Application of Tracers in Arid Zone Hydrology (Proceedings of the Vienna Symposium,

August 1994). IAHS Publ. no. 232, 1995. 211

RIETHM: Radioisotope Environmental Tracer

Hydrology Model using exponential and dispersion
methods

FAHMY M. HUSSEIN
Cairo University, Faculty of Agriculture, Soil and Water Department, Cairo, Egypt

Abstract A method for quantitative estimation of aquifer and ground-

water hydrological parameters using radioactive environmental isotopes
is presented in the form of a menu-driven interactive program, written to
solve lumped parameter mathematical problems, using the EXCEL* soft-
ware, which can run on Macintosh and PC-compatible computers. The
input function and mathematical formulae are stored in a work sheet for
updating computed values and the macro selects the calculation pathway.
The program solves the direct problem by a selected model using input
concentrations, the response function and radioactive decay. The inverse
problem could be solved through a trial and error technique. With higher
number of tracer data points sampled at longer observation time, a closer
estimation of the residence time and the dispersion parameter could be
obtained. The program is intended to be used with the assumptions: the
system is a homogeneous porous aquifer, water flow is in the steady
state, the tracer is "operationally" ideal with respect to the calculated
parameters, the tracer natural injection is proportional to water inflow,
the tracer output is proportional to water outflow (except for the CFR
dispersive model), the number of the "fitting" parameters is small, the
precision of the input function is high enough (either affected or not by
thermonuclear tests), the weighting function of the tracer and that of
groundwater are similar, the tracer residence time is equivalent to that of
groundwater (except for the CFR dispersive model) and sources and sinks
of the tracer do not disturb the system. The model has been tested using
the input function of an intrusive river in the southern hemisphere.
Tritium data collection and interpretation is recommended in these
regions in order to make use of the last favourable concentrations of this
tracer.

INTRODUCTION

Before and after the large-scale thermonuclear injection of tritium into the atmospheric
moisture, this environmental tracer has widely been used in studying many hydrological
systems. Beginning from the 1960s, its presence in considerable amounts in groundwater
samples is considered as a clear qualitative indication of recent recharge and, in some
cases, as a sign of probable recent pollution events. On a quantitative basis, it can be
employed in the calculation of the mean residence time of the stored groundwater as well
212 Fahmy M. Hussein

as other aquifer parameters. Works like that of Erikson (1958) show the use of tritium,
at its background level, in studying drainage basins with short transit times. Despite the
fact that tritium thermonuclear injection belongs to the past, recent studies (e.g.
Herrmann, 1986; Maloszewski, 1992) illustrate that the application of tritium output
observations in the interpretation of groundwater systems is still an active field of
investigation.
This will continue to be so for several years, especially when refined measurements,
modelling techniques and time-series tritium data are available. Computer models that
deal with groundwater isotope hydrological problems are still few in number. The
increasing availability of powerful spreadsheet software on personal computers intro-
duces an advantage in user-friendly automation of several types of current hydrological
and geochemical isotope investigations such as water-balance (Dexter & Avery, 1991)
and some isotopic calculations (Carrol & Rock, 1991). The present work proposes a
macro, work sheet and graphic approach (Radioisotope Environmental Tracer Hydro-
logy Model: RIETHM) for environmental tritium data use in terms of an explicit solu-
tion of the direct problem and an implicit solution of the inverse problem for three
conceptual mathematical models which serve extensively in isotope hydrological evalua-
tion of aquifer parameters.

ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOISOTOPE HYDROLOGICAL MODELLING

