITOR
Acapacitoressentiallyconsistsoftwoconductingsurfacesseparatedbyalayerof
an insulating medium called dielectric. The conducting surfaces may be in the form of
eithercircular(orrectangular)platedorofsphericalshape.Thepurposeofacapacitoris
tostoreelectricalenergybyelectrostaticsstressinthedielectric.
11.1 Capacitance
Thepropertyofacapacitorisstoreelectricitymaybecalledcapacitance.
Thecapacitanceofacapacitormaybedefinedastheamountofchargetocreate
aunitpotentialdifferencebetweenitsplates.
Suppose,wegiveQcoulombschargetooneofthetwoplatesofacapacitorandit
apotentialdifferenceofVvoltsisestablishedbetweenthetwo,thenitscapacitanceis
C =
Q coulomb
V volt
Bydefinition,theunitofcapacitanceiscoulomb/voltwhichisalsocalledfarad(in
honorofMichalFaraday).Onefaradisdefinedasthecapacitanceofacapacitorwhich
requiresachargeofonecoulombtoestablishapotentialdifferenceofonevoltbetween
itsplates.
One farad is actually too large for practical purpose. Hence much smaller units
likemicrofarad( F )andpicofarad(pF)generallyemployed.
1 F = 106 F and 1 pF = 1012 F
11.2 Capacitorinseries
Letthreecapacitorconnectedinseries
C1,C2,C3=capacitancesofthreecapacitors
V1, V2, V3 = potential differences across three capacitors; V = applied voltage
acrosscombination;C=combinedorequivalentcapacitance.
Inseriescombination,chargeonallcapacitorsisthesamebutpdacrosseachis
different.
V = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 ,
Q Q Q Q
1 1
1
1
or = +
= +
+
+
C C1 C 2 C 3
C C1 C 2 C 3
11.3 Capacitorinparallel
Letthreecapacitorconnectedinseries
C1,C2,C3=capacitancesofthreecapacitors
V1, V2, V3 = potential differences across three capacitors; V = applied voltage
acrosscombination;C=combinedorequivalentcapacitance.
Inparallelcombination,pdacrosseachissamebutchargeoneachisdifferent.
Q = Q1 + Q 2 + Q 3 or CV = C1V + C 2V + C 3V or C = C1 + C 2 + C 3
CAPACITOR
90
11.4 Voltageacrossseriesconnectedcapacitors
First consider the case when two capacitors of capacitance C1 and C2 are
connectedinseriesacrossasupplyvoltageofV.IfV1andV2arethevoltagedeveloped
acrossthem,thenV=V1+V2
Sincechargeacrosseachisthesame,Q=C1V1=C2V2orV2=C1V1/C2
Substitutingthisvalueabove,wehave
V = V 1 + V 2
C1
C2
C1
or V 1 = V
similarly V 2 = V
C2
C1 + C 2
C1 + C 2
Nowconsiderthecasewhenthreecapacitorsconnectedinseries.
V = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 also Q = C 1V 1 = C 2V 2 = C 3V 3
V 2 = V 1
C1
C1
and V 3 = V 1
C2
C3
Substitutingthisvalue,wehave
V = V1 +V1
V 1 = V
C1
C1
C1 C1
+V1
= V 1(1 +
+ )
C2
C3
C2 C3
C 2C 3
C 1C 3
C 1C 2
, V2 =V
, V3 =V
C 1C 2 + C 2C 3 + C 3C 1
C 1C 2 + C 2C 3 + C 3C 1
C 1C 2 + C 2C 3 + C 3C 1
Example 11.1 The total capacitance of two capacitors is 0.03 F when joined in series
and 0.16 F when connected in parallel. Find the capacitance of each capacitor.
Solution: Let C1 and C2 unknown capacitances, then
C1 + C2 = 0.16 (when in parallel) and
C 1C 2
= 0.03 (when in series)
C1 + C 2
Eliminating C2 from first and equations, we get

C1(0.16 C 1)
= 0.03
0.16
Or C1 0.16 C1 + 0.048 = 0
Or (C1 0.12) (C1 0.04) = 0
C1 = 0.12 or 0.04
Hence C2 = 0.04 or 0.12
Example 11.2 Three capacitors are connected in series across 135V supply. The voltage
across them is 30, 45 and 60 and charge on each is 4500 micro coulombs. Find the
capacitance of each capacitor and that of combination.
Q 4500 C
Q 4500 C
=
= 150 F C 2 =
=
= 100 F
30V
45V
V1
V2
Q 4500 C
=
= 75 F
C3 =
V3
60V
Solution:
C1 =
CAPACITOR
91
But
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
3
=
= +
+
+
+
=
C C1 C 2 C 3
150 100 75 100
C =
100
= 33.3 F
3
Example 11.3 A 10 F , a 20 F and a 40 F capacitor are connected in series to a 399

volts source of e.m.f.
(i) What is the equivalent capacitance?
(ii) What is the magnitude of charge across of each capacitor?
(iii)What is the potential difference across each capacitor?
Solution: The three capacitors are connected in series. The equivalent capacitance is
given by:
(i)
1 1
1
1
40
= +
+
C =
F
C 10 20 40
7
(ii) The
total charge across

40
Q = CV =
x399 = 2280 C
7
the
combined
capacitance
is
given
by
Charge across each capacitor would be same i.e. 2280 F

(iii) V 1 =
Q 2280
Q 2280
Q 2280
=
= 228V , V 2 =
=
= 114V , V 3 =
=
= 57V
C1
10
C2
20
C3
40
Alternative solution
We may also use the voltage divider formulae for finding voltage across each capacitor.
V1 =V
C 2C 3
C 1C 3
C 1C 2
, V2 =V
, V3 =V
C 1C 2 + C 2C 3 + C 3C 1
C 1C 2 + C 2C 3 + C 3C 1
C 1C 2 + C 2C 3 + C 3C 1
Example 11.4 A 9 F capacitor is connected in series with a parallel combination of two

of capacitors of values of 4 F and 2 F respectively
(i) Determine the capacitance of the combination.
(ii) If a p.d. of 20V is maintained across the combination, determine the charge on the
9 F capacitor and the energy stored in the 4 F capacitor.
Solution:
1. Capacitance of parallel combination = 4 +2 = 6 F ,

Hence total capacitance 9 6 = 3.6 F
V1 =V
C2
6
= 20 x
= 8V , V 2 = 20 8 = 12V
C1 + C 2
9+6
2. Charge on 9 F = 9 x8 = 72 C
Energy stored in 4 F capacitor =
1
4 122 = 288 J
2
CAPACITOR
92
Exercise
3. Calculate the reactance of the following elements:
a. Capacitance of 150 pf at 100 mHz
(Ans: 10.61 ohms)
b. Inductance of 50 mH at 50 kHz
(Ans: 15710 ohms)
4. At what frequency does a capacitive reactance of 1 pf capacitor equal to 1 megaohm? (Ans: 159.2 kHz)
5. An inductive coil has a resistance of 5 ohms and inductance of 0.02 Henry. Find
the current taken by the coil, the power consumed and the power factor when
connected across 230V 50Hz AC supply. (Ans: 28.64A; 4.101 kW; 0.6225)
6. An alternating voltage of 100V 50Hz is applied to a circuit having resistance and
inductance in series. The current taken is 5 amperes and power absorbed 200W. At
power factor the current is drawn? Also calculate the impedance, resistance and
inductance of the circuit. (Ans: 0.4; 20 ohms; 8 ohms; 58.34 milli henries)
7. A resistance of 12 ohms and a capacitor of 100 F are connected in series across
220V, 50Hz supply mains. Calculate the current, power factor and voltage drop
across the resistance and capacitor. (Ans: 6.469A; 0.3528; 77.63V; 205.83V)
8. A 2 F capacitor 1 Henry inductor and 10 ohm resistor are connected in series
across an AC supply of 100V, 50Hz. What is the amount of current flowing in the
circuit and what is the voltage across each component? (Ans: 124.6V; 78.23mA;
0.7823V; 24.58V; 124.6V)
9. A capacitor and resistor is connected in series across a supply of 230V, 50Hz. It is
observed that current is 2A and power dissipated in the circuit is 80W. Calculate
the values of resistance and capacitance. (Ans: 20 ohms; 28.11 F )
10. A resistance of 5 ohms is connected in series with a capacitor of 200 F across a
supply of 100V, 50Hz. Calculate the current power factor and power expended in
circuit. (Ans: 6A; 0.3; 180W)
11. An inductor of 0.11 Henry and a capacitor of 125 F is connected in parallel
across a supply of 100V, 50Hz. Calculate the current in the circuit. (Ans: 1.04A)
12. A coil of resistance 150 ohms and inductance 0.5 Henry is connected in parallel
with a circuit comprising of a 30 F capacitor and 100 ohms resistor across a
230V, 50Hz supply. Determine the total current drawn from the supply and power
factor of the circuit. (Ans: 1.85A; 0.978)
CAPACITOR
93
12
ACCIRCUIT
At present a large quantity of electrical energy being used for commercial

