National University of Singapore

Department of Civil Engineering

CE 5112
Structural design and construction of
deep basements &
cut & cover structures
Lecture 2

Words of wisdom

The concept and execution of engineering must be based on

INTEGRITY - integrity in applying the laws of nature, and
integrity in dealing with fellow engineers, clients,
constructors and suppliers. Just as a structure will stand up
only with integrity, we need to establish a relationship based
on integrity in dealing with our fellow people.
INGENUITY is the very basis of engineering, meaning
creativity and excellence and is fundamentally part of
progressive engineering. There will be times when unusual
problems call for special solutions. When such a time comes,
we should not shy away from the demand for ingenuity and
T.Y. LIN
the change offered thereby.
2

Practical Design Considerations

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)

Introduction sharing of structural engineer perspectives

General requirements clients, builders & designers
Ground, soil profile & gases
Concept of effective stress vis--vis total stress
Groundwater control
Movements caused by excavation activities
Methods of construction
Types of earth retaining system
Influence of foundations type adopted
Site Investigation
Geotechnical & structural analysis, soil-structure interaction
Protective measures
Durability and waterproofing
Safety, legal and contractual issues & risk communications
3

Methods of construction
Deep excavations for underground structures require
secure earth and groundwater retention in the
temporary/construction and permanent phases. There
are 4 main categories of techniques:
1) Open unsupported excavation slope stability, groundwater
control.
2) Steeper or vertical open excavation where the face of the
excavation is supported by nails, anchors, props or similar
techniques and where conditions permit.
3) Bottom-up excavation with temporarily lateral strut support
& wall.
4) Top-down (& up) excavation where the permanent walls &
floors are used to laterally support the excavation in both
temporary and permanent states.

Methods of construction

There is also term used like semi-top-down

construction which is done for reasons of
constructability and economy. Excavation can
use any combination of the 4 techniques:
1) Minimizing temporary works (e.g. king
post/plunge columns only)
2) Maximum opening sizes in the permanent
works for ease of excavation for spoil
removal and it is likely to be cheaper using
bottom up construction where possible.
5

Type of earth retaining structures

Forms of gabion retaining walls
The permeability and flexibility of gabions make them suitable where the retained material is
likely to be saturated and where the bearing quality of the soil is poor. Wire mesh gabions are of
two forms: baskets, which are used for walls, and mattresses which are used for revetments and
the lining of river.

Type of earth retaining structures

Forms of gabion retaining walls

Type of earth retaining structures

Forms of reinforced concrete cribwork

Crib walls is used for permanent and temporary retaining walls to embankments,
cuttings and bridge approaches. When used to support an existing slope it is advisable
to construct the wall to the maximum batter (1 horizontal in 4 vertical).

Type of earth retaining structures

Forms of reinforced concrete cribwork

Type of earth retaining structures

Flexible Wrap-around Facings, 45 to 70 with Vegetation

10

Geogrids:

Bonded Geogrid

Extruded Punched Geogrid

Naue/Fortrac/Paragrid etc

Tensar/Tenax
11

Geotextiles: Made from Filament or Tape

Non Woven Textile Needle

Punched or Thermally
Bonded

Woven Textile
Autoway etc

Terram/Polyfelt/Landolt etc
12

Type of earth retaining structures

Green Reinforced Earth Walls

13

Type of earth retaining structures

Green Reinforced Earth Walls

14

Keystone Retaining Walls

Mass Gravity Walls
Suitable for:
Single tier walls up to 2m
Good ground conditions
Low external loads

15

Keystone Retaining Walls

The Keystone Advantage

Crash Barriers
16

Keystone Retaining Walls

Reinforced Soil Walls
Keystone Blocks + Soil
Reinforcement
Geogrid or Steel ladder
reinforcement
Suitable for:
Walls up to 20m+
Tiered walls
Poor ground conditions
High external loads

17

Keystone Retaining Walls

18

Type of earth retaining structures

Forms of mass or
RC concrete walls
Mass concrete walls are suitable
for retained heights up to 3 m.

19

Type of earth retaining structures

RC concrete walls
RC & reinforced masonry retaining
walls on spread foundations are
gravity structures where overturning
stability is provided by the weight of
the wall together with the weight of
the retained material rests on the
base slab. The various structural
elements of the wall are designed to
resist bending.
Piles will be needed if bearing
capacity is inadequate.