Modelling of groundwater flow and dissolved species transport (Bear & Verruijt, 1987)
contributes much to our understanding of the characteristics and behaviour of the aquifer
under different conditions and its response to natural and manmade stresses. Water flow
and solute transport in the unsaturated zone are active fields of prediction of the spatial
and temporal soil-moisture content and potential changes as well as solute and contami-
nant transfer in the aeration zone (Hussein, 1990). The prediction of these processes
involves the application of a conceptual model written in a mathematical form and
mainly solved by convenient numerical methods (Fig. 1) since the analytical solutions
are restricted to a few idealized conditions. The wide spectrum of hydrological
modelling has been classified by Clark (1973) (cited in Loagne & Green, 1991) in two
main categories: (a) type of model; and (b) user point of view. The types includes two
sets: (i) high precision models (conceptual and stochastic); and (ii) less precise models
(deterministic and empirical or experimental). From the user's point of view, there are
the research models (theoretically-based), the engineering models (executive) and the
field models (very simplified).
The models frequently encountered in thefieldof environmental isotope studies are
of two conceptual types: (a) distributed parameter models; and (b) black box models
(lumped parameter models). The last type ignores the details of what happens inside the
probably different components of the natural system and deals only with the comparison
between the input and the output content of the tracer and with the interpretation of the
shift of the input content towards the output content due to the global effect of some
suspected physical and/or chemical change under the constraints of the flow regime. In
the lumped parameter models, the number of parameters involved is usually small, so
inverse problems could be readily solved and confidence is put in their physical
meaning. On the contrary, with distributed parameter models, despite the interest put
 RIETHM: Radioisotope Environmental Tracer Hydrology Model 213

The Problem in The Natural System

"Water Flow and Solute Transport in Soils"

In a Given Domain at The Macroscopic Level

Process
Concepts
T !
Governing liquations and
Needed Coefficients
Flux and Mass-Balance
Equations that do not contain
any information related to
v any specific case of flow
Space & Time
1A Conceptual Model ( Limits
(i.e.a set of assumptions representing
our understanding of the real system) Equations of Initial
and Boundary Conditions
«*-
*v **
G
to obtain solution of a
particular case of flow

Numerical Model Usin;

)

Mathematical Model -go. Finite Differerences

Finite Elements or
Qa set of partial differential equations)^ Net-Work Method

Set of Algebric%

pj&- Field or Laboratory

c Equations

Iteration Methods
and Programing Language I

Analytical
Solutions
Jp*-
Comparisons'
Observations

-Comparisons-
h. Comparisons-
Code on a Computer
| Approximate [
Solutions

* Equations of boundary conditions express the physical reality of the domain under study,
they are imposed by the enviroment.
* * Stochastic treatment may also be needed to account for uncertainties.

Fig. 1 Numeric and analytical solutions of water flow and solute problems in the
unsaturated zone.

into solving the direct problem, less confidence is put in them for solving inverse
problems due to the large number of fitness parameters which could have no physical
meaning (Zuber, 1986).
The quantitative treatment of environmental radioactive tracer data in the interpreta-
tion of groundwater systems is also based on conceptual models. Invariably, each
conceptual model is written in the from of a mathematical model which is composed of
the weighting function, the input function and the radioactive decay term, all under the
sign of the convolution integration (equation 2). The weighting function is the major
piece of information which distinguishes one model from another (Maloszoweski et al.,
1982; Zuber, 1986). It reflects the system response to recharge and demonstrates our
concept of how the aquifer (fed by a certain tracer input content) determines the tracer
output content (other than the effect of the radioactive decay) as a function of the system
of flow. Obviously, the selection of a given weighting function must be consistent with
the major groundwater flow conditions and the prevailing hydrogeological characteris-
tics of the studied aquifer. A number of idealized situations are more frequently
encountered and conceptual models are known for them. Serial and parallel combina-
tions of the simple situations are also known (Richter & Szymczak, 1992) with the
combined models being more convenient for more realistic situations. However, with
the exception of the linear model (which has only a theoretical value but has no real
214 Fahmy M. Hussein

world application) and the piston flow model (which is oversimplified to be used for
most natural systems), the exponential and the dispersion models (CFF and CFR) are the
most intensively used basic models and they are frequently used as components in most
of the combined models. They are currently first tested by most isotope hydrologists
before trying the more involved combined models, so there is a need for a user-friendly
code which makes the task of testing these models easier.
The use of these models is justified by the adoption of some assumptions about the
flow regime such as steady state flow and aquifer homogeneity and the acceptance of a
given tracer as if it was an ideal tracer in the sense that its behaviour is identical to the
behaviour of the studied fluid.