purpose is generated as alternating current, even though types of works such as
electroplating,chargingofbatteriesetc.forwhichalternatingcurrentisutilized.
12.1 PurelyResistiveCircuit
Apurelyresistivecircuitisthatcircuitwhichhasnegligibleinductance,suchthat
atnormalfrequencyitsreactanceisalmostnegligiblewhencomparedtoitsresistance.
In this circuit current I =
V
, where V is voltage applied and R is resistance of
R
circuit.
12.2 PurelyInductiveCircuit
An inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron cor having negligible
resistance.
V
, where XL is Inductive Reactance in ohms and
XL
XL = 2 fL (f=supplyfrequency,L=Inductanceinheneries)
In this circuit current I =
12.3 PurelyCapacitiveCircuit
WhenplatesofperfectcondenserareconnectedacrossasupplyofDCvoltage,it
will become charged to full voltage almost instantaneously. The charging current will
flowonlyduringtheperiodofbuiltupandceasetoflowassoonasthecondenserhas
attained the steady voltage of source. This indicates us that for a direct current, a
capacitor is a break in the circuit or should be treated as an infinetly high resistance.
However, when a capacitor is connected to an alternating current circuit, it is obivious
thatthecapacitorischargedanddischargedduringalternatequartercycles.Hence,the
capacitorcurrentisequaltotherateofchangeofcharge.
I =
V
,where XC isCapacitiveReactanceand
XC
XC =
1
(f=supplyfrequency,C=Capacitanceinfarads)
2 fC
12.4 Impedancetraingle
ApureresistanceofRohmsandapureinductivecoilofinductanceLhenrysare
showninfigure.
AC CIRCUIT
94
Figure 12-1
Let
V=r.m.svalueofappliedvoltage
I=r.m.svalueofresultantcurrent
VR=IR=voltagedropacrossR(inphasewithI)
VL=IXL=voltagedropovercoil(atrightangletoI)
ThesevoltagedropsareshowninthevoltagetriangleOAB.VectorOArepresent
ohmicdropVRandABrepresentsinductivedropVL.TheappliedvoltageVisthevector
sumofthetwoanditequalsOB.
V = VR 2 + VL2 =
=
( IR ) 2 + ( IXL ) 2 = I R 2 + XL2
the quantity
R 2 + XL2 is known as the impedance (Z) of the
R +X
circuit.AsseenfromtheimpedancetrianglePQM Z 2 = R 2 + XL2
2
2
L
i.e.(impedance)2=(resistance)2+(reactance)2
12.5 Power
The mean power consumed by the circuit is given by the product of V and that
partofthecurrentIwhichisinphasewithV.
Or P = V I cos = r.m.s. volts r.m.s. current cos , the term cos is called
powerfactorofthecircuit.
ItshouldberememberedthatinACcircuit,theproductofr.m.s.voltsandr.m.s.
amperesgivesvoltamperes(VA)andNOTtruepowerinwatts.
Truepower W=voltamperes(VA)xpowerfactor
12.5.1.
Or
Watts=VAx cos alsokW=kVAx cos
PowerFactor
Itmaybedefinedas
(i) Cosineoftheangleofleadorleg
(ii) Theratio
R resistance
=
Z impedance
AC CIRCUIT
95
(iii) Theratio
W
watts
=
VA volt-amperes
12.6 LCRSeriesCircuit
Let us consider a resistance of R ohms, an inductance of L heneries and
capacitanceofCfaradsconnectedinseriesacrossanACsypplyvoltage.
Voltage drop across resistance = VR = I .R in phase with current I.

Voltage drop across inductance = VL = I . XL leading current I by 90o
Voltage drop across capacitance = VC = I . XC lagging current I by 90o
The applied voltage V is equal to the vectorial sum of VR, VL and VC
V = VR 2 + (VL VC ) 2 =
( IR ) 2 + ( IXL IXC ) 2 = I R 2 + ( XL XC ) 2
The term R 2 + ( XL XC ) 2 is known as impedance of the circuit and is represented

by the letter Z. The unit of impedence is ohm.
Example 12.1 A coil having a resistance of 6 and an inductance of 0.03H is connected
across a 50V, 60Hz supply. Calculate
(i) The current
(ii) The power factor
(iii)The phase angle between current and applied voltage
(iv) The volt-amperes
(v) The power
XL = 2 x 60 x 0.03 = 11.3
Solution:
Z=
(i) I =
R 2 + XL2 = 62 + 11.32 = 12.8
V
50
=
= 3.9 A
Z 12.8
(ii) cos =
R
6
=
= 0.468
Z 12.8
(iii) = cos 1 (0.468) = 27.9o

(iv) volt ampere = 50 x3.9 = 185VA
(v) P = VI cos = 50 x3.9 x 0.468 = 91.3W
Example 12.2 In an R-L series circuit, a voltage of 100V at 25Hz produces one ampere
while the same voltage of 75Hz produce half ampere. Draw the circuit diagram and insert
the value of R and L.
Solution:
Z1 =
100
100
= 200
= 100 and Z 2 =
1
0.5
AC CIRCUIT
96
R 2 + (2 x 25L)2 = 1002 (i)

R 2 + (2 x75L)2 = 2002 (ii)
From Eq. (i) and (ii), we get R = 79 and L = 0.39 H
Example 12.3 A 100V, 60W lamp is to be operated off 220V, 50Hz mains. Calculate
(i) Pure resistance
(ii) Pure inductance, placed in series with the lamp, will enable it to use without being
over-run.
Solution: Rated current of the lamp
60
= 0.6 A
100
Figure 12-2
1. Consider a resistor R connected in series with the lamp
p.d. across R is VR 220 100 = 120V
it is in phase with the applied voltage R =
120
= 200
0.6
2. p.d. across lamp = 100V

p.d. across pure inductance
VL = 2202 1002 = 196V

Now VL = IXL = 0.6 xXL or 196 = 0.6 x2 x50 xL L = 1.04 H
Example 12.4 An arc lamp (which may be regarded as being non-inductive) takes 10A at
50V. Calculate the impedance of a choke of 1 resistance to be placed in series with it in
order that may be worked off a 220V, 50Hz supply. Find also the total power used and
power factor.
Solution:
Resistance of the arc lamp is
200
50
= 20
= 5 and Z =
10
10
AC CIRCUIT
97
Figure 12-3
62 + XL2 = 202 or XL = 364 = 19.08
ZL = 12 + 19.082 = 19.1
Total power used = 102 x(5 + 1) = 600W
Power factor = cos =
OB 60
=
= 0.3
OC 200
Example 12.5 A circuit consists of a pure resistance and a coil connected in series. Power
dissipated in the resistance and in the coil are 1000W and 250W respectively. Voltage
drops across the resistance and the coil are 200V and 300V respectively. Determine the
reactance of the coil and supply voltage.
Solution:
The ohmic resistance R and coil have been shown connected in series
V2
Now
= 1000 , R = 40
R
Also IR = 200 , I =
200
= 5A
40
Now I 2 RL = 250 ; RL =
Coil impedance Z =
250
10
25
300
= 60 , XL = 602 102 = 59.2
5
Combined resistance = R + RL = 40 + 10 = 50
Combined impedance = 502 + 59.22 = 77.5
Supply voltage = IZ = 5 x77.5 = 387.5V
AC CIRCUIT
98
13
RESONANCE
Electrical resonance occurs in an electric circuit at a particular resonance

frequency when the impedance between the input and output of the circuit is at a
minimum(orwhenthetransferfunctionisatamaximum).Oftenthishappenswhenthe
impedance between the input and output of the circuit is almost zero and when the
transferfunctionisclosetoone.
Resonant circuits exhibit ringing and can generate higher voltages and currents
than are fed into them. They are widely used in wireless transmission for both
transmissionandreception.
13.1 Resonancewithcapacitorsandinductors
Resonance of a circuit involving capacitors and inductors occurs because the
collapsingmagneticfieldoftheinductorgeneratesanelectriccurrentinitswindingsthat
charges the capacitor, and then the discharging capacitor provides an electric current
thatbuildsthemagneticfieldintheinductor,andtheprocessisrepeatedcontinually.An
analogyisamechanicalpendulum.Insomecases,resonanceoccurswhentheinductive
reactance and the capacitive reactance of the circuit are of equal magnitude, causing
electricalenergytooscillatebetweenthemagneticfieldoftheinductorandtheelectric
fieldofthecapacitor.
13.2 Resonanceinseries
Aseriescircuitissaidtobeinelectricalresonancewhenitsnetreactanceiszero.
ThefrequencyatwhichthishappensisknownasResonancefrequency.
NetreactanceonanRLCcircuitis
X = XL XC and Z = R 2 + X 2
AtresonanceX=0or XL XC = 0
XL = XC or L=
1
1
or 2 =
LC
C
RESONANCE
99
(2 f ) 2 =
1
1
or f =
LC
2 LC
IfLisinHenryandCinfarad,thenfisinHz.Underresonantconditions,X=0,
hence Z = R. this is the minimum possible value of impedance. Hence circuit current is
V V
maximumandisgivenby Im = =
Z R
13.3 Resonanceinparallelcircuit
We will consider the practical case of a coil in parallel with a capacitor. Such a
circuitissaidtobeinelectricalresonancewhenthereactive(wattles)componentofline
current becomes zero. The frequency at which this happens is known as resonance
frequency.Thevectordiagramforthecircuitisshownbelow:
90o
IC cos L
IL sin L
Netreactiveorwattlescomponent= IC IL sin atresonanceitsvaluebecomes