20

Type of earth retaining structures

RC counterfort &
buttressed walls
Cantilever wall up to 8 m height
is generally economic; for greater
heights a counterfort wall is more
appropriate.
Buttressed reinforced concrete
retaining walls are seldom used.

21

Retaining structures on Soft Ground

Reducing lateral force on retaining wall using EPS Engineered foam. This
application saves construction time and overall project cost
22

Excavation methods and support systems

Open cut
For large excavations. It is fast, cheap and gives full accessible site.
Practicable in relatively good stable soil with a large open field site. If
permeability and water table are high dewatering may be necessary

23

Slope cutting enhanced with ground anchor

24

Excavation methods and support systems

Temporary support
against central dumping or
by fully braced trench
Suitable for large excavations in plan
rather than in depth. Evades ground
water problems If sheet piling/wall
can effect seal in underlying stratum.
Slow and radically constrains
program and access. Wall has to be
self-supporting to withstand soil
pressures before the rest of basement
area can be excavated.

25

Excavation methods and support systems

Long flying shores across
excavations
Suitable for narrower excavations.
Impedes construction.
More difficult incorporation of
monitoring Jacks.

Fully braced temporary

support
Suitable for very deep excavations traditional. With incorporation of jacks
for pre-loading to minimize wall
movement.
Slow and costly particularly when width
of excavation increases.
Constrains construction works because
of access difficulties.
26

Excavation methods and support systems

Fully braced temporary

support
Suitable for very deep excavations traditional. With incorporation of
jacks for pre-loading to minimize
wall movement.
Slow and costly particularly when
width of excavation increases.
Constrains construction works
because of access difficulties.

27

OPEN-CUT & BOTTOM-UP CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Earth is excavated to required depth with retaining walls & struts. Upon the
completion of excavation, the base slab of the underground structure is cast at the
bottom-most level, followed by side walls. Casting of concrete progresses upwards,
level by level till the roof of the structure is completed. Ground is then backfilled
and reinstated.

28

Excavation methods and support systems

Concurrent upward and
downward construction
Good for deep excavations. Affords
speedier construction on superstructure.
Excavation and removal of spoil
form enclosed area relatively
difficult.

29

Excavation methods and support systems

Floors cast on ground
with excavation
continuing below
Good method for deep excavations.
Temporary strutting & beams
eliminated.
Excavation under slabs and removal
of spoil relatively difficult.

30

RC Compression Member
in Bending
The Reinforced Concrete Council
offers the following Excel
Spreadsheet files for Design to
BS8110
RCC-2000
SPREADSHEETS FOR
CONCRETE DESIGN TO
BS8110 and EC2

mirrored in:
http://www.civl.port.ac.uk/rcc2000/

Balanced failure point

0.20FcuAc = 0.2x.035x300 = 630 kN
31

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Soil Nailing

32

Soil Nail Failure Modes

33

Reinforced Earth
Reinforced Earth walls are gravity structures consisting of
alternating layers of granular backfill and reinforcing strips
with a modular precast concrete facing. They are used
extensively in transportation and other civil engineering
applications. Because of its high load-carrying capacity,
Reinforced Earth is ideal for very high or heavy-loaded
retaining walls.
The inherent flexibility of the composite material makes it
possible to build on compressible foundation soils or unstable
slopes. These performance advantages combined with low
materials volume and a rapid, predictable and easy construction
process make Reinforced Earth an extremely cost-effective
solution over conventional retaining structures.

34

Reinforced Earth

http://www.nehemiah.com.my/main1.htm

35

Reinforced Earth
Steel Strips or Grids
Inextensible

Polymer Straps Relatively

Inextensible

36

Reinforced Earth

37

Reinforced Earth

38

Design Criteria
External Stability
1. Sliding along base of reinforced soil block

39

Design Criteria
External Stability
1. Sliding along base of reinforced soil block
2. Bearing capacity

40

Design Criteria
External Stability
1. Sliding along base of reinforced soil block
2. Bearing capacity
3. Overturning

41

Design Criteria
External Stability
1. Sliding along base of reinforced soil block
2. Bearing capacity
3. Overturning
4. Overall stability

42

Design Criteria
Internal Stability
1. Tensile failure of reinforcement

43

Design Criteria
Internal Stability
1. Tensile failure of reinforcement

2. Reinforcement pullout

44

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Typical temporary anchorage in soil during stressing

