Tesis - Diseño Sostenble de Una Carretera - Metodo Leed

Sustainable Roadway DesignA Model For An Environmental Rating System
Martina Soderlund
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Civil Engineering
University of Washington
2007
Program Authorized to Offer Degree:

Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Washington
Abstract
Sustainable Roadway Design
A Model For An Environmental Rating System
Martina Soderlund
Chair of the Supervisory Committee:
Assistant Professor Stephen T. Muench
Civil and Environmental Engineering
The building construction industry in the U.S. has in the last 5-10 years gone through a market
transformation towards construction and design of more sustainable buildings. One reason to this
transformation is the implementation of the LEEDTM (Leadership for Energy and Environmental
Design) green building environmental rating system.
The construction of roads is one of the most material demanding industries in the world with
great economic as well as environmental impacts. Significant efforts are seen in terms of
recycling and reuse of pavement materials. These efforts are strong and are beginning to be part
of industry processes and practice, however, this is not sufficient to create sustainable products
over entire life cycles.
If a similar rating system such as LEEDTM could gain popularity for projects in the roadway
construction industry as it has in the building industry, significant benefits in environmental
awareness and sustainability in design can be achieved. Today no such rating system exists for
roads.
This study has developed a model for such a system for use in Washington State. Elements and
impacts of sustainable attributes in roadway design has been identified and researched. Categories
of environmental significance have been developed and suggestions of requirements for the
design team are being proposed together with comments of implementation strategy. This model
can serve as a base for further research and development of an environmental rating system for
roadway design.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. v
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................vi
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
2. Research Objective.................................................................................................................... 2
2.1
Goal and Scope ...................................................................................................... 2
3. Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
Literature review.................................................................................................... 3
Classification of design categories......................................................................... 3
Development of a rating system ............................................................................ 3
4. Background ............................................................................................................................... 4
4.1
U.S. Road Statistics ............................................................................................... 4
5. Environmental Rating Systems ................................................................................................. 6

5.1
LEED for Buildings ............................................................................................... 6

5.1.1 LEED Categories And Credits ..............................................................6
5.1.2 LEED And Sustainability ......................................................................7
6. An Environmental Rating System For Roadways..................................................................... 9

6.1
System Categories A Summary .......................................................................... 9
7. The Categories In Detail.......................................................................................................... 10

8. Materials & Resources (MR) .................................................................................................. 11
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
Overview.............................................................................................................. 11
8.1.1 Terminology ........................................................................................12
Waste, Recycling & Road Construction .............................................................. 13
8.2.1 Construction Waste and Recycling......................................................14
8.2.2 Construction Debris in Washington State ...........................................16
Design Options .................................................................................................... 17
8.3.1 Reclaimed Asphalt Pavements ............................................................19
8.3.2 Recycled Concrete Pavements.............................................................20
8.3.3 Steel .....................................................................................................21
8.3.4 Blast Furnace slag, Slag cement ..........................................................21
8.3.5 Fly-Ash ................................................................................................22
8.3.6 Glass ....................................................................................................24
8.3.7 Scrap Tires...........................................................................................24
8.3.8 Shingles ...............................................................................................25
8.3.9 Foundry sand .......................................................................................26
Pollution Prevention Opportunities ..................................................................... 26
Cost ...................................................................................................................... 28
Life Cycle Analysis Environmental Focus ....................................................... 29
8.6.1 LCA Tools for Pavement Design ........................................................30
Transportation Activities ..................................................................................... 30
Regulations in Washington State ......................................................................... 31
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8.9
Criteria Definitions .............................................................................................. 33

8.9.1 MR-1. Construction Waste Management ............................................34
8.9.2 MR-2. Material Reuse 1 ......................................................................36
8.9.3 MR-3. Material Reuse 2 ......................................................................37
8.9.4 MR-4. Recycled Content 1 ..................................................................38
8.9.5 MR-5. Recycled content 2 ...................................................................39
8.9.6 MR-6. Life Cycle Analysis..................................................................40
8.9.7 MR-7. Regionally Provided Material ..................................................41
8.10 Discussion............................................................................................................ 42
9. Stormwater Management (SM) ............................................................................................... 43

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Overview.............................................................................................................. 43
Stormwater and Roadways .................................................................................. 45
9.2.1 Best Management Practices, BMPs ...................................................46
BMP Options ....................................................................................................... 47
9.3.1 BMPs for Stormwater Source Control.................................................47
9.3.2 BMPs for Stormwater Runoff Treatment ............................................47
9.3.3 BMPs for Stormwater Flow Control ...................................................48
9.3.4 Emerging Techniques..........................................................................49
9.3.5 Low Impact Development Design (LID).............................................50
9.3.6 Manufactured Devices Subsurface Treatments ................................52
9.3.7 Partial Exfiltration Trench (PET) ........................................................54
9.3.8 Permeable Pavements ..........................................................................54
9.3.9 Alternative Road Layout for Residential Areas...................................58
Pollution Prevention Opportunities ..................................................................... 59
Regulations in Washington State ......................................................................... 63
Criteria Definitions .............................................................................................. 65
9.6.1 SM-1. Storm Water Management........................................................66
9.6.2 SM-2. Storm Water Design 1 - Runoff Treatment ..............................68
9.6.3 SM-3. Storm Water Design 2 Permeable Area.................................69
9.6.4 SM-4. Storm Water Design 3 Permeable Pavement.........................71
9.6.5 SM-5. Innovative Stormwater Technology .........................................72
10. Energy & Environmental Control (ECC) ................................................................................ 73