zero.
Resonancefrequency f =
1
2
1 R2
V R VR
2 andcurrent Im = IL cos
=
Z Z Z2
LC L
13.4 Resonanceeffect
RESONANCE
100
Example 13.1 A circuit having a resistance of 4 ohm, and inductance of 0.5 H and a
variable capacitance in series is connected across 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the
capacitance to give resonace and the voltage across inductance and the capacitance.
Solution: We know that resonance frequency f =
50 =
1
2 LC
1
C = 20 F
2 0.5 C ,
Under resonance,
I=
V 100
=
= 25 A
R 25
XL = 2 50 0.5 = 157
VL = IXL = 20 157 = 3927V
It would be the voltage drop across the capacitance.
RESONANCE
101
14
TRANSFORMER
Atransformerisastaticpieceofapparatusbymeansofwhichelectricpowerin
onecircuitistransformedtoelectricpowerofthesamefrequencyinanothercircuit.It
canraiseorlowerthevoltageinacircuitbutwithacorrespondingdecreaseorincrease
in current. The physical basis of transformer is mutual induction between two circuits
linkedbyacommonmagneticflux.Initssimplestform,itconsistsoftwoinductivecoils,
whichareelectricallyseparatebutmagneticallylinkedthroughapathoflowreluctance.
Thefirstcoil,inwhichelectricenergyisfedfromACmains,iscalledprimarywindingand
theother,fromwhichenergyisdrawnout,iscalledsecondarywinding.
14.1 Voltagetransformationratio
Let
N1=Numberofturnsinprimary
N2=Numberofturnsinsecondary
E1=EMFinprimary
E2=EMFinsecondary
V1=Voltageinprimary
V2=Voltageinsecondary
m =Maximumfluxinthecoreinwebers
f=frequencyofACmains
Inanidealtransformeronnoload,
V1=E1andV2=E2
Fromtheaboverelationweget
E2 V 2 N 2
=
=
=K
E1 V 1 N 1
ThisconstantKisknownasvoltagetransformationratio.
(i) IfN2>N1thentransformeriscalledstepuptransformer
(ii) IfN2<1thentransformeriscalledstepdowntransformer
Againforanidealtransformer,
InputVA=OutputVA
V 1I 1 = V 2 I 2 or
I2 V1 1
=
=
I1 V 2 K
Hence,currentsareintheinverseratioofthe(voltage)transformationratio.
Example 14.1 The no-load ratio of a 50Hz, single-phase transformer is 6000/250V.

Estimate the number of turns in each winding if the maximum flux is 0.06 Wb in the core.
Solution:
Using the transformer e.m.f equation, we get

E 1 = 4.44 fN 1 m
TRANSFORMER
102
6000 = 4.44 50 N 1 0.06

250 = 4.44 50 N 2 0.06
or N 2 = KN 1 =
N 1 = 450 Similarly
N 1 = 19
250
450 = 19
6000
Example 14.2 A 200kVA, 3300/250 volts, 50Hz single-phase transformer has 80 turns on
secondary winding. Assuming an ideal transformer, calculate
(i) Number of turns on primary winding
(ii) Primary and secondary, currents on full-load, and
(iii)Maximum value of flux
Solution: A 3300/240 V transformer is one whose normal primary and secondary voltages
are 3300V and 240V respectively.
Transformer ratio K = 240/3300 = 12/165

(i)
N 2 80 12
, N 1 = 1100
=
=
N 1 N 1 165
(ii) I 2 =
200000
12
= 833 A , I 1 = KI 2 =
833 = 60.6 A
240
165
(iii) 3300 = 4.44 50 1100 x m, m = 13.5mWb

Example 14.3 A 200kVA, 6600/400 volts, 50Hz single-phase transformer has 80 turns on
secondary winding. Calculate
(i) Approximate values of the primary and secondary current
(ii) Number of turns on primary winding, and
(iii)Maximum value of flux
Solution:
(i) Secondary current I 2 =

I1 =
(ii) K =
200000
= 500 A ,
400
200000
= 33.3 A
6600
N 2 E2
=
N 1 E1
80 400
=
,
N 1 6600
N 1 = 1320
(iii) 6600 = 4.44 50 1320 x m,
m = 0.0225Wb or 22.5mWb
TRANSFORMER
103
14.2 Lossesintransformer
In a static transformer, there are no friction losses. Hence, the only losses
occurringare:
14.2.1.
CoreorIronloss:
It includes both hysteresis and eddy current loss. Because the core flux in at
transformerremainspracticallyconstantforallloads(itsvariationbeing1%to3%from
noloadtofullload),thecorelossispracticallythesameatallloads.
Hysteresisloss
Wh = ( B max)1.6 f V watt
Eddycurrentloss
We = P( B max) 2 f 2t 2 watt
Theselossesareminimizedbyusingsteelofhighsiliconcontentforthecoreand
byusingverythinlamination.Ironorcorelossisfoundfromopencircuittest.
14.2.2.
Copperloss
Thislossisduetotheohmicresistanceofthetransformerwinding.Totalcopper
loss= I 12 R1 + I 2 2 R 2 .Copperlossathalfthefullloadisonefourthofthatatfullload.The
valueofcopperlossisfoundfromshortcircuittest.
Example 14.4 The flux in a magnetic core is alternating sinusoidally at a frequency of

600Hz. The maximum flux density is 2T and the eddy current loss is 15W. find the eddy
current loss in the core if the frequency is raised to 800Hz and the maximum flux density is
reduced to 1.5T.
Solution:
The eddy current loss, We B 2 max f 2

15 22 x6002 ,
2
We 1.52 x8002
We 1.5 800
=
x
15 2 600
Example 14.5 In a 440V, 50Hz transformer the iron loss is 2500W, when applied voltage
is 220V at 25Hz the corresponding loss is 850W. Calculate the eddy current loss at
normal frequency and potential difference.
Solution: The flux density in both cases is the same because in second case voltage as well
as frequency is halved. Flux density remaining same, the body current loss is proportional
to f 2 and hysteresis loss proportional to f .
Hysteresis loss proportional to f = Af and eddy current loss f 2 = Bf 2 where A

and B are constants.
Wi
= A + Bf (i )
f
Total iron loss
Wi = Af + Bf 2
Now
when f = 50Hz;
Wi = 2500W
when f = 25Hz;
Wi = 850W
Using these values in (i) above, we get
TRANSFORMER
104
2500
= A + 50 B and
50
16
B =
= 0.64
25
850
= A + 25 B
25
Hence, at normal p.d. and frequency

Eddy current loss = Bf 2 = 0.64 x502 = 1600W
Hysteresis loss = 2500 1600 900W
14.3 Efficiencyoftransformer
As is the case with other types of electrical machines, the efficiency of a
transformerataparticularlocalandpowerfactorisdefinedastheoutputdividedbythe
input.
Efiiciency =
output
input
But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of apparatus, has very small
losses,hence,itisimpracticaltotrytomeasuretransformerefficiencybymeasuringits
input and output. These quantities are nearly of the same size. A better method is to
determinethelossesandthentocalculatetheefficiencyfrom
Efiiciency =
output
output
=
output + losses output + Copper loss + Iron loss
Or Efiiciency ( ) =
intput losses
losses
= 1
input
input
Conditionformaximumefficiency:
Copperloss=Ironloss,andoutputcurrentfor max is I 2 =
Wi
R2
Example 14.6 In A 200/400 V, 10kVA, 50Hz, single-phase transformer has at full-load, a

copper loss of 120W. If it has an efficiency of 98% at full-load unity power factor,
determine the iron loss. What would be the efficiency of the transformer at half load 0.8power factor lagging?
Solution:
Output at full-load unity power factor = 10kW

Input = 10/0.98 = 10.204kW
Total full-load losses = 10.204 10 = 0.204kW = 204W
Iron loss = 204 120 = 84W
Half-load 0.8 power factor

2
1
Copper loss = x120 = 30W ,
2
Iron loss = 48W

Total loss = 30 + 84 = 114W = 0.114kW
TRANSFORMER
105
10
Output = x0.8 = 4kW
2
Efiiciency =
=
output
output + losses
4
= 0.97 or 97%
4.114
Example 14.7 A single-phase transformer working at unity power factor has an efficiency
of 92% at both half-load and at full-load of 500kW. Determine the efficiency at 80% of
full-load.
Solution: The fact that efficiency is the same (92%) at both full-load and half-load will
help us to find the iron and copper losses.
At full load:
Output = 500kW, input = 500/0.92 = 543.5kW

Total loss = 543.5 500 = 43.5kW
Let
x = Iron loss
(it remains constant at all loads)
y = Full load Copper loss
(it is (kVA) 2 )
x + y = 43.5
---------(i)
At half load
Output = 500/2 = 250kW, input = 250/0.92 271.7kW

Total loss = 271.7 250 =21.7kW
Since Cu loss becomes one-fourth of its full load value, hence
x + y /4= 21.7
---------(ii)
Solving for x and y we get, x = 14.4kW and y = 29.1kW

At 80% full-load
Cu loss = 0.82 x 29.1 = 18.6kW

Total load = 14.4 + 18.6 = 33kW
Output = 0.8 x 500 = 400kW, input = 400 + 33 = 433kW
Efficiency = 400/433 = 0.924 or 92.4%
Example 14.8 In a 25kVA, 3300/230V, single-phase transformer, the iron and full-load
copper losses are respectively 350 and 400W. Calculate
(i) Efficiency at half-load 0.8 power factor, and
(ii) Load at which the efficiency is maximum
Solution:
(i) Half-load 0.8 p.f.