MATHEMATICAL MODELS

In the case of constant tracer input concentration during time, the output tracer content
is calculated using the analytical solution (Erikson, 1958) of the exponential model:

C = '"Put (la)
^output l+\T

and for the residence time T, this formula is written:

r(years) = C
'V'~C<"»P" (lb)
"^output
For the case of variable input contents (as for tritium and radiocarbon inputs which have
been subjected to thermonuclear peaks), the convolution integration (Maloszewski &
Zuber, 1982; Zuber, 1986) is used. In its general form it is written as follows:
a

Qf^t, output ~ | Q(t-t),output-^(t-t^jnpufi

fi(^. -St'-®* ^ '

where Q, t, C,t — t' and t' are: discharge, output time (year), tracer content, the year
of input, and the time interval (transit time) between the year of input and the that of
output, respectively. CM, is the tracer input concentration for the year (t — t'), X is the
decay constant of the radioactive tracer, and gt, is the weighting function.
In the steady state, for the construction of the output function using input concentra-
tions corresponding to dates separated by unit time interval (one year or one month
according to the available input data), this equation reads:
a
=
Ct,output C(t_t^inpu[e -gt/-Qt v ;

Introducing a very small value for the X term, this integral could be used for the predic-
tion of the output content of a non-radioactive tracer (Richter & Szymczak, 1992)
knowing its variable time-series input values.
Integration formulae could be solved by either analytical or numerical methods with
numerical methods being in some cases the only possible solutions due to obstacles
preventing an analytical solution. In contrast to the elegant and continuous nature of the
 R1ETHM: Radioisotope Environmental Tracer Hydrology Model 215

studied domain in analytical solutions (which are applied to limited cases defined by
several assumptions), numerical solutions have a discrete nature for both the input and
the output and they have moreflexibleand wider applications (Bear & Verruijt, 1987).
Numerical integration is convenient when we have a discrete set of observations
(like the tritium content time series of the input function with each concentration corres-
ponding to a certain point in time). Numerical integration begins with the substitution
of a simple polynomial for the function to be integrated, (i.e. the polynomial becomes
the integrand, Griffith & Smith, 1991).
For one variable function, this substitution leads to the following expression:
b b
(3)
JMàx = J g„-iC*)d*
a a

with:

2„-i(*) = a0 + aix + a2x2 + :..+an_lxn-1 (4)

The polynomial could easily be numerically integrated to yield a reasonable approxi-
mate solution, since only summation of the multiplication products involved is needed,
as shown by the following expression, which is the basic form of the numerical integra-
tion for single variable functions:
b
ôn-lW^ = E W ^ n - A ) (5)

so:

\Ax)àx Ë=i wfaù (6)

with/Çx,) as the observed values at certain point i on the function/(x), and W{ as the
weighting coefficient at point i.
Generally, the type of the numerical integration is defined by the spacing of the
observation points and the number of these points. A special integration case is noted for
the situation where the integrand has an exponential function and the limits of integration
lie between zero and infinity. This special case is given by the Gausse-Laguerre integra-
tion (Griffith & Smith, 1991):
a
n
|e-3y(x)dx = Ç W ^ i ) (7)

with &'x as a weighting function.

The evaluation of the/(x) function is made only at the observation points in the
summation term. For the casejfy) = 1, this notation has the following properties:

«•=1 i=i

and the value of Wt decreases rapidly with the increase in number of observation points
216 Fahmy M. Hussein

(whereas in the Newton-Cotes rule, the Wt values are grouped systematically around the
integration range midpoint and Wt gives the integration range.

DEFINITION OF WEIGHTING FUNCTIONS

Dispersion models are more realistic in most natural porous aquifers since they account
for the physical reality by using the dispersion equation for describing the tracer trans-
port. The present program deals with two dispersion models of the four presented by
Maloszewski & Zuber (1982) and Zuber (1986), namely the CFF and CFR models (the
D a and Db models, respectively, of Richter & Szymczack, 1992). The dispersion para-
meter (D/vx) is the dimensionless hydrological parameter characteristic of the flow
domain in groundwater. In the lumped parameter models, it has a special meaning: the
ratio between the dispersion constant (D/v) (which may be thought of as a measure of
the aquifer heterogeneity or the length of the recharge zone (along the flow lines) and
the distance (x) between the recharge and the outflow (pumping) zones. For environ-
mental tracers (D/v) is the longitudinal dispersivity:

D/v = (DJT V) + ad + b (with D/v = b) (8)

where Dm is the coefficient of molecular diffusion; r is the tortuosity factor; d is the

mean grain diameter; a is a constant; b is characteristic of the aquifer, and v is the Darcy
velocity. For small scale artificial tracer injection, the b term is dropped out. D/V is a
dispersion constant (longitudinal dispersivity); D/vx is a dimensionless dispersion
parameter and D is the dispersion coefficient. D and Dm have the same dimensions
[L2 T 1 ].
The exponential model can be used as an approximation of the dispersion model
when the dispersion parameter (D/vx) is high whereas the piston flow model could be
considered as an approximation of the dispersion model when the D/vx is small (and
only under constant tracer input concentrations).
In the present program, the lower and the upper limit of the integration are defined
and changed on the work sheet by the control of the instructions in the macro-sheet
within a loop. The tritium input CM, corresponding to any given input year is read from
the input function zone in the work sheet and used in the loop progress. The program
is accompanied by instructions from the macro (given in Appendix A, whereas the
functions and formulae used in the work sheet are given in Appendix B). The selection
of an appropriate gt, function corresponding to the model required is controlled by the
user with two IF statements (in column J of the work sheet). (The Appendices and work-
sheet can be obtained by contacting the author.)
Three types of the weighting function are used in the program, namely:
that of the exponential model:

Sr-IEXO] = Ce""7) / T (9)

that of the CFF dispersion model:

8t,[CFF] —Alt (10)

 RIETHM: Radioisotope Environmental Tracer Hydrology Model 111

with:
AirtD T(l-t/T)2vx
vxT .exp ADt
where D is the dispersion coefficient (m year"1), v is the transit velocity = xlT; x
2

is the distance from the recharge zone to the outflow (sampling) site of the
abstracted groundwater; t is the time interval between the year of input and that of
output; and Tis the mean residence time; and
that of the CFR dispersion model:

&',[CFR] = (2^ - B)IT (11)

where A is as given above;

B = exp i+tn r
•erfc
2D ~D AtD' 'A
vxT
and erfc is the error function complement.
The CFF model is used when the measurement of the observed tritium is carried out
on samples taken from a pumping well, whereas the CFR model is used when the samples
are taken from a piezometer. In the present program, a rigorous analytical solution of
the erfc is used, after Lerman (1979). The columns F and Win the work sheet are used
in the calculation of erfc(x) and column Y selects the appropriate erfc(x) corresponding
to the range in which the x value exists.
For the case: 0 < x < 3, the analytical solution is:
1
erfcQc) (12)
(1 + axx+a^x2+Oy>c3 + a4x4 +„5x8
^x 3 ) 8
whereaj = 0.14112821; a2 = 0.08864027; a3 = 0.02743349; a4 = -0.00039446; and
a5 = 0.00328975. For the case where x > 3, the analytical solution is:
_v2
erfc(x) = 15 105 945 ^ 10365 (13)
+ . + .i 4 ^ 9
,3 o2v5 •)5„11
IT 2x> 2 V 2V 2V 2x3 266^13
X

In the practical treatment of diffusion-controlled processes, the diffusing substance

is initially distributed in given regions. As there is a clear description of diffusion
starting from a very thin plane (line source) with a mathematical formula that involves
an exponential distribution, the mathematical representation of diffusion starting from
a region could be obtained by integration of a successive infinite number of line sources
(Crank, 1957) giving rise to summation of the effect of a series of exponential distribu-
tions. The resulting form is similar to a well known mathematical function called the
error function complement erfc. The above-mentioned summation of an endless number
of line sources (each including an exponential distribution) is the appearance of the erfc
in the solution of diffusion-controlled problems.
In groundwater hydrology, there is no need for the mean age (ratio between the total
age of all the individuals in the system and the total number of these individuals).
Rather, a mean transit time (equations (14a), (14b), (14c)) as a ratio between the volu-
218 Fahmy M. Hussein

metric mobile water in the reservoir and the volumetric annual rate of flow (or annual
recharge rate under steady-state conditions) is needed. The interest in the mean turnover
time (mean residence time) is justified by the importance of the age of the mobile water
leaving the system by outflow and the lack of interest in the age of all the existing water.
Turnover time is used in almost all conceptual hydrological models, including those of
atmospheric moisture, lakes, ocean water and dissolved species (Harte, 1985) with
possible different values in functions of the processes involved in the same system.
„ ., . , s volume ofmobilewaterin aquifer(m3) n A „ \
Residencefime(year)= - ——-—- — U4&;
vol. annual rate ofGWflow or recharge (m3 year " ')
Residencetime(y^r) = thickness ofmobilewater in aquifer (m) (Uh)
annual rate ofGWflow or recharge (m year l)