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Light Pollution ..................................................................................................... 73

Eco-Viaducts........................................................................................................ 74
Visual Quality (Landscape & Architecture) ........................................................ 75
Pedestrian/Bicycle Access ................................................................................... 75
Cool Pavements & the Heat Island Effect ........................................................... 76
10.5.1 Overview .............................................................................................76
10.5.2 Impacts ................................................................................................77
10.5.3 Cool Pavements ...................................................................................78
10.5.4 Properties Of Cool Pavements.............................................................79
10.5.5 Design Options ....................................................................................82
10.5.6 Pollution Prevention Opportunities .....................................................86
10.6 Quieter Pavements ............................................................................................... 87
10.6.1 Overview .............................................................................................87
10.6.2 Noise From Roads ...............................................................................87
10.6.3 Pavement Surface And Noise Generation ...........................................88
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10.6.4 Design Options ....................................................................................89

10.6.5 Pollution Prevention Opportunities .....................................................91
10.7 Regulations in Washington State ......................................................................... 92
10.7.1 Cool Pavements ...................................................................................92
10.7.2 Quieter Pavements...............................................................................93
10.8 Criteria Definitions .............................................................................................. 94
10.8.1 EEC-1. Cool Pavements ......................................................................95
10.8.2 EEC-2. Quieter Pavements ..................................................................96
10.9 Discussion............................................................................................................ 97
11. Construction Activities (CA)................................................................................................... 98
11.1 Overview.............................................................................................................. 98
11.2 Pavement Construction Impacts .......................................................................... 98
11.2.1 Air Pollution ........................................................................................98
11.2.2 Water Pollution..................................................................................102
11.2.3 Noise Pollution ..................................................................................103
11.2.4 Energy Consumption .........................................................................104
11.3 Pavement Construction Activities ..................................................................... 106
11.3.1 Rigid Pavements................................................................................107
11.3.2 Flexible Pavements............................................................................109
11.4 Pollution Prevention Opportunities ................................................................... 110
11.4.1 Reduce Emissions From Dust Control ..............................................110
11.4.2 Reduce Emissions From Diesel Vehicles ..........................................110
11.4.3 Reduce Fossil Fuel Dependency........................................................114
11.4.4 Mitigate Construction Noise..............................................................114
11.4.5 Temporary Stormwater Control.........................................................115
11.4.6 Emissions from HMA Paving............................................................116
11.5 Regulations in Washington State ....................................................................... 118
11.5.1 Emissions...........................................................................................118
11.5.2 Stormwater ........................................................................................119
11.5.3 Noise..................................................................................................119
11.5.4 Energy ...............................................................................................120
11.6 Credit Definitions .............................................................................................. 121
11.6.1 CA-1. Reduce Non-road Diesel Engines and Fuel Emissions...........122
11.6.2 CA-2. Reduce Fossil Fuel Dependency.............................................123
11.6.3 CA-3. Temporary Stormwater Control..............................................124
11.6.4 CA-4. Noise Mitigation Planning......................................................125
11.6.5 CA-5. Reduce Paving Emissions 1....................................................126
11.6.6 CA-6. Reduce Paving Emissions 2....................................................127
12. Innovation & Design (ID) ..................................................................................................... 128
12.1 Credit Definition ................................................................................................ 128
12.1.1 ID 1-3. Innovation & Design............................................................128
13. Sustainable Alignment (SA).................................................................................................. 130
14. Implementation Strategy & Impacts...................................................................................... 131
14.1 The Impacts Of LEED In The Building Industry .............................................. 131
14.1.1 Effects Of LEED in Organizations And In Construction Activities..132
14.1.2 Effects of LEED on Construction Products & Materials...................133
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14.1.3 Reasons for LEEDs Breakthrough ...................................................134

14.2 LEED From An Organizational Standpoint....................................................... 135
14.2.1 The Development of LEED...............................................................136
14.2.2 Implementation Strategies of LEED..................................................137
14.3 Development And Implementation Of A Rating System For Roadways .......... 138
14.4 Discussion.......................................................................................................... 141
15. Conclusions And Recommendations..................................................................................... 143
15.1 Conclusions........................................................................................................ 143
15.2 Recommendations.............................................................................................. 145
List Of References ....................................................................................................................... 146
Appendix A: Design Option Evaluation For Recycled Materials............................................... 159
Appendix B: Analysis Of Reuse And Recycled Content............................................................ 161
Appendix C: Design Option Evaluation For Cool Pavement Applications ................................ 169
Appendix D: Interview Questions .............................................................................................. 171
Appendix E: Location Overview Of Aggregate Sources In WA (WSDOT) .............................. 175
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Number
Page
Figure 1. Cross section and alignment view of a roadway. ............................................................. 4