Cu loss at half-load one-fourth of full-load loss
= 400/4 = 100W
TRANSFORMER
106
Output = (25/8) x 0.8 = 10kW

Input = 10 + 0.1 = 10.1kW
=
10 x100
= 99.02%
10.1
(ii) Load for maximum efficiency

= full-load kVA x
iron loss
350
= 23.4kVA
= 25 x
full-load Cu loss
400
TRANSFORMER
107
Exercise
1. A single-phase transformer has 525 primary turns and 30 secondary turns. If the
primary is connected to a 3300V supply, find the secondary potential difference
neglecting losses. What is the primary current, when the secondary current is 250A?
(Ans: 188.6V; 14.29A)
2. A transformer gives a second voltage of 25V; when250V is given to the primary. If its
primary coil has 200 turns, calculate the secondary turns. (Ans: 20 turns)
3. A transformer has 400 turns in its primary. A voltage of 200V applied across the
primary appears as 100V at secondary. Find the number of secondary turns. (Ans: 200
turns)
4. A transformer has 400 primary turns and 1000 secondary turns. If the primary
winding is connected to 250V, 50Hz supply, calculate the voltage in the secondary
winding. (Ans: 625V)
5. A single phase 2000/200 V, 20kVA transformer has 6 turns in the secondary winding.
Find the number of turns in the primary winding and full-load current. (Ans: 660
turns; 100A)
6. The no-load current of a transformer is 5A at 0.25 power factor when supplied at
235V, 50Hz. The number of turn on the primary winding is 200. Calculate
a. The maximum value of flux in the core
(Ans: 5.29 mWb)
b. The core loss
(Ans: 294 W)
c. The magnetizing component
(Ans: 4.84 A)
7. The no-load current of a transformer is 15A at a potential difference of 0.2 when

connected to a 460V, 50Hz supply. If the primary winding has 550 turns, calculate
a. The magnetizing component on no-load (Ans:14.7A)
b. The iron loss
(Ans: 1380W)
c. The maximum value of flux in the core
(Ans: 3.77mWb)
8. In a 440V, 50Hz transformer the total iron loss is 2500W, when applied voltage is
220V at 25Hz the corresponding loss is 850W. Calculate the eddy current loss at
normal frequency and potential difference. (Ans: 1600W)
9. A 200/400 V, 10kVA, 50Hz single-phase transformer has a full-load, a copper loss of
120W. if it has an efficiency of 98% at full-load unity power factor, determine the iron
loss. What would be the efficiency of the transformer at half load 0.8 power factor
legging? (Ans: 4kW; 97%)
10. A single-phase transformer working at unity power factor has an efficiency of 92% at
both half-load and at full-load of 500kW. Determine the efficiency at 80% of full-load.
(Ans: 92.4%)
11. A 600kVA, single-phase transformer when working at unity power factor has an
efficiency of 92% at full-load and also at half-load. Determine the efficiency when it
operates at unity power factor and 60% of full-load. (Ans: 96.5%)
TRANSFORMER
108
12. A 1000 kVA transformer has 94% efficiency at full-load and at 50% of half-load. The
power factor is unity in both cases.
a. Segregate the losses
(Ans: 21.3kW;42.5kW)
b. Determine efficiency at 75% of fl (Ans: 94.3%)

13. The primary and secondary winding of 500 kVA transformer have resistances of 0.42
ohm and 0.0011 ohm respectively. The primary and secondary voltages are 6600V and
400V respectively and the iron loss is 2.9kW. Calculate the efficiency at full-load,
assuming the power factor of the load to be 0.8. (Ans: 98.3%)
14. In a 25kVA, 3300/230 V, single-phase transformer, the iron and full-load copper
losses are respectively 350W and 400W. Calculate
a. The efficiency at half-load 0.8 p.f.
(Ans: 99.02%)
b. The load for maximum efficiency
(Ans: 23.4 kVA)
TRANSFORMER
109
15
DIODESANDRECTIFIER
15.1 PNjunctionDiode
ItisatwoterminaldeviceconsistingofaPNjunctionformedeitherinGeorSi
crystal.ThePandNtypesregionsarereferredasanodeandcathoderespectively.
APNjunctiondiodeisaonewaydeviceofferinglowresistancewhenforward
biasedandbehavingalmostasaninsulatorwhenreversebiased.Hence,suchdiodesare
mostlyusedasrectifiers,forconvertingalternativecurrentintodirectcurrent.
Figure 15-1
15.1.1.
ForwardCharacteristic
Whenthediodeisforwardbiasedandtheappliedvoltageisincreasedfromzero,
hardlyanycurrentflowsthroughthedeviceinthebeginning.
15.1.2.
ReverseCharacteristic
Whenthediodeisreversebiased,majoritycarriersareblockedandonlyasmall
current flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is increased from zero, the
reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or saturation value I0 that is also
knownasleakagecurrent.
Figure 15-2
15.1 ZenerDiode
WhenreversevoltageexceedsacertainvaluecalledZenervoltageVz,theleakage
currentsuddenlyandsharplyincreases,thecurveindicatingzeroresistanceatthispoint.
When PN junction diodes are employed primarily because of this property as voltage
regulators,theyarecalledZenerDiodes.
ItisareversebiasedheavilydopedPNjunctiondiode,whichisalwaysreverse
biased and operates in the breakdown region where current is limited only by both
externalresistanceandthepowerdissipationofthediode.
DIODES AND RECTIFIER
110
15.1.1.
ZenerDiodeasVoltageRegulator
Voltageregulationisameasureofacircuitsabilitytomaintainaconstantoutput
voltage even when either input voltage or load current varies. A Zener diode when
working in the breakdown region can serve as a voltage regulator. The Zener diode is
reverseconnectedacrossVin.Whenp.d.acrossthediodeisgreaterthanVz,itIconducts
anddrawsrelativelylargecurrentthroughtheseriesresistanceR.TheloadresistanceRL
acrosswhichaconstantvoltageVoutisrequired,isconnectedinparallelwiththediode.
ThetotalcurrentIpassingthroughRequalsthesumofdiodecurrentandloadcurrent(I
=Id+IL).
Itwillbeseenthatunderallconditions,Vout=VZ.
Hence,Vin=IR+Vout=IR+VZ
Figure 15-3
15.2 Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
componentsofpowersuppliesandasdetectorsofradiosignals.Rectifiersmaybemade
ofsolidstatediodes,vacuumtubediodes,mercuryarcvalves,andothercomponents.
Adevicewhichperformstheoppositefunction(convertingDCtoAC)isknownas
aninverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive
portionofthewaveform),thedifferencebetweenthetermdiodeandthetermrectifier
is merely one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to
convert AC to DC. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific
arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to DC than is possible with only one
diode.Beforethedevelopmentofsiliconsemiconductorrectifiers,vacuumtubediodes
andcopper(I)oxideorseleniumrectifierstackswereused.
111
15.2.1.
Halfwaverectification
In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is
passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform
reachestheoutput,itisveryinefficientifusedforpowertransfer.Halfwaverectification
can be achieved with a single diode in a onephase supply, or with three diodes in a
threephasesupply.
Figure 15-4
TheoutputDCvoltageofahalfwaverectifiercanbecalculatedwiththefollowing
twoidealequations.
Vpeak = Vrms 2 Vdc =
15.2.2.
Vpeak
Fullwaverectification
Afullwaverectifierconvertsthewholeoftheinputwaveformtooneofconstant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Fullwave rectification converts both
polaritiesoftheinputwaveformtoDC(directcurrent),andismoreefficient.However,in
acircuitwithanoncentertappedtransformer,fourdiodesarerequiredinsteadofthe
oneneededforhalfwaverectification.
Figure 15-5
Figure 15-6
The average and rootmeansquare output voltages of an ideal single phase full
waverectifiercanbecalculatedas:
1
Vrms = Vp = 1
e
Vdc = Vav =
2Vp
112
Where:
Vdc,VavtheaverageorDCoutputvoltage,
Vpthepeakvalueofhalfwave,
Vrmstherootmeansquarevalueofoutputvoltage.
=~3.14159
e=~2.71828
The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply.
VirtuallyallelectronicdevicesrequireDC,sorectifiersfindusesinsidethepowersupplies
ofvirtuallyallelectronicequipment.
Example 15.1 A silicon diode dissipates 3 W for a forward DC current of 2 A. Calculate

the forward voltage drop across the diode and its bulk resistance.
Solution:
Forward drop VF =
3
= 1.5V
2
VF = Vj + rBIF or 1.5 = 0.7 + rB 2
Now
rB = 0.4
Example 15.2 a single-phase half-wave rectifier supplies power to a 1k load. The

sinusoidal AC supply has an rms value of 200 V. The step-down transformer has a turn
ratio = 10. Neglecting forward resistance of the diode, calculate the DC voltage across
load.
Solution: Here, maximum or peak value of primary voltage is 200 2 = 282.8V
Now, K =
N2 1
=
N 1 10
Hence, maximum value of the secondary voltage is

