Text as connected discourse

RELEVANCE VERSUS CONNECTION:

DISCOURSE AND TEXT AS UNITS OF ANALYSIS
Joaqun Garrido Universidad Complutense de Madrid
joaquin garridoATccinf ucm es

Abstract
The interpretation of speech can be dealt with in terms of grammar, if grammatical
categories are extended beyond the sentence. After briefly reviewing speech acts,
discourse acts and relevance, two units are thus posited, the discourse and the text,
and they are defined in strictly linguistictheoretical terms, by means of a principle of
connection. Following this principle, sentences are linked using additional
information, which is not explicitly represented in the sentence. The resulting units
are structured sequences of sentences, called discourses, which are, in turn, linked
in a structured way into larger units, called texts.

Key words: discourse, text, connection, grammar

1. Speech acts
As everybody knows, pragmatics is the standard solution to the limits of
sentence grammar1 . In a way, the difference between grammar and
pragmatics is an updated version of the distinction between system and use,
or between langue and parole. A major contribution in the field of pragmatics
is the concept of the speech act. Speaking is not only saying things about
reality, it is also doing things about it, and there is even nothing but action in
some cases. There are two main arguments in favor of speech acts. One is
the existence of perfomative expressions, such as I promise to come. The
second argument is the existence of questions and orders or requests, which
are not used to say something about reality, but rather as tools to do
something. The first point results in the classification of speech acts in terms
of the corresponding performative expressions, for instance, commissive
speech acts in terms of the performative I promise. The second one leads to
the distinction between sentences (declarative, interrogative, and imperative)

and utterances (statements, questions, and requests), and poses the problem
of the so-called indirect speech act, where a request, for instance, may be
made by means of a declarative sentence, instead of an imperative one
(which would be an example of a direct speech act).

Linguistic discourse analysis:

Linguistic characteristics of spoken and written discourse
There are different linguistic characteristics of both of these discourses. Just as the
differences of the function and forms of spoken and written discourse overlap one
another in the same way the characteristics of these two discourses, as will be
discussed, have actually some overlap between the two.
The form of spoken and written discourse
As well as being different in function, spoken and written discourse differ in forms as
a result of the difference of medium. Features of spoken discourse such as rhythm,
intonation and non-linguistic noises such as sighs and laughter are absent in written
discourse. Spoken discourse can also be accompanied by non-verbal communication
such as gestures and facial expressions because speech is typically used in a faceto-face situation. These features can not easily be conveyed by written discourse.
Written discourse also has several features which spoken discourse lacks. We can
include punctuation, paragraphing and the capitalization of letters. In written
discourse, intonation can to some extent be conveyed by punctuation, but not
completely. The intonation of the sentence Ill buy a shirt for you from High Street
will differ according to whether the action or object or person or place is the most
important idea. The different meanings, thus, implied by differences of intonation
would be difficult to convey in written discourse without changing the structure of
the sentence.

Normal non-fluency
Spoken discourse is generally characterized by normal non-fluency. Normal nonfluency refers to unintended repetitions (e.g. I. I ), fillers (e.g. um, er), false starts,
grammatical blends and unfinished sentences. One finds false start where a
sentence is broken off midway as a result of a change of mind (Leech, Deuchar and
Hoogenraad 1993:139); for example, You should well tackle it yourself. When one
begins in one way and ends in another, one tends to blend; for example in Do you
know where is my office? here the sentence begins as an indirect question but ends
as a direct question. In spoken discourse, people face the phenomena of hesitation
that lead to non-fluency. Spoken discourse contains many incomplete sentences,

often simply sequences of phrases. Written discourse, on the other hand, does not,
naturally, face such phenomena and as a result it appears more fluent.

Repetitiveness
Since spoken discourse is less permanent, it requires more repetition than written
discourse. In spoken discourse, the addressee can not easily refer back to what has
gone before, so important information has to be repeated. This can be noticed, for
example, in normal conversation.
The category of mode with reference to spoken and written discourse, as has been
discussed, has peculiar linguistic characteristics, but there can be some overlap in
these characteristics, depending on what they are used for, and in what situation.

B. Techniques in Selecting and

Organizing
Organizing Your Information
Our day-to-day professional and social lives rarely demand that we create detailed
architectures of what we know and how those structures of information are linked. Yet
without a solid and logical organizational foundation, your web site will not function well
even if your basic content is accurate, attractive, and well written.
There are five basic steps in organizing your information:
1. Inventory your content: What do you have already? What do you need?
2. Establish a hierarchical outline of your content and create a controlled vocabulary so
the major content, site structure, and navigation elements are always identified
consistently;
3. Chunking: Divide your content into logical units with a consistent modular structure;
4. Draw diagrams that show the site structure and rough outlines of pages with a list of
core navigation links; and

5. Analyze your system by testing the organization interactively with real users; revise
as needed.

C. Patterns of Development

pattern of development in writing refers to the particular

strategy writers use to develop ideas. Whether you are aware of it or

not, you already use patterns of development to express yourself.
When you show someone how to make an omelette, change a tire, or
set up an instant messaging account, you are using a pattern of
development called "process analysis"; when you describe what your
roomate looks like when she gets up in the morning you are using
"description"; when you offer several reasons why you are late for an
appointment, you are using cause and effect; and when you tell the
story of your first date, you are using narration. Learning to use these
patterns of development in writing is not difficult: you will need to
familiarize yourself with key transitional expressions that send a signal

to the reader that a particular pattern is being used, and you will need
to make conscious decisions about which strategies best develops your
ideas.

D. Properties of a well-written text

How important is it for a writer to be able to discern the difference between good
writing and a bad writing? For me, it is very important to know the difference of
the two because it is a way to know how bad and good is your writing and how to
improve your writing skills, there was so many characteristics of a well written
text, this characteristics can improve your text, it makes your text to be
interesting to read, it also helps you to make a well written text that make your
readers use their critical thinking skills to understand your text. Therefore there
was many characteristics can you use in making your own well written text.

One of my favorite characteristics of a well written text is organization a well organized

piece of writing is not only clear, it is presented in a way that is logical and aesthetically
pleasing. You can tell non-linear stories or place your thesis at the end of an essay and
get away with it as long as your scenes or ideas are well ordered. Ideas may be
organized in several ways. It can be organized spatial arrangement, emphatic
arrangement, sensory impression, logical arrangement etc.
My Second favorite characteristics of a well written text is tone this is what sets you
apart from all other writers. Its your unique way of stringing words together, formulating
ideas, and relating scenes or images to the reader. In any piece of writing, the tone
should be consistent and identifiable. Your tone depends on what and how you feel
about your subject or reader. Your attitude is defined by your wise choice of details to
produce the desired effects. Some common tones are neutral, authoritative, reflective
etc.
My third favorite characteristics of a well written text is language use writers can never
underestimate or fail to appreciate their most valuable tools words. Good writing
includes smart and appropriate word choices and well crafted sentences. It is also
refers to the communicative meaning. Language is very important to a well written text,
the language reflects on the writer of the text, by the language readers can easily
understand your text and make it more interesting to read, in using language you must
aware with your readers. You must not use highfalutin word if your readers have low
comprehension. So you must consider it.

I concluded that considering your characteristics in writing a well written text is very
important. It reflect on how the writer deliver his/her message. I also concluded that
there was many characteristics can be consider in writing a well written text that can
help you a lot. And you must also consider the difference between bad and good written
text so you may know what do you need to improve your writing skills and consider your
strength and weaknesses in writing that can also help you in developing your
characteristics.