Figure 2. The Highway environment ............................................................................................. 14
Figure 3. Production and consumption by market sector............................................................... 15
Figure 4. Asphalt and Concrete Recycled in Washington State .................................................... 16
Figure 5. Stockpiled RAP .............................................................................................................. 19
Figure 6. Slag cement .................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 7. Effect on embodied greenhouse gas reduction in concrete ............................................ 27
Figure 8. Effect on embodied energy reduction in concrete .......................................................... 27
Figure 9. Effect on embodied virgin materials extraction in concrete ........................................... 28
Figure 10. Infiltration and runoff rates in relation to imperviousness ........................................... 44
Figure 11. Illustration of a typical bioretention system ................................................................. 51
Figure 12. Example of bioretention system landscaping ............................................................... 52
Figure 13. Underground detention units ........................................................................................ 52
Figure 14 Illustration of Aqua Swirl and Filter treatment system ................................................54
Figure 15. Cross section of a PET. ................................................................................................ 54
Figure 16. Typical porous asphalt pavement structure .................................................................. 55
Figure 17. Porous asphalt in Arizona and skid resistance.............................................................. 56
Figure 18. Porous asphalt water penetration (right)....................................................................... 57
Figure 19. Road layout options and impervious area..................................................................... 58
Figure 20. Eco-Viaduct constructed in Croatia, Europe. ............................................................... 74
Figure 21. Illustration of an urban heat island over a city ............................................................. 76
Figure 22. Illustration of the interrelationship of heat transfer in a pavement structure................ 79
Figure 23. Surface temperature and albedo for selected types of pavements in Phoenix, 2004 .... 81
Figure 24. Sound levels related to vehicle speed for noise generated from vehicles..................... 88
Figure 25. Noise reduction of double-layered porous asphalt in Copenhagen over 5 years.......... 90
Figure 26. Noise-wall installation in Washington State ................................................................ 92
Figure 27. Fugitive dust from construction.................................................................................... 99
Figure 28. Sources of diesel PM-2.5 in Washington State in 2002 ............................................. 101
Figure 29. Emissions and fumes from paving.............................................................................. 102
Figure 30. Polluted stormwater on a construction site................................................................. 103
Figure 31. Various construction equipment and activities on a project site ................................ 105
Figure 32. Trucks waiting in line................................................................................................. 106
Figure 33. HMA paving in WA ................................................................................................... 116
Figure 34 WMA paving in WA ..................................................................................................118
Figure 35. HMA leaving the plant ............................................................................................... 117
Figure 36 WMA leaving the plant ..............................................................................................119
Figure 37. The intended market position of LEED...................................................................... 132
Figure 38. Overview of the LEED development organization .................................................... 136
Figure 39. Market relationships ................................................................................................... 137
Figure 40. Implementation strategy overview ............................................................................. 141
LIST OF TABLES
Table Number
Page
Table 1. Summary of System Categories and their intent................................................................ 9

Table 2. Waste or by-products to be used by application .............................................................. 18
Table 3. Credits available in category Materials & Resources ...................................................... 33
Table 4. Stormwater runoff treatment BMPs................................................................................. 48
Table 5, Stormwater flow control BMPs ....................................................................................... 49
Table 6. LID practices and their hydrologic functions .................................................................. 50
Table 7. LID practices and their pollutant removal efficiencies.................................................... 51
Table 8. Overview of effective life for BMPs ............................................................................... 60
Table 9. Summary of stormwater strategies and related footprints ............................................... 61
Table 10. Runoff treatment targets and applications for roadway projects ................................... 64
Table 11. Credits available in category Stormwater Management ................................................ 65
Table 12. Land cover percentages in four urban areas................................................................... 77
Table 13. Percentage of pavement area by type of use.................................................................. 77
Table 14. Comparisons of albedo for new and weathered pavement top-layers............................ 80
Table 15. Credits available in category Energy & Environmental Control ................................... 94
Table 16. Rigid pavement construction activities ........................................................................ 108
Table 17. Flexible pavement construction activities.................................................................... 109
Table 18. Available options for emission control and related reduced air emissions.................. 111
Table 19. Warm mix asphalt technology summary ..................................................................... 117
Table 20. EPA non-road diesel standard...................................................................................... 118
Table 21. Credits available in category Construction Activities.................................................. 121
Table 22. Final system model: A summary of categories and credits available .......................... 143
Table 23. Certification credit requirements ................................................................................. 144
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to give special thanks to Professor Stephen T. Muench for outstanding support and
enthusiastic guidance throughout my work as well as to fellow committee members Joe P.
Mahoney and G. Scott Rutherford for their commitment and support. I deeply appreciate the
corporate professionals that took time to meet with me for interviews and helpful discussions.
Finally I also want to thank the Valle Scholarship and Scandinavian Exchange Program for
generous funding throughout my graduate work at the University of Washington.
vii
1. INTRODUCTION
As the outcome of the last 150 years of industry development and its impact on our environment
starts to become more evident, the awareness of environmental impacts due to design become
more and more important. The construction industry has one of the highest impacts on the
environment in regards to energy use, material use and waste products. Within the construction
industry, infrastructure construction or roadway design is one of the largest economic and also
material consuming industries in the U.S. Extensive programs for recycling and reuse of materials
have been developed to take care of waste and end-of-life products. While these efforts are strong
and have become part of industry practice, this is not sufficient to create sustainable products over
entire life cycles. All engineers, designers, decision makers and others involved in any design and
construction process make decisions which have impact on the environment. These decisions
need to be taken with a higher environmental awareness already in the design process.
A number of different tools used to help facilitate these decisions towards more sustainable
alternatives are available today. One tool that has rapidly gained popularity in the U.S. is the
LEEDTM (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) green building environmental rating
system developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). What the system provides is a
common language in the building industry for the incorporation of more sustainable elements in a
project, and it is shown to provide an overall awareness of environmental impacts.
If a similar rating system could gain popularity for projects in the roadway industry as it has in
the building industry, this would provide a means for performance based improvements in terms
of environmental impacts. This would increase the awareness of environmental matters in part of
an industry with the highest impact on our environment and it would, as LEED has in the building
industry, cause a strong movement effect with new markets emerging providing more
environmentally sound solutions.
The use of an environmental rating system for roads would help designers, engineers and
planners to identify different environmental aspects of a project and hence clarify where options
and improvements could occur in the design process. At the moment no such environmental
rating tool exists for the construction of roads.
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
This Masters thesis will look into the possibility of how an environmental rating system for
roads could be structured to impact and improve sustainability measures in roadway design. The
intent is to develop a framework for such a system for Washington State and research how the
categories and credits could be put together. This include:
Define, classify and characterize elements in a roadway construction project and
their environmental impacts and importance.