Vm = 282.8
Vdc =
Vm
1
28.3V
10
= 0.318Vm = 0.318 28.3 = 9V
Example 15.3 A centre-tap full-wave rectifier supplies a load of 1k . The AC voltage

across the secondary is 200-0-200 V. If diode resistance is neglected, find the DC voltage
across the load and DC load current.
Solution:
Vm = 2Vrms = 2 200 = 282.8V

Vdc = 0.636 282.8 = 180V
Now,
Im =
Vm
RL
282.8
= 282.8mA
1
Idc = 0636 282.8 = 180mA = 0.18 A
113
Example 15.4 A 24 V, 600 mW Zener diode is to be used for providing a 24 V stabilized

supply to a variable load. If input voltage is 32 V, calculate
(i) Series resistance R required
(ii) Diode current when load resistance is 1200
Solution:
(i) Maximum value of Id =

R=
600
= 25mA
24
Vin Vout 32 24
=
= 320
25 103
Id
(ii) When, RL = 1200, IL =
24
20mA
1200
Id = I IL = 25 20 = 5mA
114
16
BIPOLARJUNCTIONTRANSISTORS
ItconsistsoftwobacktobackPNjunctionsmanufacturedinasinglepieceofa
semiconductor crystal. These two junctions gives rise to three regions called Emitter,
Base and Collector. A junction transistor is simply a sandwich of one type of
semiconductormaterialbetweentwolayersoftheothertype.
Figure 16-1
Theemitter,baseandcollectorareprovidedwithmaterialswhicharelabeledas
E, B and C. The two junctions are: emitterbase (E/B) junction and collectorbase (C/B)
junction.
Emitter:Itformsthelefthandsectionofthetransistor.Itismoreheavilydoped
than any of the other regions because its main function is to supply majority charge
carriestothebase.
Base:Itformsthemiddlesectionofthetransistor.Itisverythinascomparedto
eithertheemitterorcollectorandisverylightlydoped.
Collector:Itformstherighthandsectionofthetransistoranditsmainfunctionis
tocollectmajoritychargecarriescomingfromtheemitterandpassingthroughthebase.
16.1 TransistorBiasing
For proper working of a transistor, it is essential to apply voltages of correct
polarityacrossitstwojunctions.Itisworthwhiletorememberthatfornormaloperation
(i) Emitterbasejunctionisalwaysforwardbiased,and
(ii) Collectorbasejunctionisalwaysreversebiased.
16.2 Transistorcurrents
The three primary currents, which flow in a properly biased transistor, are IE, IB
andIC.RelationbetweenthemIE=IB+IC
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
115
16.3 Transistorconfiguration
Basically, there are three types of circuit connections (configuration) for
operatingatransistorare:
(i) Commonbase(CB)
(ii) Commonemitter(CE)
(iii) Commoncollector(CC)
Thetermcommonisusedtodenotetheelectrodethatiscommontotheinput
andoutputcircuits.
16.3.1.
Commonbase(CB)configuration
Inthistype,emittercurrentIEistheinputcurrentandcollectorcurrentICisthe
outputcurrent.Theinputsignalisappliedbetweentheemitterandbasewhereasoutput
istakenoutfromthecollectorandbase.
TheratioofthecollectorcurrenttotheemittercurrentiscallDCalpha( dc )ofa
transistor.
dc =
16.3.2.
IC
IE
or
IC = dcIE
Commonemitter(CE)configuration
Here, input signal is applied between the base and emitter and output signal is
taking out from collector and emitter circuit. In this type, base current IB is the input
currentandcollectorcurrentICistheoutputcurrent.
The ratio of the collector current to the base current is call DC beta ( dc ) of a
transistor.
dc =
16.3.3.
IC
IB
or
IC = IB
Commoncollector(CC)configuration
In this case, input signal is applied between the base and collector and output
signalistakingoutfromemittercollectorcircuit.Inthistype,basecurrentIBistheinput
currentandcollectorcurrentIEistheoutputcurrent.Thecurrentgainis
IE IE IC 1
= 1+
= x = x = =
/(1 + )
IB IC IB
16.3.4.
Relationbetween and :
=
IC
IC
IE
and = =
IB
IE
IB
116
Now IB = IE IC =
and =
IC
IC / IE
=
IE IC IE / IE IC / IC
1+
Example 16.1 If for a transistor =0.95 and IE = 1mA, find the values of IC and IB.
Solution:
IC = IE = 0.95 x 1 = 0.95mA
IB = IE IC = 1 0.95 = 0.05mA
Example 16.2 Following current reading are obtained in transistor circuit IE = 2mA and
IB = 20 A. Calculate the value of and IC.
Solution:
IC = IE IB = 2 x 10-3 20 x 10-6 = 1.98mA
= IC/IE = 1.98/2 = 0.99

Example 16.3 A transistor has = 0.98 , IB = 100 A and ICO = 6 A. Calculate the value
of IC and IE.
Solution:
IC =
IB
ICO
+
1 1
0.98 100
6
+
1 0.98 1 0.98
= 4900 + 300 = 5200 A = 5.2mA
IE = IC + IB = 5200 + 100 = 5300 A = 5.3mA
117
17
AMPLIFIERS
Linear amplifiers are classified according to their mode of operation. Various

amplifiersdescriptionsarebasedonthefollowingfactors:
1. Asbasedonitsinput
a. Smallsignalamplifier
b. Largesignalamplifier
2. Asbasedonitsoutput
a. Voltageamplifier
b. Poweramplifier
3. Asbasedonitsfrequencyresponse
a. Audiofrequency(AF)amplifier
b. Intermediatefrequency(IF)amplifier
c. Radiofrequency(RF)amplifier
4. Asbasedonitsbiasingconditions
a. ClassA
b. ClassB
c. ClassAB
d. ClassC
5. Asbasedontransistorconfiguration
a. Commonbase(CB)amplifier
b. Commonemitter(CE)amplifier
c. Commoncollector(CC)amplifier
17.1 Commonbase(CB)amplifier
Inputsignalisinjectedintotheemitterbasecircuitandoutputistakenfromthe
collectorbasecircuit.TheE/BjunctionisforwardbiasedbyVEEwhereasC/Bjunctionis
reversedbiasedbyVCC.
Figure 17-1
AMPLIFIERS
118
Figure 17-2
17.1.1.
VariousgainsofaCBamplifier
Input resistance The AC input resistance of the transistor alone is given by the
25mV 50mV
emitter junction resistance. re ' =
The input resistance of the stage is
or
IE
IE
rin ' = re ' RE
Output resistance ro = RC if a load resistance RL is connected across output
terminals,thenoutputresistanceofthestageis ro ' = RL RC
CurrentGain Ai = a
VoltageGain An =
ro
ro '
(fortransistoralone),and
(forthestage)
rin
rin '
PowerGain Ap = Av. Ai
Thedecibelgainisgivenby Gp = 10 log 10 Ap dB
17.2 Commonemitter(CE)amplifier
Inputsignalisinjectedintothebaseemittercircuitandoutputistakenfromthe
collectoremittercircuit.TheE/BjunctionisforwardbiasedbyVBBwhereasC/Bjunction
isreversebiasedbyVCC.
Figure 17-3
AMPLIFIERS
119
Figure 17-4
17.2.1.
VariousgainsofaCEamplifier
Input resistance When viewed from base, AC resistance of the emitter junction
is re = re ' ,circuitorinputresistanceis rin ' = RB ' re '
'
Outputresistance ro = RC however,ifaloadresistorRLisconnectedacrossoutput
terminals,thenoutputresistanceofthestageis ro ' = RC RL = rL
CurrentGain Ai =
VoltageGain AV =
ro '
rin '
PowerGain Ap = Av. Ai =
ro '
re '
17.3 Commoncollector(CC)amplifier
Inputsignalisinjectedintothebasecollectorcircuitandoutputistakenfromthe
emittercollectorcircuit.TheE/BjunctionisforwardbiasedbyVEEwhereasC/Bjunction
isreversebiasedbyVCC.
Figure 17-5
AMPLIFIERS
120
Figure 17-6
17.3.1.
VariousgainsofaCCamplifier
'
'
Inputresistance rin = RB (re '+ ro ')
'
Outputresistance ro = RE RL
CurrentGain Ai = 1 +
VoltageGain Au =
ro '
ro ' + re '
PowerGain Ap = Av. Ai
Example 17.1 For the single-stage CB amplifier find (i) stage input resistance (ii) stage
output resistance (iii) current gain (iv) voltage gain of the stage and (iv) stage power gain
in dB. Assume = 1, re ' = 25mV / IE
Solution: The AC equivalent circuit is shown in fig.
Here,
IE = 20V/20K = 1mA, re ' = 25/1 = 25W
(i) rin ' = re ' RE = 25W 20 K 25W