Residencetime(y&i) = (thickness of aquifer (m)) * (effective porosity) (Uc)

annual rate ofGWflow or recharge (myear l)

Annualrecharge(my^) = (thickness of aquifer (m)) * (effectiveporosity) (14d)

residence rz'me(year)

QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETATION IN THE PROGRAM "RIETHM"

The quantitative interpretation of the isotope hydrological models used in this program
are based on:
(a) The solution of the direct problem where the user introduces the suggested value(s)
of the aquifer parameter(s). The macro displays two option screens for model
selection: if the the exponential model is selected, the program asks for the
residence time (T) in years. When selecting dispersion models, the user is asked to
choose either the CFF dispersion model or the CFR dispersion model. In either of two
last cases, in addition to the residence time, the user is asked for the suggested value
of the dispersion parameter (Dlvx). Solving the direct problem consists of producing
a predicted time-series of tritium output (the output function) which corresponds to
the mathematical formulae of a selected conceptual model.
(b) A trial and error solution of the inverse problem. The solution of the inverse
problem is more important than solving the direct problem since the investigator has
no a priori information on the value of the aquifer parameter (s). Best fit procedures
could be used (Richter & Szymczak, 1992) in order to obtain the least deviation
between the time-series observations and the output function curve predicted by the
selected conceptual model. When the best fit is obtained, it is assumed that the
values of the aquifer parameter(s) (used in predicting the output function curve) are
good estimates of these unknown physical parameter(s). Instead of the best fit
method, the user of the present program is invited to use a trial and error technique
by suggesting several sets of estimates of the aquifer parameter(s) and running the
program as many times as needed in order to obtain a set of output function curves
among which a curve which fairly coincides with the analytical tritium contents
(observed for samples taken from the aquifer studied) could be found.
 RIETHM: Radioisotope Environmental Tracer Hydrology Model 219

The ultimate purpose of the fitting of the time-series set of environmental tritium
data to a certain conceptual hydrological model (the mathematical expression that
predicts the output function curve) is the estimation of the residence time (and, in the
case of the dispersion models, the estimation of the dispersion parameter). In cases
where a paleo-water pole is suggested to outflow in the pumped water or when a
combined model is used, a mixing parameter could be estimated (for the paleo-pole
fraction or for a basic model contribution, respectively).
When residence time has been estimated, it provides the user with a direct device
to estimate the annual recharge rate, which is usually a difficult term to estimate through
the non-isotopic hydrological methods. The isotopic data provides a unique chance to
tackle this difficulty. However, the fitting of one point (or a few points) of the isotopic
observations (as is done in some cases) to the output curve predicted by a certain
conceptual model is risky, in particular when fitting problems could result when the
observation point(s) are in the decreasing sector of the peak and when slight modifica-
tion in the sample collection conditions and/or the model dispersion parameter term
gives rise to contradictory residence times. Moreover, erroneous evaluations could be
obtained when only the exponential model is used due to ignoring the role of the disper-
sion phenomenon.
The exponential model (first introduced by Erikson, 1958) is the conceptual hydro-
logical representation of an idealized case of an unconfined aquifer which receives
homogeneous infinite long-term recharge over all the area of its surface with the aquifer
being small, highly porous and homogeneous in depth and formation. Residence time
in the unsaturated zone should be trivial with respect to the total residence time. These
conditions generally lead to short residence times with flow lines having different
velocities, and the groundwater contains modern and older components. In this case, the
residence time distribution is exponential with the modern components being dominant
(in contrast to the linear distribution in the linear model where the contributions of the
modern and the old components are equal). The exponential model is equivalent to the
good mixing model known in industry and lake studies (Maloszewski & Zuber, 1982),
but bearing in mind that mixing takes place only at the site of groundwater outflow or
at the abstraction well, the exponential model (which assumes the equity of the tracer
transit time and water residence time) is accepted.
The above criteria exclude the use of the exponential model in many cases such as:
confined aquifers, coastal springs fed by high altitude precipitation, semi-confined
aquifers headed by a thick semi-permeable layer, and in cases of effective impact of
molecular diffusion and of partial penetration of the aquifer by the abstraction well.
However, cases of partial penetration, non-trivial residence time in the unsaturated zone
and semi-confined aquifers headed by a considerably thick semi-permeable top layer are
very frequent. For these cases, the combined exponential-piston flow model (the EPMr
model of Richter & Szymczak, 1992) is more flexible.