Identify design decisions with high environmental impacts and define categories
for credit ratings.

Compare the strategy of the LEED program and benchmark divisions for credits
and documentations required to earn credits.

Put together a model for an environmental rating system for roadway design and
define some of the criterias.

Discuss implementation strategy and impacts.
2.1 GOAL AND SCOPE

Goal:The goal for the thesis is to set up a framework for an environmental rating system for
roadway design. The overall goal is to encourage an increased demand for more environmentally
sound solutions and provide common metrics in the roadway construction industry of important
environmental impacts and their relation to different technology systems.
Scope:The framework in this thesis will present all categories that eventually should be
researched and included in a rating system, however, only some of these categories will be
analyzed in more detail and presented with actual credit requirements. The scope of the system
presented in this thesis will relate to the design and construction of the roadway structure itself
(the pavement) and will not include the activities taking place using the road (traffic impacts) or
the impact on the surrounding environment due to urban design (alignment). These impacts will
be suggested for future research. This does not mean that these categories and credits are not as
important. The system is developed for paved roads in Washington State.
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review worked as a base in the research to find information to identify the
categories suggested for the environmental rating system.
The literature review provided data and information for classification and characterization of the
categories to be defined. This review looked into current trends in the road construction industry
in terms of new and older technologies promoting sustainability and environmental design. This
review also studied current regulations and legislatures for environmental design that needs to be
addressed in a project. There are Federal requirements, State requirements, Local ordinances and
other agency requirements and regulations to be considered. No rating system can be developed
without taking these regulations into consideration.
3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DESIGN CATEGORIES
This effort defined broad processes involved in a roadway project. Design options and
technologies were identified and compared. The LEED program was studied carefully in order to
assist in determining credits applicable in roadway design and construction. Interviews were held
with professionals in the construction industry and other state or federal organizations to learn
about the impacts and implementation of LEED. Interviews with contractors/designers working
with LEED today helped identify advantages and disadvantages with the current LEED system.
3.3 DEVELOPMENT OF A RATING SYSTEM
The last part of the project was to develop a framework for an environmental rating system for
roadway design and construction using the characterization and classification information as a
base. Pollution prevention opportunities were identified for each category and discussed.
Categories were given different amounts of credits based on these pollution prevention
opportunities, and these credits were analyzed for requirements and feasible limits to be reached.
4. BACKGROUND
When using the LEED system as a model for this thesis, it is important to remember that the
difference between a roadway and a building is significant. A building is a point source impact
with complicated mechanical systems within the boundaries of the building, such as the walls.
The environment of concern is to a large extent the indoor environment and the closest
surroundings outside the building.
A roadway is a point source impact in the cross-section of the road, but in addition to this also a
linear impact where the impact runs through the landscape; urban areas, rural areas, different
geographic regions with a variety of bio-regions with different sensitivities and properties. This
makes the impacts from a road more complex and far-reaching compared to a building.
Median strip
Shoulder
Surface Course
Base Course
Subbase
Subgrade
Figure 1. Cross section and alignment view of a roadway.

(Modified from www.infovisual.info)
4.1 U.S. ROAD STATISTICS

There are almost 4 million miles (6.5 million km) of roads in the U.S (USGS, 2006), including
urban and rural public roads. In Washington State there are a total of 83,000 miles of urban and
public roads (FHWA, 2005). Roads have a huge impact of the surrounding environment in terms
of material usage, construction activities, during life impacts (usage), maintenance operations and
also as an end of life product.
The U.S. uses approximately 1.2 billion metric tons of natural aggregate for construction (this
includes sand and gravel and crushed stone) every year (Ewell, 2004). 58% of this is estimated to
5
be used in roadway construction (Carpenter et al, 2006). In addition to this large quantities of
steel, water, cement and bituminous products are being used as well. The manufacture and
extraction of these materials is not only depleting natural resources; all activities related to
managing the material such as extraction processes, production of new construction materials and
all activities needed for transport are also significant.
Most road construction taking place today is rehabilitation or repairs of existing roads. A majority
of the public paved roads in the U.S. are paved asphalt roads (about 93 %). In Washington State
about 87 % of paved roads are surfaced with asphalt materials and about 13 % with Portland
Cement Concrete (PGI, 2003). Rehabilitation and maintenance of these roads has to take place
regularly depending on pavement type. As one example most of the PCC sections of the interstate
highways in Washington State are reaching or have already reached the end of its design life.
This means large quantities of waste products will be generated (such as PCC and steel) and large
quantities of virgin materials will be required to replace them.
Approximately 4.1 billion metric tons of non-hazardous solid waste materials are generated
annually in the U.S. (AASHTO; 2005). When recycling of material and reuse of some of these
quantities have several potential uses in the roadway environment (Eighmy; 2001) there are also
other measures to define if a road could be called green or not. Some of these measures will be
described in this report.
5. ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SYSTEMS