(ii) ro ' = RC RL = 10 K 10 K 5 K
(iii) Ai = = 1
ro '
5K
= 200
(iv) Av = ' =
rin 25
(v) Ap = Av. Ai = 200 x1 = 200
Gp = 10 log 10 Ap dB = 10 log 10 200 = 23dB
AMPLIFIERS
121
18
OSCILLATORS
Anoscillatorisacircuit,whichconvertselectricalenergyatDC(zerofrequency)to
electric energy at frequency varying from a few Hz to gigahertz. Stated simply, it is a
sourceofalternatingvoltageorcurrent.
Figure 18-1
18.1 Classificationofoscillatorcircuits
Oscillatorcircuitsmaybebroadlydividedintotwogroups:
(i) Sinusoidal (harmonic) oscillators such circuits are used as electronic
timingandcontrolcircuitsinTV,radarandindustrialcontrolequipment.
(ii) Nonsinusoidal (relaxation) oscillators they produce output which has
squareorrectangularorsawtoothwaveform.
Sinewaveoscillatorsmaybefurtherdividedinto:
(i) LCfeedbackoscillatorssuchasHartley,ColpittsandClappetc.Theseare
usedathigherfrequenciesandtheiroutputfrequencyisadjustable.
(ii) RC phaseshift oscillators such as Wienbridge oscillator. They work at
relativelylowfrequencies.
18.2 Frequencyofoscillator
f =
1
2 LC
,whereL=ValueofcoilandC=Valueofcapacitor
Tuned-collector oscillator
f =
1
2 L1C1
Where L1 = inductance of coil on collector circuit

C1 = capacitance of capacitor on collector side
Hartley oscillator
f =
1
2 ( L1 + L 2)C
Where L1 and L2 = inductance of coils
OSCILLATORS
C = capacitance of capacitor
122
Colpitts oscillator
f =
1
2 LC
, Where C =
C 1C 2
C1 + C 2
Clapp oscillator
f =
1
2 LC
, Where
1 1
1
1
= +
+
C C1 C 2 C 3
Wien-bridge oscillator
f =
1
2 R1R 2C1C 2
Example 18.1 A tuned-collector oscillator has a fixed inductance of 100 H and has to be
tunable over the frequency band of 500 kHz. Find the range of variable capacitor to be
used.
Solution: Resonant frequency is given by
f =
1
2 LC
or C =
1
4 f 2 L
When f = 500 kHz

C=
1
= 1015 pF
4 (500 x103 ) 2 x100 x106
2
When f = 1500 kHz

C=
1
= 133 pF
4 (1500 x103 ) 2 x100 x106
2
Hence, capacitor range is 113 pF to 1015 pF

Example 18.2 The resonant circuit of a tuned-collector transistor oscillator has a resonant
frequency of 5 MHz. If value of capacitance is increased by 50%, calculate the new
resonant frequency.
Solution: Using the equation for resonant frequency, we have
f =
1
2 LC
or 5 x106 =
1
2 LC
Increase capacitance by 50% C = 1.5C

f
1
=
or f = 4.08 MHz
6
5 x10
1.5
OSCILLATORS
123
19
DIGITALELECTRONICS
Digital electronics is connected with twostate switching type circuits in which

signals are in the form of electrical pulses. The outputs and inputs of digital devices
involve only two level of voltage referred to asHigh and Low. In digital systems, the
informationbeingoperatedonusuallypresentinbinaryform.Infact,digitalelectronics
istheworldoflogical0sand1s.
19.1 Numbersusedindigitalelectronics
Digital electronic devices do not use familiar decimal system of numbers but
insteaduseBinarynumbersystemwhichconsistsof0sand1s.othernumbersystems
inuseareOctalandHexadecimal.Wewilldiscussthesenumbersystemonebyone.
19.2 Decimalnumbersystem
Thissystemhasabaseof10andisaPositionvaluesystem(meaningthatvalue
ofadigitdependsonitsposition).Characteristicsofthissystemareasfollows:
19.2.1.
BaseorRadix:
Itisdefinedasthenumberofdifferentdigits,whichcanoccurineachpositionin
thenumbersystem.Thissystemhastenuniquedigitsi.e.0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.Anyone
ofthesemaybeusedineachpositionofthenumber.Hence,baseofthissystemis10.
19.2.2.
PositionValue:
The absolute value of each digit is fixed but its position value (placevalue or
weight)isdeterminedbyitspositionintheoverallnumber.Forexample,positionvalue
of6in60isnotsameasin6000.Also,positionvalueofeach5inthe number5555is
different
Similarly,thenumber2573canbebrokendownasfollows:
2573 = 2 x103 + 5 x10 2 + 7 x101 + 3 x100
Itwillbenotedthatinthisnumber,3istheleastsignificantdigit(LSD)whereas2
is most significant digit (MSD). Again, the number 2573.469 can be written as
2573 = 2 x103 + 5 x10 2 + 7 x101 + 3 x100 + 4 x101 + 6 x10 2 + 9 x10 3
Itisseenthatpositionvaluesarefoundbyraisingthebaseofnumbersystem(10
inthiscase)tothepoweroftheposition.Alsopowersarenumberedtotheleftofthe
decimalpointstartingwhichzeroandtotherightofthedecimalpointstaringwith1.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
124
19.3 Binarynumbersystem
Likedecimalsystem,ithasaradixanditalsousesthesametypeofvaluesystem.
Radix:Itsradixis2becauseitusestwodigits0and1.Allbinarynumbersconsists
ofastring0and1.Viz.10,101and1011whicharereadasonezero,onezerooneand
onezerooneone to avoid confusion with decimal numbers. Another way to avoid
confusionistoaddasubscriptof10fordecimalnumbersand2forbinarynumbers.
Positionvalue:Inbinarysystem,positionvalueforeachbitcorrespondstosome
powerof2.Ineachbinarynumber,thevalueincreasebypowerof2startingwith0to
theleftofthebinarypointanddecreasestotherightofthebinarypointstartingwiththe
powerof1.
Figure 19-1
Thedecimalequivalentofthebinarynumber1101.0112maybefoundas:
1101.0112 = (1x 23 ) + (1x 22 ) + (0 x 21 ) + (1x 20 ) + (0 x 21 ) + (1x 22 ) + (1x 23 )

=8+4+0+1+0+1/4+1/8=(13.375)10
19.4 BinarytoDecimalconversion
Followingprocedureshouldbeadoptedforconvertingagivenbinaryintegerinto
itsequivalentdecimalnumbersystem.
Writethebinarynumberinarow.
Directlyunderthebitsandstartingfromrighttoleft,write20,21,22,23etc.
Crossoutthedecimalnumberswhichlieunder0bits.
Addtheremainingnumberstogetthedecimalequivalent.
Example 19.1 Convert 110012 into its equivalent decimal number.

Solution:
Step 1:
1
3
0
2
0
1
Step 2:
20
Step 3:
16
Step 4:
16 +8 +1 =25
110012 = 2510
Example 19.2 Convert the binary fraction 0.1012 into its equivalent decimal number.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
125
Solution:
Step 1:
Step 2:
2-1
2-2
2-3
Step 3:
1/2
1/4
1/8
Step 4:
1/2 + 1/8 = 0.625

0.1012 = 0.62510
19.5 DecimaltoBinaryconversion
19.5.1.
Integers
It can be achieved by using dividedbytwo rule. In this method, progressively

dividethegivendecimalnumberby2andwritedowntheremainderaftereachdivision.
Theseremainderstakeninthereverseorderfromtherequiredbinarynumber.
Example 19.3 Convert Decimal integer 37 to its equivalent binary number.