45

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Typical anchorage in soil with fixed anchor protection
- restressing

46

Removable Ground Anchorage

Normal multistrand anchorage & Single bored multiple anchorage

47

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Removable Anchorages

48

Multi-Anchor System

49

Withdrawn Prestressed Strands of Ground Anchors

Corrosion should be monitored near anchorage zone

50

Excavation Sheetpile,
Soldier Pile & Spray
Concrete (Gunite)

51

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Typical rock bolt fully bonded over free tendon length

52

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Typical anchorage in rock debonded over free tendon
length with fixed anchor protection - restressing

Typical unprotected bar anchorage

53

Typicalfrictionalstrengthinrock
1. Only primary grout applied in GA installation, grouting
pressure 0.30.5Mpa, limit of unit friction range from
0.20.3MPa.
C856 Labrador Park Station with
moderately strong to strong sandstone. Ultimate unit
friction adopted 250kPa (bored/micropile).
2. Primary grout with postgrouting, grouting pressure 0.3
0.5Mpa for primary and 34Mpa for post grouting, unit
friction ranged from 46N (0.40.6MPa) for design. C856
West Coast Station with weathered siltstone & SPT N
= 4070. Ult. unit friction adopted is 4N with limit at
250kPa
In Spore, high pressure grouting > 10Mpa is uncommon.

54

Typicalfrictionalstrengthinrock
DTL C911: Soil condition is moderately strong to strong, moderately
weathered to slightly weathered and fractured to coarse grained Granite.
Only primary grout is applied in the GA installation, unit friction of
250kPa adopted in initial design and higher value may be used subject to
trial anchor test, due to uncertainty and variation of ground conditions.
Ground anchor nominal diameter = 200mm
Nonshrink grout = 0.4% cement weight
28 days grout strength = 40 N/mm, stressing = 24.5 Mpa
Factor of safety = 1.6 (Structure) & 2.5 (Geotechnical)
Unit skin friction adopted = 2N < 200 kPa GVI & N > 8 (Soil)
= 440 kPa for GIII, GII & GI.
Rock bolt 400 kPa for GIII and 800 kPa for GII with 150mm shotcrete
Factor of safety = 2.0 (Structure) & 3.0 (Geotechnical)
55

Typical Bond Stress Value for Selected Rock

Rock Type (Sound)

Granite & Basalt
Limestone (competent)
Dolomitic Limestone
Soft Limestone
Slates & Hard Shales
Soft Shales
Sandstone
Chalk
Marl (stiff fissured)

Ultimate Bond Stress plus skin (Mpa)

1.724
to
3.103
2.068
to
2.758
1.379
to
2.068
1.034
to
1.517
0.827
to
1.379
0.207
to
0.827
0.827
to
1.034
0.207
to
1.034
0.172
to
0.248

It is not generally recommended that design bond stress exceed

1.379MPa even in the most competent rocks
56

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Externally supported Retaining System

57

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Short-term design stress-strain curve for normal and
low relaxation products Prestressing strand & bar

58

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Typical sizes & characteristic of prestressing tendon

General allowable anchor load:

Service load
0.6 fpu
Proof load

0.8 fpu

Proof load factor is 1.25 (temp) & 1.5

(perm)

59

Ground anchorage nomenclature

Table 2. Minimum safety factors recommended for design of individual anchorages

Anchoragecategory

Temporaryanchorageswhereaservicelifeislessthansix
monthsandfailurewouldhavenoseriousconsequencesand
wouldnotendangerpublicsafety,e.g.shorttermpiletest
loadingusinganchoragesasareactionsystem.
Temporaryanchorageswithaservicelifeofsayuptotwo
yearswhere,althoughtheconsequencesoffailurearequite
serious,thereisnodangerto'publicsafetywithoutadequate
warninge.g.retainingwalltieback.
Permanentanchoragesandtemporaryanchorageswhere
corrosionriskishighand/ortheconsequencesoffailureare
serious,e.g.maincablesofasuspensionbridgeorasa
reactionforliftingheavystructuralmembers.