There are a vast number of environmental rating systems, sometimes called eco-labeling systems,
on the market for a big variety of products. These systems are developed to help the consumer
choose more sustainable products. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys (EPA) Energy
Star is one well known example promoting energy efficient products for homes. In the
construction industry the one most well known is LEEDTM (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design) for buildings that has rapidly gained popularity in the U.S. as well as
internationally.
5.1 LEED FOR BUILDINGS
LEEDTM is a rating system for construction of sustainable buildings developed by the U.S. Green
Building Council (USGBC) in the mid 1990s. The LEEDTM rating system is used as a design and
measurement tool in the building industry, and it serves as a guideline for new and remodeled
building projects, promoting sustainable building design. It is also called a design guideline, a
certification standard, or a training program (USGBC 1,2,3,4, 2006).
The first and most used standard LEED for New Construction and Major Renovations (LEEDNC) was introduced in 1996 (v. 1.0). The products have since then expanded to address other
building types including: Existing Buildings Operations and Maintenance, Commercial Interiors ,
Core and Shell Development, LEED for Schools (under development), LEED for Homes (under
development) and LEED for Neighborhood Developments (under development). The LEED for
Neighborhood Development is taking a step to involve impacts outside the actual building
including some, but limited, features related to roadway design as well. Examples of this are
credits such as Street Network, Walkable Streets and also credits related to stormwater and
erosion and sedimentation control.
5.1.1
LEED Categories And Credits
LEED is a systematically organized system where design teams can aim for a level of
certification. The standards are divided into categories by significant environmental importance
and each category is divided into a certain number of credits for the design team to incorporate in
their design. The LEED standards are developed to cover environmental actions in the following
categories:
Sustainable Sites
Water Efficiency
Energy and Atmosphere,
Materials and Resources
Indoor Environmental Quality
Bonus Credits for Process and Design Innovation
Each category has prerequisite credits that need to be fulfilled and a number of optional credits
for the project to apply for. In LEED for New construction (LEED-NC, v. 2.2) a total of 69 points
are available within four categories of certification (USBGC 1, 2006):
LEED CertifiedTM for buildings that earn between 26 and 32 of the available points
LEED SilverTM for buildings that earn between 33 and 38 of the available points
LEED GoldTM for buildings that earn between 39 and 51 of the available points
LEED PlatinumTM for buildings that earn 52 or more of the available points
The project team decides which and how many credits to apply for and provide all the
documentation required by the USGBC. The design team makes sure the features of the credits
are incorporated in the design, and the construction team makes sure the features of the credits are
being met in construction.
5.1.2
LEED And Sustainability
Today there are more then 5000 certified LEED buildings (all levels of certification) in the U.S.
and to some extent internationally, compared to only 100 in 1998 (USGBC, 2007). One of the
major advantages with such a system is the provision of a checklist of environmental features
for a project outside the basic requirements, and the creation of a common standard of
measurements for sustainable design.
Meanwhile LEED NC version 3.0 is under development, some opponents claim a rating system
like this does not always provide the most sustainable product. LEED is criticized for not giving
performance based credits where the weighting of the credits give an accurate estimation of
environmental impacts and importance. This is true; LEED is not an absolute measure of
sustainability. The important result is however how the implementation of the LEEDTM rating
system has changed the building construction industry (in some parts of the U.S.), the last 5-10
8
years in regards to the use of more sustainable and environmentally sound construction solutions.
For impacts of LEED in the building industry, see Chapter 14; Implementation Strategy and
Impacts.
The rating system developed in this thesis and the definition of elements in a roadway project is a
step in the same direction.
6. AN ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SYSTEM FOR ROADWAYS

Presented in Table 1 is a summary of the suggested main categories and their respective category
intent for an environmental rating system for roadway design and construction. Each category
represent a chapter in this thesis were research provide background for the credit requirements.
Note that all categories are not researched in this thesis (such as Sustainable Alignment) as they
are intentionally left for further research (see Research Objective). This does not mean they are
less relevant or important to include in a final system.
6.1
SYSTEM CATEGORIES A SUMMARY
Table 1. Summary of system categories and their intent

Category1
Sustainable Alignment
(SA)
Category Intent
The intent with this category is to reduce impacts in the
environment due to the alignment of the road such as:
preservation of wetlands, forests, farmlands, and other
ecological sensitive areas.
Materials & Resources

(MR)
The intent with this category is to reduce impacts in the

environment due to material extraction, material use and
transportation.
Stormwater Management (SM)
The intent with this category is to reduce major impacts in

water quality and quantity due to polluted stormwater and
runoff.
Energy & Environmental

Control (EEC)
The intent with this category is to reduce impacts related to

human and wildlife wellbeing and health such as noise
pollution, light pollution and animal crossings. Energy
reductions are to some extent included here as it relates to
light pollution and the heat island effect.
The intent with this category is to reduce impacts related to
construction activities such as equipment emissions, fuel use,
air-, noise-, water-pollution and improvement of workers
health.
Construction Activities
(CA)
Innovation and Design

(ID)
The intent with this category is to provide an incentive for

innovation and design in a project team.
Categories suggested to be included in the full system model
10
7. THE CATEGORIES IN DETAIL

The next chapters presents the intent of both the categories and credits that intentionally are left
for further research and also the categories that has been researched in more detail in this thesis.
The researched chapters are structured to give the reader an overview of why the category is
important, present how this relates to roadway construction, suggest design options, analyze
pollution prevention opportunities, briefly describe regulations and policies and finally suggest
credit requirements.
11
8. MATERIALS & RESOURCES (MR)

