INSTITUTO SUPERIOR TCNICO

Universidade Tcnica de Lisboa

Design of Block Pavements

Paulo Roberto da Silva Morgado

Extended Abstract to obtaining the Master Degree in

Civil Engineering

December 2008

1. Introduction
Pavement is the part of the road or street, consisting of various materials and that are placed on
natural ground or in landfills, in order to directly support traffic. [BRANCO; 2006]
One of the first forms of paving in Portugal were the Roman roads, great work of engineering, which
enabled several sections to endure for centuries, being still in operation.
Nowadays one of the coatings used in the design of pavements are precast concrete blocks for
pavements CB.
The application of pavements which use precast CBs generally associated to sidewalks and
accesses to residential areas. No less common is their use in gasoline service stations, parking lots, and
sometimes bus stop areas.
With a structural behavior similar to that of flexible pavements, the concrete blocks pavement
CBPs allow repairs without leaving a trace. This is a great alternative, both from a technical and
economic point of view.
Given the importance of the CBs in paving, and still with a very limited study on this issue in our
country, this work has three main objectives:
Summary knowledge of the design and construction of CBPs.
To analyze aspects related to the contribution to a better structural knowledge of the
surface course consisting of CB, including though the conduction of load tests on an
experimental pavement;
Present a catalog that brings together several classes of traffic and subgrade, appropriate
to the national reality.

2. Block Pavements
2.1

Scope

There is a vast array of application possibilities in which we can use CBP. When CBP were used for
the first time, architectural applications predominate, but afterwards, according to the increasing
knowledge on the subject, these applications extend to areas exposed to light and even heavy road traffic.
Heres a wide range of applications for this kind of pavements:
Pavements on buildings.
Pavements in pedestrian areas.
Pavements with decorative purposes.
Urban pavements exposed to road traffic.
Pavements exposed to heavy road traffic (industrial, seaport and airport pavements).
Pavements for special zones (hydraulic applications, mining zones, agricultural zones).

2.2

Functions and Materials in use on the Various Layers

We will now study the materials in use in the various layers of a CBP and their respective functions.
On Fig. 2.1 a schematic cut of the standard structure of a CBP is presented, with respective
designations given to the several layer of the pavement and subgrade.
Generally, these pavements are composed by surface courses (concrete block course and laying
course), foundation courses (base and sub-base courses) and by the subgrade.

Fig. 2.1 Type Structure of a CBP

The subgrade of the area to be paved shall be inspected to know if it is formed by local natural soil
or soil from another place. This soil should be non expansive.
The base course is purpose to receive distributed stress by the surface course. It shall whit stand
and distribute tensions to the sub-base course, in case it is present, or to the subgrade, thus avoiding
permanent deformations and consequent deterioration of the pavement [MLLER; 2005]. The materials to
use in the layers should be preferably tout venant or cement-soil.
The laying course is to be formed by sand, with thicknesses ranging 3 to 5 cm. The main purpose
of the pavements laying course is to serve as support for the settlement of CB. The thickness and quality
of the sand directly influences on the pavements end performance. The structural behavior of the CBs is
directly related to the thickness of the layer, granulometry and the aggregates shape index. [MLLER;
2005]
The surface course formed by the CBs ensures comfort to the final user, pavement durability and
determinately contributes to the structural function of the pavement (stress distribution), trough its features
of interlock, besides providing support to shear surface stresses caused by vehicle wheels.

2.3

Quality Control

The quality control scheme used, which is duly adjusted by function of the greater qualification and
reliability with which the production and placement on field takes place, includes:
Collection of samples for the control of aggregate granulometry, fineness module and
moisture content in sands, etc.
Requirements and test methods for the precast concrete blocks for CBP according to
European standard EN1338:2003.

The EN 1338:2003 standard stands out from other international standards mainly for incorporating
a system in the manufacture process of the CBs, which allows the producer to guarantee an adequate
quality system of its products and shipping to its clients, in conformity with specific rules of the producing
countries and those of the CEN.
For the CBs to be incorporated or applied on a permanent basis on the field they must have CE
marking, which means they have to be evaluated against a set of minimum requirements as set on annex
ZA of standard EN 1338:2003.

2.4

Construction Overview

The most important steps to follow in building a CBP are: preparing the subgrade, spreading and
compacting the sub-base course, spreading and compaction of the base course, completion of the edge of
the kerb, spreading and leveling of the laying course, placing the blocks, pavement vibration and correct
interlock of the CBs and sealing of joints with sand.