37 2 = 18
with a remainder of 1
37 2 = 18
18 2 = 9
92 = 4
42 = 2
22 =1
1 2 = 0
3710 = 10010112
19.5.2.
Fractions:
Inthiscase,multiplyby2ruleisusedi.e.,multiplyeachbitby2andrecordthe
carry in the integer position. These carries taken in the forward direction give the
requiredbinaryfraction.
Example 19.4 Convert Decimal fraction 0.8125 to its equivalent binary fraction.
0.8125 x 2 = 1.625
0.625 x 2 = 1.25
0.25 x 2 = 0.5
0.5 x 2 = 1
with a carry of 1
with a carry of 1
with a carry of 0
with a carry of 1
0.812510 = 0.11012
19.6 Binaryoperation
Now,wewillconsiderthefollowingfourbinaryoperation:
Addition,subtraction,multiplicationanddivision;additionisthemostimportant
of these four operations. In fact, by using compliment, subtraction can be reduced to
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
126
addition.Similarly,multiplicationisnothingbutrepeatedadditionand,finally,divisionis
butrepeatedsubstraction.
19.6.1.
Binaryaddition:
Thefourbasicrulesforbinaryadditionareasfollows:
(i) 0+0=0
(ii) 0+1=1
(iii) 1+0=1
(iv) 1+1=0withacarryof1
19.6.2.
Binarysubstraction:
Thefourrulesforsubstractionareasunder:
(i) 00=0
(ii) 10=1
(iii) 11=0
(iv) 01=1withaborrowof1
19.6.3.
Binarymultiplication:
Thefourrulesformultiplicationareasunder:
(i) 0x0=0
(ii) 0x1=0
(iii) 1x0=0
(iv) 1x1=1
19.6.4.
Binarydivision:
Itissimilartothedivisionindecimalsystem:
(i) 0 1=0
(ii) 1 1=1
19.7 Hexadecimalnumbersystem
Thecharacteristicsofthissystemareasfollows:
Ithasabaseof16.Hence,itusessixteendistinctcountingdigits0to9andAtoF
asdetailed:0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
Placevalueforeachdigitisinascendingpowerof16forintegersanddescending
powerof16forfractions.
Themainuseofthissystemisinconnectionwithbyteorganizedmachines.Itis
used for specifying addresses of different binary numbers stored in the computer
memory.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
127
Theadvantageofhexadecimalsystemliesinitsabilitytoconvertdirectlyfroma
4bit binary number. For example, hexadecimal F stands for the 4bit binary number
1111. Similarly, hexadecimal number A6 represents the 8bit binary number 10100110.
Hexadecimalnotationiswidelyusedinmicroprocessorbasedsystemtorepresent8,16
or32bitbinarynumbers.
The following table gives the equivalent numbers in the decimal, binary and
hexadecimalsystem.
Decimal
0
1
2
3
Binary
0000
0001
0010
0011
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Hexadecimal
0
1
2
3
128
20
BOOLEANALGEBRA
Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic presently applied to the operation of

computerdevices.Itis amathematicalsystemoflogicin whichthetruthfunctionsare
expressedassymbolswhicharethenmanipulatedtoarriveataconclusion.ThisBoolean
algebraisnottheordinarynumericalalgebra,inthisA+A=Aandnot2A.
Becauseofitslogicalnature,Booleanalgebraisidealforthedesignandanalysis
oflogiccircuitsusedincomputers.
20.1 Booleanarithmetic
LetusbeginourexplorationofBooleanalgebrabyaddingnumberstogether:
The first three sums make perfect sense to anyone familiar with elementary
addition.Thelastsum,though,isquitepossiblyresponsibleformoreconfusionthanany
othersinglestatementindigitalelectronics,becauseitseemstoruncontrarytothebasic
principles of mathematics. Well, it does contradict principles of addition for real
numbers,butnotforBooleannumbers.RememberthatintheworldofBooleanalgebra,
thereareonlytwopossiblevaluesforanyquantityandforanyarithmeticoperation:1or
0.Thereisnosuchthingas"2"withinthescopeofBooleanvalues.Sincethesum"1+1"
certainlyisn't0,itmustbe1byprocessofelimination.
Itdoesnotmatterhowmanyorfewtermsweaddtogether,either.Considerthe
followingsums:
Take a close look at the twoterm sums in the first set of equations. Does that
patternlookfamiliartoyou?Itshould!Itisthesamepatternof1'sand0'sasseeninthe
truthtableforanORgate.Inotherwords,Booleanadditioncorrespondstothelogical
functionofan"OR"gate,aswellastoparallelswitchcontacts:
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
129
Figure 20-1
Figure 20-2
Figure 20-3
Figure 20-4
There is no such thing as subtraction in the realm of Boolean mathematics.
Subtractionimpliestheexistenceofnegativenumbers:53isthesamethingas5+(3),
and in Boolean algebra negative quantities are forbidden. There is no such thing as
division in Boolean mathematics, either, since division is really nothing more than
compoundedsubtraction,inthesamewaythatmultiplicationiscompoundedaddition.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
130
MultiplicationisvalidinBooleanalgebra,andthankfullyitisthesameasinreal
number algebra: anything multiplied by 0 is 0, and anything multiplied by 1 remains
unchanged:
Thissetofequationsshouldalsolookfamiliartoyou:itisthesamepatternfound
inthetruthtableforanANDgate.Inotherwords,Booleanmultiplicationcorrespondsto
thelogicalfunctionofan"AND"gate,aswellastoseriesswitchcontacts:
Figure 20-5
Figure 20-6
Figure 20-7
Figure 20-8
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
131
Like "normal" algebra, Boolean algebra uses alphabetical letters to denote

variables.Unlike"normal"algebra,though,BooleanvariablesarealwaysCAPITALletters,
neverlowercase.Becausetheyareallowedtopossessonlyoneoftwopossiblevalues,
either1or0,eachandeveryvariablehasacomplement:theoppositeofits value.For
example, if variable "A" has a value of 0, then the complement of A has a value of 1.
Boolean notation uses a bar above the variable character to denote complementation,
likethis:
if A = 0 then A = 1 if A = 1 then A = 0
In written form, the complement of "A" denoted as "Anot" or "Abar".
Sometimes a "prime" symbol is used to represent complementation. For example, A'
would be the complement of A, much the same as using a prime symbol to denote
differentiation in calculus rather than the fractional notation d/dt. Usually, though, the
"bar"symbolfindsmorewidespreadusethanthe"prime"symbol,forreasonsthatwill
becomemoreapparentlaterinthischapter.
Boolean complementation finds equivalency in the form of the NOT gate, or a
normallyclosedswitchorrelaycontact:
Figure 20-9
Figure 20-10
ThebasicdefinitionofBooleanquantitieshasledtothesimplerulesofaddition
and multiplication, and has excluded both subtraction and division as valid arithmetic
operations. We have a symbology for denoting Boolean variables, and their
complements.InthenextsectionwewillproceedtodevelopBooleanidentities.
REVIEW:
BooleanadditionisequivalenttotheORlogicfunction,aswellasparallel
switchcontacts.
BooleanmultiplicationisequivalenttotheANDlogicfunction,aswellas
seriesswitchcontacts.
BooleancomplementationisequivalenttotheNOTlogicfunction,aswell
asnormallyclosedrelaycontacts.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
132
20.2 LawsofBooleanalgebra
This algebra has its own set of fundamental laws, which are necessary for
manipulatingdifferentBooleanexpression.
1. OR laws: These are as under:

a. Law 1
A+0 = A
b. Law 2
A +1 = 1
c. Law 3
A+ A = A
d. Law 4
A+ A = A
2. AND laws: These are as under:

a. Law 5
A.0 = 0
b. Law 6
A.1 = A
c. Law 7
A. A = A
d. Law 8
A. A = 0
3. Laws of complements:
a. Law 9
0=0
b. Law 10
1= 0
c. Law 11
if A = 0, then A = 1
d. Law 12
if A = 1, then A = 0
e. Law 13
A= A
4. Laws of Commutation:
a. Law 14
A+ B = B + A
b. Law 15
A.B = B. A
5. Laws of Association:
a. Law 16
A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B) + C
b. Law 17
( A + B ) + (C + D ) = A + B + C + D
c. Law 18
A.( B.C ) = ( A.B ).C
6. Laws of Distribution:
a. Law 16
A( B + C ) = AB + AC
b. Law 17
A + BC = ( A + B )( A + C )
c. Law 18
A + A.B = A + B
7. Laws of Absorption:
a. Law 22
A + AB = A
b. Law 23
A.( A + B ) = A
c. Law 24
A.( A + B ) = B
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
133
Example 20.1 Prove the Boolean identity AC + ABC = AC

Solution:
Taking the left-hand side as y, we get

y = AC + ABC = AC (1 + B)
Now, 1 + B = 1
----------(Law 2)
y = AC.1 = AC
----------(Law 6)
Hence, AC + ABC = AC
Example 20.2 Prove the Boolean identity (A+B) (A + C) = A + BC
Solution:

y = ( A + B )( A + C )
= AA + AC + AB + BC
----------(Law 19)
= A + AC + AB + BC
----------(Law 7)
= A + AB + AC + BC
= A(1 + B ) + AC + BC
----------(Law 19)
= A + AC + BC
----------(Law 2)
= A(1 + C ) + BC
----------(Law 19)
= A + BC
----------(Law 2)
( A + B )( A + C ) = A + BC
Example 20.3 Prove the Boolean identity A + AB = A + B