8.1 OVERVIEW
The important issues motivating this category can be summarized in two major points: 1) there is
a growing demand for construction materials, 2) there is an increase in the amount of construction
waste.
The U.S. uses approximately 1.2 billion metric tons of natural aggregate (this include sand and
gravel and crushed stone for construction) every year (Ewell, 2004). 58% of this is estimated to
be used in roadway construction (Carpenter et al, 2006). In 1998 recycled aggregates accounted
for less than 1 percent of the total demand for construction aggregates (Wilburn, 1998). This
number can be assumed to have increased since then, however, the opportunity to use recycled
aggregates in roadway construction is very large.
Integration of recycling and reuse of construction materials in new as well as rehabilitation
construction projects provide environmental as well as economic benefits. These benefits can be
summarized as (Horvath, 1999; Wilburn, 1998; FHWA, 2004):
Reduce the use of virgin materials
Divert materials from landfills
Reduce energy consumption
Reduce emissions
Decrease costs in construction projects
Use of Virgin Materials:

Mining for aggregates are not an infinite source, and quarries in the U.S. as well as around the
world are already starting to shut down due to lack of materials (FHWA, 2004). In Washington
State the extraction of mineral materials for construction related activities stood for 68% of the
total material extraction (in 1997). This is for construction sand and gravel, Portland cement and
crushed stone, in descending order (USGS, 1997). (This made the state number 6 in the United
States of quantities produced in construction sand and gravel in 1997.)
12
Divert material from Landfills:
Landfills require large amounts of land and produce large amounts of emissions. In the United
States, landfills are the largest source of methane (CH4) emissions caused by humans (EPA,
2002). (Methane has a higher Global Warming Potential (GWP) than carbon dioxide (CO2) and is
a huge contributor to climate change, larger then carbon dioxide.) Over 2,100 operational landfills
exist in the United States (EPA, 2002), but many of the landfills in the U.S. are estimated to shut
down in the next 10 years (Amirkhanian, 2001). In Washington State in 2005 there were 18
municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills, 29 inert landfills and 10 limited purpose landfills located
around the state (Washington State Department of Ecology, 2005). Solid waste landfills reported
in 2005 a statewide permitted landfill capacity of 219 million tons, or approximately 40 years at
the current rate of disposal. The reduction of materials disposed in landfills is needed.
Energy & Emissions:

All processes involved in material extraction, production and transportation require energy in
terms of fossil fuels as well as release pollutants and greenhouse gases. Recycling and reuse of
materials can in many cases reduce these impacts in minimizing these activities.
Economic Benefits:
The economical benefits of recycling or reuse of materials can be direct as well as indirect.
Avoided direct costs can be tipping fees for material disposal and reduced transportation as well
as production cost due to material recovery. If transportation distances are reduced this can also
have an indirect cost benefit in less wear on the existing roadway system (FHWA, 2004, Horvath,
1999).
8.1.1
Terminology
Terminology is important to provide a uniform language in this credit:

Post-consumer material is defined as waste material generated by households or by commercial,
industrial and institutional facilities in their role as end-users of the product, which can no longer
be used for its intended purpose (ISO 14021, 1999). Examples of this material include
construction and demolition debris.
Pre-consumer material is defined as material diverted from the waste stream during the
manufacturing process. Excluded is reutilization of materials such as rework, regrind or scrap
13
generated in a process and capable of being reclaimed within the same process that generated it
(ISO 14021, 1999). Examples in this category include, sawdust, chips, and trimmed materials.
Post Industrial, is a term currently being phased out (according to ISO 14021, 2004), and
replaced by the definition for pre-consumer materials.
Recycled content is defined as the proportion, by mass, of recycled material in a product or
packaging. Only pre-consumer and post-consumer materials shall be considered as recycled
content (ISO 14021, 1999).
Diverted materials are materials that were previously disposed in landfills or incinerators but are
taken from the waste stream as new markets have emerged. This can be construction and
demolition debris that is being reused or recycled.
Inert materials, or wastes, are chemically and physically stable materials that do not undergo
decomposition, such as sand, bricks, concrete or gravel.
8.2 WASTE, RECYCLING & ROAD CONSTRUCTION
The 4 million miles of existing roadways in the U.S. (as mentioned in Chapter 4.1) need regularly
rehabilitation or replacement work. Portland Cement Concrete (PCC), hot mix asphalt (HMA)
pavements and base materials in existing roads, bridges and other infrastructure elements provide
a huge resource of materials for possible future use. Figure 2 present an overview of major
materials to be used in a highway environment. Whereas guardrails, signs and other objects along
the road require materials as well, the major quantities of materials required is in the pavement
structures itself. The Materials & Resources category will focus on these major materials.
14
Figure 2. The Highway environment

(RMRC, 2002)
8.2.1
Construction Waste and Recycling
Consistent numbers of building construction and demolition debris can be found (EPA, 1998),
whereas quantities used in road applications are often not studied to the same extent. However,
Figure 3 presents production and consumption of some road construction material in the U.S. that
can be used to get a general idea of quantities by source and market sector (1996 figures) for
roads.
15
Figure 3. Production and consumption by market sector

