3.

FRACTURE MECHANICS CONCEPTS

The wellknown three fracture mechanics concepts they are the stress intensity
factor for linear elastic materials crack opening displacement (COD) and
Jintegral for elasticplastic materials.

3.1 Stress Intensity Factor ()

Many years after the Griffith fracture criterion for ideally brittle materials was
established, Irwin suggested a modification that would extend the Griffith theory to
metals exhibiting plastic deformation. He examined the equations that had been
developed for the stresses in the vicinity of a sharp crack in a large plate as illustrated
in Fig.(3.1) .

Fig. (3.1) crack in an infinite plate

The equations for the elastic stress distribution at the crack tip are as follows:
=
=

1
(2)2

1
(2)2

=
And
=

1
(2)2

1
(2)2

cos ( 2) [1 + sin ( 2) sin ( 2 )]

cos (2) [1 sin ( 2) sin ( 2 )]

cos ( 2) cos (2) cos ( 2 )

cos (2)

Plane strain

3.1
3.2
3.3

Or
= 0

Plane stress

Fig. (3.2) stress distribution at the crack tip

AS should be expected.in the elastic case the stresses are proportional to the external
stress . They vary with the square root of the crack size and they tend to infinity at
the crack tip where r is small. The distribution of the stress as a function of r at =
0 is illustrated in figure 3.2. For large r the stress approaches zero, while it should
go to .Apparently. eq. (3.1) are valid only for a limited area around the crack tip.
Each of the equations represents the first term of a series. In the vicinity of the crack tip
these first terms give a sufficiently accurate description of the crack tip stress fields.
Irwin has developed the stress intensity factor and defined as
=
3.4
Where:
o normal stress.
a half crack length.
Y geometry factor depends on the crack configuration.
The factor is known as "stress intensity factor" is mean of characterizing the elastic
stress distribution near the crack tip but itself has no physical reality. Its depends on the
3

configuration of the system and has units of 2 and should not be confused with the
elastic stress concentration factor . Where the subscript I stands mode I. Broek[2]
quotes interesting statistics, according to which 90% of the engineering problems
involving fracture mechanics are of the Mode I type, another 8% of the combined-mode
type, which, immediately upon initiation of loading, transform into Mode I crack
behavior.

Fig. (3.3) opening mode

The whole stress field at the crack tip is known when the stress intensity factor is
known.
Crack extension will occur when the stresses and strains at the crack tip reach a critical
value. This means that fracture must he expected to occur when reaches a critical
value . The critical may be expected to be a material parameter.
If is a material parameter the same value should be found by testing another
specimen of the same material but with a different size of the crack. Within certain
limits this is indeed the case. On the basis of this value the fracture strength of
cracks of any size in the same material can he predicted. It can also be predicted which
size of crack can be tolerated in the material if stressed to a given level.
is a measure for the crack resistance of a material. Therefore is called the "plane
strain fracture toughness". Materials with low fracture toughness can tolerate only small
cracks.
According to the elastic stress field solutions discussed in the previous which that the
stresses become infinite at the crack tip where r<< . In practice, this cannot occur
materials (especially metals) tend to exhibit a yield stress, above which they deform
Plastically. This means that there is always a region around the tip of a crack in a metal,
where plastic deformation occurs, and hence a stress keeps finite .The plastic region is
known as the crack tip plastic zone.

Fig. (3.4) stress distribution at the crack tip due to plastic zone
Irwin has argued that the occurrence of plasticity makes the crack behave as if it were
longer than its physical size. As a result of crack tip plasticity the displacements are
larger and the stiffness is lower than in the elastic case. In other words, the plate
behaves as if it contained a crack of somewhat larger size. The effective crack size,
, is equal to + . the physical crack size plus a correction . The quantity is
known as Irwins plastic zone correction. Assuming for the time being that the plastic
zone has a circular shape, the situation can be represented as in figure (3.4). where the
effective crack extends to the center of the plastic zone. If the plastic zone correction
is applied consistently a correction to K is also necessary.
1

= 2 ( )

= 6 ( )