DISCUSSION, MODEL RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

Non-isotope groundwater techniques are not convenient for providing information on

many important characteristics of the aquifer studied and the stored groundwater, such
as those concerning water origin and history, turnover time, the spatial heterogeneity of
220 Fahmy M. Hussein

the aquifer parameters, the relationship of the inputs and outputs, mixing between
different water bodies outflowing at the observation point, ... etc. The use of environ-
mental isotope tracers is helpful in this respect since it presents pieces of information
which could not be obtained otherwise, in particular when its employment is considered
in a global and conjunctive framework of applications using both the conventional and
non-conventional methods. Tritium data is helpful in the quantitative interpretation of
groundwater mean transit time and recharge rate when a conceptual model is used to
first predict the tracer output function.
The present model has been applied to the case of the Nile water input function
which has been constructed using tritium measurements at Cairo (Swailem, 1969) and
extrapolations (Salem, 1990). Examples of the application of RIETHM to the Nile basin
are given in Figs 2, 3, 4 and 5. Cases of aquifers which have a relatively high dispersion
parameter (for example, D/vx = 2, Figs 3(a),(b), 5(a),(b)) such as areas with high
recharge rate close to the outflow site were tested. The relatively high dispersion para-
meter could be due to the dominance of flow lines with short residence times. In these
cases, it is observed that the program predicts relatively wide differences between the
CFF and the CFR dispersion models in the high sector of the tritium output peak with the
peaks of the CFR model being in a lower position than the position of the CFF peak. The
difference in the output content for any two moderate residence times (e.g. between T
= 30 and 40 years) for either the CFF or the CFR case is also distinguished in the years
of the peak climax. The position of the climax of the CFR peak is slightly shifted to the
right compared to the position of the CFF peak on the time-scale axis (Fig. 3(a)). Both
the CFR and CFF peaks have little symmetry. On the end-tail of the both of these peaks,
a net smoothing is observed, which is consistent with the remarks of Zuber, (1986). This
means that in the particular case of the Nile-fed terrain, for aquifers having a relatively
high dispersion parameter, the quantitative use of tritium data is generally restricted to
situations where older time-series tritium data are available. The use of present-day
tritium data alone without previous data of older years will not be highly informative
(regardless as to whether the samples are taken from pumping wells, CFF case, or

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Fig. 2 Output function predicted by exponential model with residence times T = 30 and
40 years.
 RIETHM: Radioisotope Environmental Tracer Hydrology Model 221

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Fig. 3 Output function predicted by dispersion models (Cpp and CJR) with residence
time T = 30 and 40 years and a relatively high dispersion parameter (D/vx = 2); (b)
is an out-set of (a).

piezometers, CFR case) due to the low resolution which makes it difficult to distinguish
between the values of the residence times.
On the other hand, for the case of aquifers with a relatively low dispersion
parameter (D/vx = 0.2, Fig. 4), there is still a good chance for distinguishing between
groundwaters of not very different residence times, since there is a good resolution on
the end-tail sector of the tritium output peak. Moreover, regardless of sampling from
pumping wells or from piezometers from the same system (same residence time), the
samples could be informative enough. However, this will not be so for a long time to
come (despite the expected well symmetry of the peaks under the low dispersion para-
meter conditions), so there is an urgent need for close monitoring of the tritium levels
for aquifers in areas with low recharge close to the outflow site where there is a
dominance of flow lines with relatively long residence times. This monitoring must be
carried out immediately and in the next few years or the chance of application of tritium
222 Fahmy M. Hussein