2.5

Solicitations

Requests operating in CBP are dependent on the type of traffic or loads applied to the pavement.
According NEVES (2001) the main characteristics of requests applied to the pavement caused by the
passage of vehicles are:
The intensity of the load that acts on each wheel of the vehicle.
The conditions involved on the application of that cargo, usually characterized by geometry
and tension between the tires contact surface and the pavement.

3. Design Methodologies for CBP

SHACKEL (1990) and HALLAC (1998) describe that the methods of scaling and design of CBP
can be divided into four categories:
Based on field experience, or local experience.
Based on empirical data.
Based on modifications of existing methods for flexible pavements, through modeling the
equivalence of materials.
Based on computer models.
The design of CBP has developed in a context of various types of applications in the past 25
years, since the exclusive use on sidewalks up to the special applications in areas with large
concentrations of static loads, such as seaport and airport areas.
HALLAC (1998) says that the greatest challenge on the design of CBP is determining the value of
the modulus of elasticity of the abrasive layer composed by the CBs + laying course. The figures obtained

in studies on traffic simulators or in situ measurements show a wide dispersion. In addition, simulation to
determine these values in conjunction with various types of base (stabilized with cement, stabilized with
bituminous materials, sand and granular materials) is complex, revealing the need, therefore, for the
establishment of procedures for obtaining results from laboratory tests, retro analysis from deflection
measurements provided by FWD in experimental areas or through the observation and monitoring of
pavements in service.

4. Study and Modeling of an Experimental Pavement

4.1

Pavement description

The pavement under study is located at the Air Force Academys Military Hospitals parking lot,
more precisely in Azinhaga dos Ulmeiros, Lisbon, with the following structure (Fig. 4.1):

Fig. 4.1 Schematics of the pavement under study

4.2

Pavement load tests

In order to determine the mechanical characteristics of the various layers on the experimental
pavement, non-destructive load testing with an impact deflectometer was used. This equipment was
designed to study the deflections of pavements subject to dynamic loads that would reflected the
movement of vehicles in terms of speed.
In each test, after the initial impact of the first drop height, whose aim is to adjust the plate to the
surface of the pavement, 3 impacts were carried out based on 3 levels of load data in time, in order of
increasing impact loads. The drop heights were set to match the approximate values of impact forces as
listed next: Impact of the 2nd drop height to match the peak load of 40 kN; impact of the 3rd drop height to
match the peak load of 100 kN; impact of the 4th drop height to match the peak load of 150 kN. [NEVES,
2001].
The pavement deflections induced by the impact load were measured at various points through
geophones supported on the surface of the pavement.
Deflection values for normalized load values of 40kN, 100kN and 150kN are graphically
represented in Fig. 4.2. Please note that the colored lines are the average values for each peak load.

20

70

120

170

0
F=40 kN

500
(m)

Average Deflections

-30

1000

F=100 kN

1500
F=150 kN

2000
Distance to axis (cm)

Fig. 4.3 - FWD test (for standard values of 40, 100 and 150 kN)

By analysis of the results of measured deflections obtained through FWD on the abrasive layer we
can conclude that there is a good homogeneity of the structural behavior in each layer.

4.3

Behavior Modeling in Load Tests

Determination of mechanical characteristics of the materials that constitute the different layers of
pavement was made by resource to the program of automatic calculation BISAR. Through several
iterations, varying the module of deformability of the layers, dislocations were obtained until the calculated
vertical dislocations of the pavement would converge with the experimental dislocations determined
through FWD load tests. The materials mechanical parameters are fixed when the average of the
convergence error is inferior to 15 %.
Table 4.1 presents the values of the modules of deformability estimated for the pavements various
layers under study, so that the deflection was calculated as close as possible to that measured in situ. For
a better analysis, and with the aim of reducing the average error, two layers of subgrade were added.

Table 4.1 - Deformability modules estimated for the various layers

INPUT
Distance
(cm)

OUTPUT
Deflections
for 40 kN
Deflections (m)
(m)

Layer

E
(MPa)

CB (5,5 cm)

1000

0,30

-30

1,912E+02

1,914E+02

Fine Crushed aggregate (20 cm)

200

0,25

5,413E+02

5,649E+02

4,36%

Crushed aggregate sub-base (20 cm)

400

0,35

30

1,285E+02

1,914E+02

48,94%

Subgrade (100 cm)

200

0,35

45

8,448E+01

8,282E+01

1,96%

Subgrade (100 cm)