Minimumsafetyfactor
Grout/tendonor
Ground/
grout/
Tendon
grout
encapsulation
interface
interface

Proof
load
factor

1.40

2.0

2.0

1.10

1.60

2.5*

2.5*

1.25

2.00

3.0t

3.0*

1.50

*Minimumvalueof2.0maybeusediffullscalefieldtestsareavailable.
Mayneedtoberaisedto4.0tolimitgroundcreep.
NOTE1.Incurrentpracticethesafetyfactorofananchorageistheratiooftheultimateloadtodesignload.Table2abovedefinesminimumsafetyfactorsatall
themajorcomponentinterfacesofananchoragesystem.
NOTE2.Minimumsafetyfactorsfortheground/groutinterfacegenerallyliebetween2.5and4.0.However,itispermissibletovarythese,shouldfullscalefield
tests(trialanchoragetests)providesufficientadditionalinformationtopermitareduction.
NOTE3.Thesafetyfactorsappliedtotheground/groutinterfaceareinvariablyhighercomparedwiththetendonvalues,theadditionalmagnituderepresentinga
marginofuncertainty.

60

Trial of Ground anchorages

Recommended load increments and minimum periods of observation for proving
tests on anchorages where the ground conditions are not known, or prior experience
of anchoring does not exist
It is recommended that load-displacement results should be plotted as the test
proceeds. In this way it should be possible at an early stage to observe trends & in
particular, the yield of the fixed anchor as failure approaches.

61

Trial of Ground anchorages

Recommended load increments and minimum periods of observation for proving
tests on anchorages where previous anchorage knowledge is available
Note: As an alternative use next figure where Tw is known.

62

Trial of Ground anchorages

Recommended load increments and minimum periods of observation for on-site
suitability tests
Temporary anchorage

Permanent anchorage

63

Acceptance criteria for disp. of tendon @ anchor head

For residual load-time behavior

For displacement-time behavior @ residual load

64

Apparent free tendon length

Apparent free tendon length may be calculated from the load elastic displacement
curve over the range 80% to 5% using the manufacturers value of elastic modulus
and allowing for the effects of temperature, bedding of the anchor head and other
extraneous movements.
Where working load, Tw, is known, the analysis should be carried out on the loaddisplacement curve over the range 125%Tw to 10%Tw for temporary & 150%Tw to
10%Tw for permanent anchorages respectively.
The analysis should be based on the destressing stage of the results of the 2nd or
subsequent unloading cycles. Any difference between the calculated apparent free
length and the free length intended in the design should be stated. For simplicity in
practice the equation to calculate the apparent free tendon length is:

AtE s
T

where
At is the cross section area of the tendon:
Es is the manufacturers elastic modulus for the tendon unit;
e is the elastic displacement of the tendon, where e is equated to the
displacement monitored at peak cycle load minus the displacement at datum
load, after allowing for structural movement.
T is the peak cycle load minus datum load.
65

Acceptance criteria
Apparent free tendon length limits. The apparent free tendon
length calculated should be not less than 90% of the free
length intended in the design nor more than the intended free
length plus 50% of tendon bond length intended in the design
or 110% of the intended free tendon length. The latter upper
limit takes account of relatively short encapsulated tendon
bond lengths and fully decoupled tendons with an end plate or
nut.
Where the observed free tendon length falls outside the limits,
a further 2 load cycles up to the proof load should be carried
out in order to gauge reproducibility of the load-displacement
data. If the anchorage behaves consistently in an elastic
manner, the anchorage need not be abandoned.

66

On-site acceptance criteria

Generally every anchorage used should be subjected to an acceptance test in
accordance with BS8081 clause 11.4.2 to 11.4.7, except rock bolts where 1% to 5%
of the anchorages may be loaded to the proof load (but see also 11.1 and 11.3.2).
checked for fixed anchor displacement (see 11.4.11) and then locked off at 110% Tw.
Load-displacement data should be plotted continuously over the range 10% Tw to
125% Tw for temporary anchorages and 10% Tw to 150% Tw for permanent ones,
using load increments of not more than 50% Tw with displacements carefully
monitored. During unloading, displacements at not less than two load decrements,
in addition to datum, should be measured preferably occurring at one third points
with respect to proof loads.
Each stage loading in the 1st cycle should be held only for the time necessary to
record the displacement. Each stage loading in the 2nd cycle should be held for at
least 1 min and the displacement recorded at the beginning and end of each period.
For proof loads, this period is extended to at least 15 mm, with an intermediate
displacement reading at 5 min.
On completion of the 2nd load cycle, reload in one operation to 110 % T and lockoff. Reread the load immediately after lock-off to establish the initial residual load.
This moment represents zero time of monitoring load/displacement-time behaviour
(see 11.4.6 and 11.4.7).
67