Plane stress

3.5

Plane strain

3.6

3.2 The crack opening displacement criterion (COD)

High strength materials usually have a low fracture toughness. Plane strain fracture
problems in these materials can be successfully treated by means of the fracture
mechanics procedures described in the two foregoing sections. These procedures are
known as the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) concepts. Since they are based
on elastic stress field equation The latter can be used if the size of the crack tip plastic
zone is small compared to the size of the crack. According to eq. (3.5) the plastic zone
size is proportional to 2 /2 low strength. low yield strength materials usually have a

high toughness. This means that the size of the plastic zone at fracture ( = ) may
be so large as compared to the crack size that LEFM do not apply. The latter is the case
2
if approaches unity. (The size of the plastic zone is also proportional to( ) .
At present, a versatile method to treat crack problems in high toughness materials is not
yet available. Wells has introduced the crack opening displacement (COD) concept for
such materials. Supposedly. Crack extension can take place when the material at the
crack tip has reached a maximum permissible plastic strain.
Crack extension or fracture is assumed to occur as soon as the crack opening
displacement exceeds a critical value. It can easily be equivalent this criterion to the
and criterion in the case where LEFM apply. This gives some confidence for
the supposed general validity. In the present stage of development, one of the
drawbacks of the COD criterion is the fact that it does not permit direct calculation of
a fracture stress. The critical COD for high toughness. Low strength materials is
primarily a comparative toughness parameter.
Dugdale also considers an effective crack which is longer than the physical crack as in
figure 3.5. The crack edge p. in front of the physical crack carry the yield stress. Tending
to close the crack. (The part p is not really cracked; the material can still bear the yield
stress). The size of p is chosen such that the stress singularity disappears. K should be
zero. This means that the stress intensity due to the uniform stress has to be
compensated by the stress intensity , due to the wedge forces :
=

Figure( 3.5) Dugdale approach

a. Dugdale crack:

b. Wedge forces

Wells criterion is not in contradiction with LEFM. In the case of LEFM the elastic
solution for the crack opening displacement (COD) can still be used. The displacement
of the crack surfaces (figure 3.6)

Fig. 3.6 crack opening displacement

= 2 =

2 2

3.7

By applying a plastic zone correction, it follows that

=

( + ) 2

3.8

Where + is the effective crack size and where the origin of the coordinate
system is at the centre of the crack. The crack tip opening displacement at the tip of
the physical crack is found for x=a. Since It turns out that:

3.9

A displacement of the origin of the coordinate system to the crack tip yields the
general expression for crack opening:
=

3.10

CTOD then follows from = and leading to eq. 3.9

Substitution of = 2 2 2 yields:
4 2

3.11

Eq (3.11) holds in the area of LEFM: fracture occurs if = which according to

eq (3.11) is at a constant value of CTOD and it appears that Wells criterion applies in
LEFM.
Use of the criterion in LEFM would require measurement of CTOD. A direct
measurement of CTOD is difficult and virtual1y impossible in a routine test. It can be
obtained indirectly by measuring K and using eq. (3.11). That would imply acceptation

of the factor 4/ introduced by the plastic zone correction. The critical crack tip opening
displacement has been related to the critical values of fracture toughness.In general:
=

2
(12 )

3.12

Where the factor (1 - 2 ) can be deleted In plane stress situations and is a constant
constraint factor which theoretical analyses have shown to be in the range 12 and
which experimental measurement have shown to be approximately unity for both plane
stress and plane strain situations.

3.3 The - integral

So far, the discussions were limited to the case of linear elastic behavior with essentially
no crack tip plasticity. if there is appreciable plasticity. cannot be determined from
the elastic stress field, since may be affected considerably by the crack tip plastic
zone . Solutions for elastic-plastic behavior are not available, however, within certain
limitations; the -integral provides a means to determine an energy release rate for
cases where plasticity effects are not negligible.

Fig. 3.7 crack tip coordinate system and arbitrary line integral contour
Eshelby has defined a number of contour integrals which are path independent by
virtue of the theorem of energy conservation. The two-dimensional form of one of
these integrals can be written as:

= ( )

3.13

With

= (, ) = () = 0

3.14

Where
p=is a closed contour path surrounding the crack tip followed counter clockwise in a
stressed solid, W = is the strain energy per Unit volume, T= is the tension vector
(traction) perpendicular to n in the outside direction, u= is the displacement in the xdirection, and s= is an element of p (arc length).
From a more physical viewpoint may be interpreted as the potential energy difference
between two identically loaded bodies having crack size () and (+). In this context
1

3.15

Where
= material width and =strain energy or work done (area under the loaddisplacement curve ).
Naturally, in the linear elastic case = and therefore also = 2 .
Thus, one can postulate that crack growth or fracture occurs if exceeds a critical
value , which is analogous to, . and equal to if the material is essentially
linear elastic. Hence, if one would accept the limitations, would be a fracture criterion
applicable to linear elastic as well as to plastic fracture. Measurement of in the
elastic case is simple, because of its relationship to and . So, whether or not
can be used as a more general criterion depends upon whether can be measured
easily for a material that shows appreciable plasticity. In addition, of course, the
limitations of non-linear elasticity to deal with crack plasticity should be acceptable.
But this object out of interesting.
The following equation are frequently used to relate the various fracture toughness
parameters:
2

= = =

3.16

Where
=

for plane stress

= (12 )

for plane strain