Solution:

y = A + AB
= A.1 + AB
----------(Law 6)
= A(1 + B ) + AB
----------(Law 2 & 14)
= A.1 + AB + AB
----------(Law 19)
= A + BA + B A
----------(Law 6 & 15)
= A + B ( A + A)
----------(Law 19)
= A + B.1
----------(Law 4)
= A+ B
----------(Law 6)
A + AB = A + B
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
134
21
QUESTIONPAPERS
21.1 2006
Time: 4 Hrs.
Centre of Excellence
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Workshop Calculation & Science and Engineering Drawing
2006
Marks: 100
Part A (50 marks) Workshop Calculation & Science

Attempt any five questions. All questions carry equal marks
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
(a + x) + (a x)
a
(a + x) (a x) 2 x
(a) Add the following 1.11011 + 111.0101101
(b) Convert hexadecimal number E2B3F to decimal number.
Given the logic equation f = ABC + BC D + ABC
(a) Make the truth table
(b) Realize f using NAND gate only
In any ABC , prove that
sin( B C ) b 2 c 2
=
a2
sin( B + C )
A condenser of capacity 1 F is discharged through high resistance. Half the
charge on the condenser leaks in 20 seconds. Calculate the value of high
resistance.
A lead-acid battery of e.m.f. 120 volts and its internal resistance 1.5 is to be
charged from 240 volts DC supply. What series resistance will be necessary to give
initial charging current of 4 amperes?
In a bridge rectifier, calculate the peak inverse voltage per diode.
1. Solve
QUESTION PAPERS
135
21.2 2007
Time: 4 Hrs.
Marks: 100

1. Given the logic equation f = ABC + BCD + ABC
(a)
Make the truth table
(b)
Realize f using NAND gate only
2. Simplified form of Boolean expression ( A + B + C )( A + C ) is
3. (a)
Energy of 0.5 joule is stored in magnetic field of 50 mH coil. Find current
on it.
(b)
In series LCR circuit R = 10 ohms, the impedance Z = 20 ohms. Then the
phase difference between the current and the voltage degree
is_____________.
1
4. If cos = . Find the value of cos

2
2
Add the following 10.11011 + 11.0101101
5. (a)
(b)
Convert hexadecimal number 2B3F to decimal number.
6. (a)
(b)
7. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3 39.00 103
33/ 4 0.9876
A force of 25 Newton is applied at the end of a spanner whose effective
length is 19.5 cm. Calculate the torque.
The standard atmospheric pressure ________kg/cm2.
The mass of an electron is_________.
Nibble is unit of ________________.
Gigabyte equals ________________.
One coulomb means _____________.
Solve by using log table
QUESTION PAPERS
136
21.3 2008
Time: 4 Hrs.
Marks: 100

1. Fill in the blanks:
a. The peripheral of a circle having 4 cm diameter is_________________
b. Log ( x y ) = ____________________________.
1 cos 2 = ____________________________.
c.
d. The volume of solid sphere is ________________.
e. 4.53 kg = ______________________________.
f. In a linear network when AC input is doubled, the AC output
becomes______________.
g. The energy needed to move 4 coulombs of charge is 4 joules. The potential
difference is _______________.
h. In a electrical network, connection of elements between two node is called
_________________.
i. Half wave rectifier has theoretical maximum efficiency of ____________.
j. A.B.C = D represents a ____________gate.
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance of following circuit.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Find the complement of Boolean expression A(B+C)(C+D)

The area of a triangle is 59 cm2 and its perimeter is 9 cm. Show that the radius of
its incircle is 12 cm.
Calculate the root equation 5 x 2 9 x + 4
Perform following binary addition and subtraction
a. (110001) 2 + (110011) 2 = (_______) 2
b. (1000101) 2 (1001) 2 = (_______) 2
(a)
DC output drops from 50 volts with no-load to 48 volts with full-load. Find
percentage load regulation.
(b)
A DC voltage 100 volts is applied at time t = 0 to a series circuit consisting
of resistor R = 100 ohms and capacitor C = 10 F . Find the current in the
circuit at time t.
QUESTION PAPERS
137
21.4 2009
Time: 4 Hrs.
Marks: 100

1. Given the logic equation f = ABCD + ABCD + ABCD + ABC D ; make truth table.
Design the logic gate.
2. Simplify the following Boolean equation
a. y = a.b.b.c.c.c
b. A = x ' yz '+ x ' yz + xyz '+ xyz
3. Solve 4 x 3 y = 6, 5 x 2 y = 11
4. (a)
Find the perimeter of the square, the sum of the lengths of whose diagonals
is 144 cm.
(b)
If the sides of the square the doubled, find the ratio of the area of the
resulting square to that of given square.
Find load impedance of 4 k , the current gain of a typical CE amplifier
5. (a)
stage has magnitude of the order of.
(b)
If three lamps of 40W, 60W and 100W are connected in series and apply
230V, 50Hz supply. Which lamp will glow with low intensity? Justify your
answer.
Convert hexadecimal number 3C to binary and then to decimal.
6. (a)
(b)
Convert decimal number 243 to binary equivalent.
7. Explain bit, byte, kilobyte, megabyte and gigabyte. What is the significance of all
these.
QUESTION PAPERS
138

21.5 2009
Time: 4 Hrs.
Marks: 100

1. Give the logic equation f = A ' B ' C ' D + A ' B ' B ' D + ABCD ;
make truth table. Design the logic gate.
2. Simplify the following Boolean equation
a. y = A ' B ' CD + A ' B ' C ' D
b. y = A ' BC '+ A ' BC + ABC '+ ABC
3. Find the perimeter of the square, the sum of the lengths of whose diagonals is 144
cm.
4. (i) Convert binary (0111 1101 0000 1111) to octal number
(ii) Convert hexadecimal 7E to binary equivalent
5. Perform the following
a. (1.11) 2 + (0.11) 2
b. (110011) 2 (100001) 2
6. If principal = 1000000, number of years = 3, rate = 3%, then calculate the simple
interest.
QUESTION PAPERS
139

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UNITS & MEASUREMENT..................................................................................... 5

7.6 Values at special angles: ...................................................................................... 37

UNITS & MEASUREMENT

Meter per second

Radian per second

Meter per second square

Kg per cubic meter

Newton per square meter (Pascal)

Joule per kg Kelvin

UNITS & MEASUREMENT

UNITS & MEASUREMENT

Example 1.1Convert the following:

(ii) 1 gallon = 4.546 liters

UNITS & MEASUREMENT

Example 2.3: Find the value of 1 +

Example 2.4 Calculate the value of

Example 2.5 Convert

Example 2.6 Convert 0.625 into fraction.

Example 2.7 Simplify

Algebraic expressions may be written as product of factors. The procedure for

Now, put these values to given problem, we get:

Example 2.9 If a 3 + b3 = 407; a + b = 11 , then find the value of a and b.

1331 = 407 + 33ab

Since a + b = 11 , then put the value of a, therefore

Or b(b 7) 4(b 7) = 0 (b 4)(b 7) = 0

Example 2.10 Factorize 8 x 3 64 y 3 .

2 Calculate the following

3 Simplify the following

0.47 2 + 0.35 4.1 0.45 2.0

7.15 (2.5) 2 (2.8 + 6.2)1 2

4 Calculate the following

5 Simplify the following

23 Simplify the following

24 Simplify the following

25 The pitch of a certain type of thread is given by the formulae:

Example 3.1 A : B = 9 : 12 and C : D = 8 : 10. Find the ratio A : B : C

Hence, weight of lead =

Cost of tin = 7.2 X 50 = Rs. 360

RATIO AND PROPORTION

RATIO AND PROPORTION

Example 4.1 Find out 4% of Rs. 30.

Convert 0.352 into percentage.

Let the total weight of solder is x grams

Given weight of tin = 14 grams

Total weight of solder = 40 grams

Diameter of brass rod d = 14 cm

Now, weight of brass rod

(Ans: 124.413 kg)

10 A candidate secured 20% marks in an examination and failed by 10 marks.

Example 5.1 Add 2 x + 5 y , 4 x 8 z and 15 z 2 y

Example 5.3 Evaluate (5a 2 2b3 ) (2a 3 + 5b 4 )

(5a 2 2b3 ) (2a 3 + 5b 4 )

Example 5.4 Evaluate (a 2 + 7a 3) (a 3)

Substituting the value of x, y and z we got

Sum of these numbers is ( x ) + ( x + 1) + ( x + 2) = 3 x + 3

Either (12 x + 1) or ( x 2) may be zero.

Example 5.8 Solve the equations 6 x 12 y = 1 and 8 x + 9 y = 18 .

------------(iii) Multiplying eq. (i) by 9

------------(iv) Multiplying eq. (ii) by 12

By adding eq. (iii) and (iv)

Example 5.9 Solve the equations