On-site acceptance criteria

Recommended load increments and minimum periods of
observation for on-site acceptance tests

(a) Temporary anchorage

(b) Permanent anchorage

68

Acceptance criteria
Residual load-time data: Using monitoring equipment with a relative accuracy of
0.5 %, the residual load may be monitored at 5, 15 & 50 minutes.
Pass: If the rate of load loss reduces to 1 % or less per time interval for these
specific observation periods.
If the rate of load loss exceeds 1 %, further readings may be taken at observation
periods up to 10 days. If, after 10 days, the anchorage fails to hold its load, the
anchorage should be deemed to have failed. After an investigation as to the cause of
failure and dependent upon the circumstances, the anchorage should be:
(a) abandoned and replaced; or
(b) reduced in capacity; or
(c) subjected to a remedial restressing programme.
Where prestress gains are recorded after 1 day, monitoring should continue to
ensure stabilization of prestress within a load increment of 10%Tw. Should the gain
exceed 10%Tw, a careful diagnosis is required to ascertain the cause and it will be
prudent to monitor the overall structure/ground/anchorage system. If, for
example, overloading progressively increases due to insufficient anchorage capacity
in design or failure of a slope, then additional support is required to stabilize the
overall anchorage system. Destressing to working load should be carried out as
prestress values approach proof loads, e.g. 120%Tw and 140%Tw in the case of
temporary and permanent anchorages, respectively, accepting that movement may
continue until additional support is provided.
69

Excavation methods and support systems

Empirical method for approximate location of fixed
anchor zone in soils

70

Excavation methods and support systems

Empirical method for approximate location of fixed
anchor zone in soils

71

Excavation methods and support systems

Typical anchorage geometry using wedge method of
analysis (BS8081)

72

Excavation methods and support systems

Stability analysis for determining the free and total
anchorage length.

73

Excavation methods and support systems

Tied-back wall in rocks &
method of failure control
Rock bolting at toe of wall
Pre-boring to excavation base level

74

Excavation methods and support systems

Principal failure modes in
rock cuts and slopes

75

Excavation methods and OVERALL STABILITY

When the difference in ground level is small, it may be
sufficient to ensure that the top frame is set sufficiently
deep so that the excess active pressure from the high
side can be resisted by developing passive resistance
from the soil at the same level on the low side.

Overall stability with difference in ground level

76

Excavation methods and OVERALL STABILITY

Excess active pressure may be transferred to a lower
level on the opposite side of the cofferdam by means of
raking struts. Alternatively, the unbalanced active
pressure can be resisted by ground anchors installed
from the top frame level into the soil on the high side.

Overall stability, raking struts or tie rods

77

Excavation methods and OVERALL STABILITY

Possibility of overall circular slip failure must be checked. The
toes of the sheet piles must intercept the critical slip circle,
which means that the part of the circle in front of the line of the
piles becomes ineffective and the shear strength it would have
contributed must be replaced by passive resistance from the
piles. A check on the slip circle passing under the toes of the
piles should be carried out to ensure an adequate factor of
safety.

Overall stability, circular slip instability

78

Excavation methods and OVERALL STABILITY

Overall stability, circular slip instability caused by Surcharge Overloading of Embankment

79

Excavation methods and OVERALL STABILITY

Overall stability, circular slip instability caused by Surcharge Overloading of Embankment

80

Effects of wall and prop stiffness

This figure illustrates the effects of wall stiffness on earth
pressure & movements for a singly-propped wall with an
infinitely stiff prop soil-structure interaction
Top-down
construction

81

Effects of wall and prop stiffness

Max. wall deflection H/Excavation Depth H

Chart for estimating maximum lateral wall movements and ground surface
settlements for support systems in clays (from Clough and ORourke, 1990).

EI
Increasing System Stiffness
4
w havg
82

Effects of wall and prop stiffness

Stiffness of a support system have a significant effect on the
magnitudes of the pressures to be resisted & the ground
movements.
As the wall stiffness reduces, movements increase & earth
pressures redistribute. Redistribution, which reduces earth
pressure behind the central portion of the wall & increases it at
the top of the wall behind the prop.
Earth pressure redistribution in turn leads to a substantial
reduction in wall bending moments but with increased wall
movements.
The effects of the wall & prop stiffness on bending moments &
movements also depend very much on the propping &
excavation sequences. For a typical multi-propping wall, once
the wall is stiff enough the soil will tend to move by a similar
amount regardless of how stiff the wall itself becomes. Further
stiffening the wall will increase the bending moments rather
than reduce movements.
83

Wall types for temporary & permanent soil support in

basement construction
There is a range of wall types to
fulfill either temporary or both
temporary and permanent soil
support. Their availability varies
geographically according to
market demand, predominating
subsoil conditions and specialist
local labor resources.