1000

0,35

60

5,281E+01

4,981E+01

5,68%

Subgrade

2000

0,35

90

2,053E+01

2,399E+01

16,84%

120

9,237E+00

1,188E+01

28,61%

150

5,132E+00

6,104E+00

18,94%

180

3,692E+00

3,397E+00

7,98%
14,82%

Average

Error
0,12%

5. Pavement catalog
5.1

Traffic classification
For the elaboration of the CBP catalog traffic shall be classified in 3 different classes based on a

classification by the Spanish Association of CBP [ADAH; 2004]: Low, Average and High.
For design purposes of the CBP, only the effect of the annual daily average traffic of heavy vehicles
will be considered, per direction of circulation, on the route most sought by these vehicles (TMDA)p and
this value should be obtained from a traffic study.
The design of a pavement is to ensure appropriate conditions for traffic movement over a given
period, which is known as period of design, minimizing the need for conservation works in this period. For
CBPs the usual design period is 20 years.
Since there are no specific studies for the CBP, a growth rate of 1% for low and average classes of
traffic and 3% for the high class traffic will be considered.
To express the effect of a given number of passages by heavy vehicles with diversified
characteristics, a conversion into passages of an equivalent standard axle is done, taking into account
factors of aggression, whose values are defined according to the manual of pavements design for the
national road network [JAE, 1995].
Trough the evaluation of the adequacy of the proposed CBP structures, in terms of their respective
load capacity, an acceptable value for the total number of standard axles of 80 kN was defined.
The accumulated traffic of standard axles during the period of design, corresponding to three
classes of traffic is given by:
dim

N80

= 365 x (TMDA)p x C x x p

With:

5.1

p
(1 t)
1
p t

5.2

In which:
C is the growth factor for road traffic; t - average annual growth rate of heavy traffic (%); damage factor of traffic (); p design period (years); (TMDA)p annual daily average
traffic of heavy vehicles, for direction of circulation, on the route most sought by these
vehicles, on the opening year.
Table 5.1 indicates the 3 traffic classes considered for the annual daily average traffic of heavy
vehicles, for direction of circulation, on the route most sought by these vehicles, on the opening year.
dim

(TMDA)p, the average growth rate, aggressiveness factor and N80

(20 years).

Table 5.1 Traffic related data

Class
Low
T3
Average
T2

High
T1

Parking lots for light vehicles;

pedestrian areas; commercial
streets with width <6 m;
Main or structural arteries with a
width > 6 m, which do not cross
roads with traffic superior to 49
trucks per day;
Streets or main arteries with high
traffic, Bus Stops; Service stations
etc.., not exceeding 150 heavy
vehicles per day;

CBP
Damage Factor
()

(TMDA)p

Average
Growth Rate
(%)

< 15

2,4*105

15 49

7,9*105

49 150

2,9*106

N80 dim
(20 years)

When considering values for the average daily traffic, the growth rate, the factor of
aggressiveness or the design period different from those adopted (Table 5.1), or when carrying out a
phased construction, the values of accumulated traffic will be calculated in accordance with the adopted
methodology.

5.2

Characteristics of the Materials

Three classes of pavement foundation will be considered, as shown in Table 5.2. For each class a range
of values is admitted for the modules of deformability for the pavements foundation.
Table 5.2 Foundation Classes [JAE; 1995]
Foundation Modulus (MPa)
Range
Calculating Value
30 a 50
30
51 a 80
60
> 80
100

Foundation Class
F1
F2
F3

Traffic Class
T3; T2; T1
T3; T2; T1
T3; T2; T1

For design purposes of typical CBP structures, approximate mechanical characteristics are
considered for the natural materials, granular base or treated with cement, used in the base and sub-base
courses, as shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Mechanical characteristics considered for materials [JAE; 1995]
Symbol
BG
SbG
AGEC
Sc

Designation
tout-venant applied on the base course
tout-venant applied on the sub-base
course
Lean concrete
Cement-soil

Deformability
Modulus (E)
2 x E inferior
layer
2 x E inferior
layer
15000
2000

Poisson ratio
()
0,35
0,35
0,25
0,35

Along with the laying course the CBs are considered to act as a single layer, with constant
deformability modulus and Poisson coefficient, with deformability modulus of 1000 MPa and a Poisson's
ratio of 0.30. These values were obtained using a case study discussed in the previous chapter.
The CBs to be used on roads and streets should have a thickness of 80 mm, being this a
common practice in Portugal.