(Quantities are in metric tons. Diagrams are recreated from Wilburn, 1998)
A large part of the crushed concrete debris was in 1996 sent to landfills, and a large part was used
as new road base material. This is the most common way of using recycled concrete in roadway
applications, as described in Design Options. Even if a large part of the crushed PCC still goes to
landfills, the use of recycled PCC is however increasing in construction applications due to new
emerging markets and recycling programs. See Figure 4 for Washington State as an example of
increase in PCC recycling.
The HMA industry in the U.S. produces over 90 million metric tons of HMA waste annually,
with over 73 million tons being recycled (Decker, 2007, Wilburn, 1998). This makes this product
one of the most recycled products in the United States. Most of the recycled HMA is used as part
16
of producing new HMA, see also Design Options, but still some of the recycled asphalt ends up
in landfills or in stockpiles.
One important construction material that is not included in these graphs is steel. Steel is also one
of the most recycled materials in the U.S with around 76 million tons of steel recycled (or
exported for recycling) in 2005 (SRI, 2006), where around 7 millions were used to produce new
reinforcement bars in 2002 (CRSI, 2002). Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
became popular with the construction of the U.S. Interstate Highway system in the 1960s and
1970s and hence contains large amounts of steel. Also dowel bars contain steel. It is estimated
that about 65% of all reinforcement bars and nearly 100% of structural steel beams and plates
used in construction are recycled into new products (SRI, 2006). This includes building as well as
road construction steel. There are no separate data available for dowel bars specifically.
8.2.2
Construction Debris in Washington State
The recycling rate of construction and demolition debris has shown to increase dramatically as
the trend of new market areas has developed. In Washington State the Department of Ecology
started to keep track of the diverted materials in 1999 as they noted this very large increase of
material recovery outside the traditional solid waste stream. In 2005 construction and demolition
related materials represented about 95% by weight of the diverted materials reported in
Washington State. Asphalt and concrete alone account for 67% of these total diverted materials
(Washington State Department of
Ecology, 2005). Figure 4 presents as
an example the increased rate of
asphalt and concrete recycling from
the end of the 90s until today. (Note
that the use of recycled asphalt
pavement (RAP) in new pavement
started much earlier than 1999 but this
is the year the Department of Ecology
started to keep track of this material.)
Figure 4. Asphalt and Concrete Recycled in Washington State
(Washington State Department of Ecology, 2005)
17
There are five major types of final uses for diverted materials defined by Washington State
Department of Ecology. They are 1) transforming or recycling into the same or other products, 2)
burning for energy, 3) reuse, 4) use as aggregate material for other products, 5) composting. This
credit will be an incentive to use 1, 3 and 4 of these types of final uses for roadway construction.
8.3 DESIGN OPTIONS
The construction applications presented in Figure 2 that require large volumes of materials can be
defined in major categories (Simon et al, 2006; FHWA, 1997). They are:
(1) Asphalt paving applications
(2) Portland cement concrete applications
(3) Flowable fill applications
(4) Stabilized base applications
(5) Unbound aggregate and fill applications
These applications all have the opportunity to use reused or recycled materials, which for the
most part consists of recycled aggregates. The variability in the products in terms of technical
characteristics can limit their use however the opportunities for innovation and design alternatives
exist. Some material types have one unique final function but there is often more than one final
use for a material depending on the market prices and demand and the amount of research
performed for the specific use. This can provide very important information of feasibility. On
next page, Table 2 presents an overview of the waste or by-product that could be used as a
replacement material to a virgin material in any of the applications listed previously. The table is
extracted from User Guidelines for Waste and By-products Materials in Pavement Construction
(FHWA,1997).
18
Table 2. Waste or by-products to be used by application
(FHWA,1997)
APPLICATION USE
Asphalt Concrete Aggregate
(Hot Mix Asphalt)

(Cold Mix Asphalt)
(Seal Coat or Surface Treatment)
Asphalt Concrete Mineral Filler
Asphalt Concrete Asphalt Cement Modifier

Portland Cement Concrete Aggregate
Portland Cement Concrete Supplementary
Cementitious Materials
Granular Base
Embankment or Fill
Stabilized Base Aggregate

Stabilized Base Cementitious Materials
(Pozzolan, Pozzolan Activator, or Self-Cementing
Material)
Flowable Fill Aggregate
Flowable Fill Cementitious Material (Pozzolan,