data in quantitative interpretation will be definitively lost, particularly for aquifers with
residence times longer than 30-40 years.
The computer files include a macro sheet file containing instructions and tables of
definitions that control the start up of the menu-driven program RIETHM. A work sheet
file is included which provides the field of input and output data storage and optional
updating. Three graphics are also provided with the current version.
For more technical information such as program structure and procedures, and
possible utilization of the computer code the reader is encouraged to contact the author
in the above-mentioned address.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed model has research-oriented capabilities. It provides the investigator with
a user-friendly computer interface which can be readily used in the preparation of sets
of output function data and graphic display. It solves the direct problem under different
work hypotheses concerning the values of aquifer parameters. Recognition of the mean
transit time of groundwater in a given system could be obtained when close coincidence
(fitness) between the tritium time-series observations and a given predicted output
function curve is obtained. After solving the inverse problem by this trial and error tech-
nique, the annual recharge rate could be readily estimated using the available informa-
tion on the aquifer depth ad the effective porosity. Moreover, the model is a user-
friendly device through its on-screen computer code display of the formulae involved,
extensive help statements accompanying the macro instructions and its open structure
available for further modification both in the macro instructions and the work sheet
framework, including the insertion of a non-linear curve best-fit technique for the
straightforward solution of the inverse problem.
As shown by the examples presented for groundwater on the banks of intrusive river
systems in the southern hemisphere (predicted tritium output curves for Nile-fed

70
•*- FF30
? ^ \
60 f-O- FR30

' • - FF40
50
a - FR40

40 "•
TU
30 -•

20

10 "•

- J aa no aananaonnau y. , . . (
-+- -T-t-
-+-,
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Fig. 4 Output function predicted by dispersion models (Cpp and Cpj^) with residence
time T = 30 and 40 years and a relatively low dispersion parameter (D/vx = 0.2).
 R1ETHM: Radioisotope Environmental Tracer Hydrology Model 223

200
J * - E30yr
180 ::<>- E40yr

160 -•- FF30,D/vx=0.2

•n- FR30,D/vx=0.2
140 -*r- FF40,D/vx=0.2
•*- FR40,D/vx=0.2
120
•X- FF30,D/vx=2
TU 100 -*- FR30,D/vx=2
— FF40,D/vx=2 X
X
X
80 ± « - FR40,D/Vx=2 X
rai3:Da.B:x.,,

:*S0tX

1950 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

70
••- E30gr
•O- E40yr
60
•- FF30,D/vx=
'-•a- FR30,D/vx=
50 --àr- FF40,D/vx=
: •*- FR40,D/vx=
40

TU
"X-
*-
FF30,D/vx=
FR30,D/vx=
<*#&«£
30 .— FF40.D/vx=
•0- FR40,D/vx=
1
20 J ° /
/ /
10 n i .."

#f , , , i
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Fig. 5 Output function predicted by exponential and dispersion models (Cpp and Cpj,)
with residence time T = 30 and 40 and relatively high and low dispersion parameters
(D/vx = 2 and 0.2) (composite of Figs 2, 3 and 4; (b) is an out-set of (a)).

aquifers), the difficulty at present (almost 30 years after the large-scale thermonuclear
tritium injections) is with the decreasing tritium contents approaching the natural back-
ground level. This situation calls for the obligatory use of refined tritium enrichment
devices in order to obtain highly accurate measurements of the diminishing tritium
contents. Tritium measurements in the same groundwater abstraction points in aquifers
of these regions as well as in the coastal deserts of the arid-to semiarid regions in the
southern hemisphere are still needed to complete older time-series observations in order
to obtain more accurate interpretations using models like that proposed in the present
study. For the southern hemisphere, in cases where no tritium data for the years 1970-
1980 are available, a valuable chance for the estimation of residence time for aquifers
using the advantageous tritium data technique and modelling methods is definitely lost.
However, close temporal monitoring during the next few years is recommended in order
to catch the information which could be provided by the end-tail data of the tritium peak,
in particular in sites where relatively high tritium contents are still observed.
224 Fahmy M. Hussein

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