5.3

Criteria for design

The pavement was modeled, using the program BISAR, as a multi-layered structure, with a
standard axle of 80 kN, a load on each wheel of 20 kN and 500 kPa of pressure contact as a model basis.
It is assumed that each layer is homogeneous, isotropic and elastic and is characterized by E - module of
deformability - and - Poisson ratio.
7

For the CBPs there are two main limit states of ruin present, the shearing by fatigue (horizontal
traction tensile) on the basis of mixtures of materials with hydraulic binders and permanently deformed
(vertical compression strain) on the top of the subgrade.
The study of ruts, which evolve over time with the passage of traffic and contribute to the
formation of rutting, was based on the validation of the strain criteria:

<

z,apl

5.3

z,adm

In which z,apl is determined with the assistance of the BISAR software and z,adm is obtained
through the Shell equation:

z,adm

=aN

5.4

In which:
z,apl

strain of application of vertical compression at the top of the subgrade; z,adm

admissible strain of vertical compression at the top of the subgrade; N - acceptable number
of passages of the standard axle (80 kN); a and b - characteristic parameters of the
materials, where a = .2,1 or 1.8 (for a reliability of 85 and 95% respectively) and b =- 0.25.
For the design of layers with hydraulic binders, it was admitted that the fatigue of the mixes
subject to bending by the wheels of heavy vehicles could relate to the maximum tensile stress (t), and
must check the following relation:

apl

<

5.5

adm

To calculate the maximum admissible tensile stress comes to use the expression of the JAE
presented in the manual for design of pavements for the national road network:

t
r

dim
1 a x log N80

5.6 [JAE; 1995]

In which:

t maximum tensile stress induced by the standard axle; r resistance to traction under
dim

bending (Rbending); N80

admissible number of passages by the standard axle (80 kN); a

constant, which depends on the composition and properties of the mix, admitting values
ranging -0,06 to -0,1 (-0,08 was adopted).
Should the resistance to traction be evaluated from direct compression tests, it is admissible to use
a factor of 1.5 to convert the value obtained to the one expected to be obtained from a bending test:
Rflexo 1,5 x Rcd
8

5.7 [JAE; 1995]

In which:
Rf resistance to traction under bending stress; Rcd resistance to traction under diametral
compression, where Rcd assumes the value of 1 MPa in case its AGEC and 0,3 MPa in
case its Sc.
5.4

Proposal for type structures for CBP

This sub-chapter proposes, in the form of a catalog, a standard set of structures to be adopted

during the phase of previous study for CBP.

The structure of this catalog is based following principles:
Definition of type structures for CP, based on the combination of different types of
materials for the constituent layers.
Consideration of the worst extreme conditions of the classes of traffic and foundation, to
determine the proposed thicknesses, so that when facing actual conditions set in the
implementation stage of design, proposals should be adjusted.
Change in thicknesses of the sub-base and base course according to the traffic class and
foundation class (T1, T2, T3, F1, F2 and F3).
Fig. 5.1 shows, in the form of a catalog, type sections proposed for the CBP.

Figura 5.1 Proposed type sections

9

6. Conclusions
Below is an overview of the main conclusions, considered as the most important of the work that
was done:
We can conclude that most methods of scaling of the CBP stems from adjustments to the
methodology of calculation for flexible pavements, where the concept of equivalent layers is used.
Through numerical modeling of experimental pavement we can apprehend that the module of
deformability of the CBs figure on the order of 1000MPa, a figure that was used in preparing the
catalog of structures in CBP.
The worst conditions of traffic and foundation were considered when building the catalog. The
resulting catalog does not apply to the design stage of implementation, but rather serves to
support and guide the design of structures for CBP to be taken into consideration in the
construction of new national road infrastructures.

Bibliographic references
[ADAH; 2004] Asociacin y Desarrollo del Adoqun de Hormign. Manual Euroadoqun. Madrid :
Publicaciones Euroadoqun, 2004.

[BRANCO; 2006] BRANCO, Fernando, PEREIRA, Paulo e SANTOS, Lus Picado. Pavimentos
Rodovirios. Coimbra : Almedina, 2006.

[HALLAC; 1998] HALLHAC, A. Dimensionamento de Pavimentos com Revestimento de Peas PrMoldadas de Concreto para reas Porturias e Industriais. So Paulo : Escola Politcnica, 1998.

[JAE; 1995] JAE. Manual de concepo de pavimentos para a rede rodoviria nacional. Almada, 1995.

[MLLER; 2005] MLLER, Rodrigo Menegaz. Avaliao de transmisso de Esforos em Pavimentos

Intertravados. Rio de Janeiro : Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Junho de 2005.

[NEVES; 2001] NEVES, Jos Manuel Coelho das. Contribuio para a modelao do comportamento
estrutural de pavimentos rodovirios flexveis. Lisboa : Tese de Doutoramento apresentada ao Instituto
Superior Tcnico, 2001.

[SHACKEL; 1990] SHACKEL, Brian. Design and Construction of Interlocking Concrete Block. New York
and London : First Edition and Reprinted 1991, 1990.

[ORIGINAL BLOCOS; 2008] http://www.originalblocos.com.br/ (Consultation to 08 May 2008).

10