84

85

Road Settlement as results of Ground Loss

86

Types of walls - Sheet piles

The economic choice of sheet piles for basement and cut-&-cover
construction depends primarily on soil conditions, depth of
excavation and any restrictions on noise and vibration. Recent
changes to available sections by steel producers have increased
the flexural strength of sheet piles, and developments in pile
installation methods (using hydraulic clamps and ram
equipment) have reduced installation noise and vibration
compared with conventional driven operations. These changes,
together with improved methods of sealing pile clutches, have
led to the greater use of sheet piles with high standards of water
resistance even in water-bearing ground.
The use of sheet piles coupled with structural steel sections (e.g.
H soldier piles) produces walls of considerable flexural strength
and finds particular application in excavation works where high
bending capacity is needed.

87

Types of walls - Sheet piles - Installation

Drop hammers

Hydraulic hammers

Rapid blow hammers Vibratory pile drivers

Sheet pile presses

88

Types of walls - Sheet piles type

Straight Web sections

U & Z sections

Combination HZ ...-12/AZ18 & ...-24/AZ18

Combination C1

PAZ sections

PAL and PAU sections

http://www.arcelor.com/sheetpiling/index.cfm?fuseaction=Products.U
http://www.skylinesteel.com/products/wall_systems/default.aspx
http://www.hlcorp.com.sg/hlatest/hlanew/operation_steel_upile.htm
89

Sheet piles - Nippon Steel

90

Sheet piles - Nippon Steel

Composite & Combined Properties

91

Sheet piles - Nippon Steel

92

Types of walls King post or soldier piles

Walls for temporary soil support during construction using soldiers, or king
posts, of (H) steel sections with horizontal timbers spanning between them
(or reinforced concrete skin walls spanning between king posts) are used
extensively in non-water-bearing ground. The soldier piles may cantilever for
shallow excavations or may be propped with rakers, bracing or ground
anchors for deeper excavations. The wall is often used as a permanent back
shutter to the permanent reinforced concrete basement wall.

Soldier Piles with Horizontal or Vertical Sheeting (lagging)

93

Types of walls King post or soldier piles

Various methods of locating the sheeting or lagging

94

Excavation - Soldier pile with sheetpile lagging

95

Soldier Pile with Sheet Pile & Guniting

Treatment of Diaphragm Wall Joint at Slab Connection

96

Types of walls Contiguous bored piles

Closely spaced bored in-situ concrete piles, installed by auger or Continuous
flight auger provide an economical wall for excavations of moderate depth in
subsoils that are easily drilled and where free groundwater is limited.
Availability of powerful rotary machines has promoted the use of this lowcost system at greater depth, with minimum installation noise and vibration.
Where groundwater is likely to seep into the gaps (100-200mm) between
piles, it may be necessary to plug them with in-situ grouting behind and
between the piles.
Contiguous bored piling must be lined or faced with a reinforced concrete
wall if there is risk of water ingress or loss of loose soil through the gaps
between piles. Independent blockwork walls with a drained cavity may also
be used.

97

Types of walls Secant pile

Formed by installing bored piles on a hit-and-miss basis at pile
centres slightly less than pile diameter. The initial female piles
may be concreted with normal mix concrete (hard-hard secant
wall) or with a weaker grade concrete allowing the male piles to
cut the secant area into the female pile cross-section with less
effort (hard-soft secant wall).
Secant pile walls are preferred in granular water-bearing soils,
where contiguous piles are unlikely to be satisfactory.
Constructing guide walls for secant pile installation involves
additional time and expense.

98

Types of walls Diaphragm walls

The use of slurry-supported trench filled with tremied concrete
to provide a wall for both temporary and permanent soil
retention.
important improvements in excavation and slurry cleaning
equipment. In particular, the use of cutter-mill excavation
equipment based on the reverse circulation of soil cuttings and
slurry has allowed the construction of structural walls more than
60m with exacting standards of vertical tolerance (between 1:200
and 1:400).
Early developments in diaphragm wall design included the use of
precast post-tensioned wall elements and post-tensioned in-situ
walls. Neither of these innovations has found favor although the
improved surface finish of precast elements and the reduction of
reinforcement quantities in post-tensioned walls may prove
advantageous.

99

INSTALLATION OF DIAPHRAGM WALL

100

 Roof Slab: Importance of sealing / grouting this particular zone (circled in

green) to block the water path.

Treatment of Diaphragm Wall Joint at Slab Connection

101

 Base Slab: Importance of sealing / grouting this particular zone (circled in green) to
block the water path

Treatment of Diaphragm Wall Joint at Slab Connection

102

Plan view

Elevation view

Treatment of Diaphragm Wall Joint at Slab Connection

103

Treatment of Diaphragm Wall Joint at Slab Connection

104

COFFERDAMS
The function of a cofferdam is to exclude soil and water from an excavation
to facilitate construction. Total exclusion of water is rarely necessary, but the
effect of water ingress should be included in the design calculations. With
good design and construction, single skin cofferdams can be used in marine
conditions, but for large excavations in marine works, double skin earth filled
cofferdams may be preferable. The following requirements must be fulfilled:
1.

must withstand the loads upon it

2.

water entering the cofferdam must be controllable with reasonable

pumping

3.

the formation level must be stable and not subject to excessive heave or
to boiling

4.

deflection of the cofferdam walls and any internal framing must not
interfere with construction of the permanent works, and must not be
detrimental to existing adjacent structures or services

5.

the cofferdam must have overall stability against unbalanced earth

pressure or ground movements such as circular slip
105

COFFERDAMS

Types of single skin sheet pile cofferdams

106

COFFERDAMS

Double wall earth-filled cofferdams

107

Types of walls - Sheet piles - Tie Back System

1 Plain tie-rod
2 Upset end tie rod
3 Nut
4 Turnbuckle
5 Coupling sleeve
6 Bearing plate
7 Bearing plate on concrete
8 Waling
9 Spacer
10 Supporting console
11 Splice
12 Splicing bolt
Temporary cofferdams generally use walers &
struts to cross-brace the inside excavation.
Permanent or large retaining walls are often
tied back to an anchor wall installed at a
certain distance behind the wall.

13 Fixing bolt
14 Fixing plate
15 Fixing plate
108

COFFERDAMS

Types of internal support for cofferdams with straight sides

109

COFFERDAMS
Types of circular cofferdams

110

COFFERDAMS - Circular walings

Circular walings are ring beam. In practice they will probably vary from a
true circle and therefore subject to some eccentric loading. The following
equation is for calculating the size of waling.

1.5 EI
kN / m
3
5
R 10

Where
W = Safe radial waling load in kN/m run
E = Youngs Modulus of waling material in N/mm
I = Moment of inertia about x-x axis in cm4
R = Radius on centre line of cofferdam piles in metres

Wu

k EI
kN / m
3
5
R 10

where Wu is the ultimate radial waling load and k is a factor, the value of which is
dependent on the stiffness of the retained medium. 3 is the value for water, e.g.
marine cofferdam. Progressively higher values are, in theory, applicable for
weak/medium/strong soils. However, it is common practice to use the value of 3,
to which a factor of safety of 2 is applied. Hence the value of 1.5 in the basic
formula.
111

COFFERDAMS - Circular walings

The ring beam can tolerate very little distortion from a true circle before the onset
of catastrophic instability. Hence the empirical rule: d D/35
where d is the depth of the ring beam, i.e. the difference between the outer and
inner radii of the beam, and D is the diameter of the cofferdam (i.e. the diameter
of the inner face of the piles).
When the sheet piles or wall deflect to any great extent then the load on the
walings will be concentrated at the top or bottom of the waling and will induce
torsion. This should be checked in the design.

112

Reinforced concrete walings for circular cofferdams

The tabulated safe loads are based on:

1. The pemissible compressive stress in the concrete not exceeding 5.2 N/mm.
2. W = 1.5 EI/105R Where W = waling load in kN/m, E = Youngs Modulus
for concrete = 13,800 N/mm, I = Moment of inertia about xx axis in cm4
3. R = Radius of cofferdam in metres
4. Depth of beam d to be not less than D/35.
113