Pozzolan Activator, or Self-Cementing Material)
MATERIAL
Blast Furnace Slag
Coal Bottom Ash
Coal Boiler Slag
Foundry Sand
Mineral Processing Wastes
Municipal Solid Waste Combustor Ash
Nonferrous Slags
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
Roofing Shingle Scrap
Scrap Tires
Steel Slag
Waste Glass
Coal Bottom Ash
Blast Furnace Slag
Coal Boiler Slag
Steel Slag
Baghouse Dust
Sludge Ash
Cement Kiln Dust
Lime Kiln Dust
Coal Fly Ash
Roofing Shingle Scrap
Scrap Tires
Reclaimed Concrete
Coal Fly Ash
Blast Furnace Slag
Blast Furnace Slag
Coal Boiler Slag
Municipal Solid Waste Combustor Ash
Nonferrous Slags
Reclaimed Concrete
Steel Slag
Waste Glass
Coal Fly Ash
Nonferrous Slags
Reclaimed Concrete
Scrap Tires
Coal Bottom Ash
Coal Boiler Slag
Coal Fly Ash
Cement Kiln Dust
Lime Kiln Dust
Sulfate Wastes
Coal Fly Ash
Foundry Sand
Quarry Fines
Coal Fly Ash
Cement Kiln Dust
Lime Kiln Dust
19
A short description of the most commonly used applications follows with information regarding
origin, technical properties and influences in the pavement as well as commonly used ranges of
the material in pavement applications in DOTs around the United States.
8.3.1
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavements
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is defined as salvaged, milled, pulverized, broken, or crushed
asphalt pavement (AASHTO, 2005). RAP consists of graded aggregates coated by asphalt cement.
These aggregates can be reused as aggregate in new hot mix or cold mix asphalt, or if graded in
larger pieces as aggregate in fill or base material. If used as aggregates in new mix, the coating of
the RAP also contributes to the binding agent in the mix. This contribution can result in a slight
reduce in binding agent.
State DOT specification requirements for the use of RAP in HMA paving varies from 15 up to
70% by total weight of the mixture (Horvath, 2003). The most commonly used rate is between 20
to 50%. WSDOT allows a maximum of 20% RAP that can be included in HMA, see also WA
Requirements.
RAP can be used to a larger extend as a base or fill material, however one discussed limitation of
using RAP as fill material is the unknown risk of leaching of pollutants from the aggregate to the
environment. Rainwater may leach chemicals from this material either during stockpiling before
recycling or due to infiltration through the pavement surface containing RAP.
A field study in Florida
indicates that this is not a
problem (Townsend, 1998),
where chemicals investigated
were
volatile
compounds
(VOCs),
polycyclic
aromatic
hydrocarbons
heavy metals.
Figure 5. Stockpiled RAP
(SRA, 2005)
organic
(PAHs),
and
20
The Swedish Road Administration (SRA, 2004) state leakage from stockpiles is not a significant
problem for organic and inorganic substances, however another study (Norrman, 2005) has
shown larger amounts of chloride and lead is indicated in the groundwater due to stockpiling of
RAP.
A study by Legret et al. (2005) comparing new asphalt containing 10% respectively 20% of RAP
shows no obvious difference in leaching rates of heavy metals, even though comparing this RAP
to regular HMA indicate that concentrations of total hydrocarbons and some PAHs were higher
in leakage from RAP.
One way to avoid leakage during stockpiling is to cover the piles, however, the importance is also
to find how the RAP perform as part of the pavement structure. More research in various
locations, climates and situations needs to be evaluated to find the true impacts of this material.
Current research performed indicate mixed results.
8.3.2
Recycled Concrete Pavements
Recycled Concrete Pavement (RCP), also known as crushed or rubblized concrete, is reclaimed
PCC pavement material. Primary sources of RCP are demolition of existing concrete pavement,
bridge structures, curb and gutter, and from recyclers who obtain old PCC from
commercial/private facilities (AASHTO, 2005). RCP is also called Recycled Concrete Material
(RCM) or Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA). In this report crushed concrete pavement will be
referred to as Recycled Concrete Material as the origin of the PCC can be elsewhere than from
pavements.
The main use of RCM in new pavement structure is as a new base or fill material. In Washingon
State as well as in most States in the U.S. RCM is allowed to be used in road base, as drainage
aggregates and as backfill material (WSDOT, 2004; FHWA, 2004 ). Up to 100% of the base
material could consist of RCM.
RCM can also be used as coarse and/or fine aggregate in PCC pavements as part of the mix, but
there are some limitations to this (RMCR, 2006). Incorporating more than about 10 to 20 % of
fine RCM aggregates can cause a reduction in quality (FHWA, 2006). RCM as fine aggregate in
new PCC is limited, if even allowed, to 20% by many agencies, this partly due to some problem
21
found with workability, decreased compressive strength and higher water demand (FHWA, 2003).
In Washington State RCM as fine aggregate in new PCC is not allowed, see also WA
Requirements.
As for RAP, there are concerns of leakage impacts using RCM as new aggregates. The reclaimed
concrete has a high alkaline content and a relatively high degree of solubility of these alkaline
materials (AASHTO, 2005). The result is a potential increase in pH that can occur in waters
seeping through the RCM aggregate base or the new PCC.
8.3.3
Steel
Steel is a highly recycled material used as dowel bars or reinforcement in concrete pavements and
bridges. As concrete is demolished and crushed, any reinforcement bars in the structure is
separated as ferrous scrap. The reinforcing bars are then melted down to create new steel products.
There are mainly two processes used to create new steel products; the Basic Oxygen Furnace
(BOF), used primarily for flatrolled steel such as automobile bodies or appliance shells, and the
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), typically used to create long shapes, which includes reinforcement
bars (SRI, 2006).
In steel recycling the material does not loose its properties and strength. In the process of making
new steel products, old scrap is always used and the demand for steel scrap is even higher than
the availability. This makes steel a strongly recycled material with many opportunities for
recycling over its entire life time.
The recycled content in the production of new reinforcement bars (the EAF method) is as high as
95% (CRSI, 2002). As mentioned previously The Steel Recycling Institute estimates that in 2006
around 65 percent of reinforcing bars were recycled (SRI, 2006). This indicates a possibility to
increase the rate of reinforcement recycling.
8.3.4
Blast Furnace slag, Slag cement
Slag cement, or ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), is a material that results from the
processing of molten slag from an iron blast furnace (SCA, 2005). This is a cementing material
that can be used to partially replace portland cement in concrete. The use of blast furnace slag has
increased considerably in recent years and this trend is expected to continue (Malhorta, 1999).
22
Suggested replacement of portland cement with slag cement is 25-50 % by the Slag Cement
Association (SCA, 2005). This depends on the application and the particluar cicumstaces. It is
substituted for portland cement on a one-to-one basis by mass. The proportions are dictaded by
different requirements for strength, durability, time of set, heat generation, or resistance to alkali
silica reaction (ASR) and sulfate attack. (This is a form of concrete deterioration occurring when
concrete comes in contact with water containing sulfates (SO4)).
Apart from the possibility of replacing some of the portland cement it has other attributes
impacting the concrete. Better workability, higher
strength, lower permeability and improved resistance
to aggressive chemicals (SCA, 2005) are some of the
qualities found by using part slag cement in concrete.
It also has lighter color contributing to higher albedo
conforming to Credit EEC-1 (Chapter 10; Energy &
Environmental Control).
Figure 6. Slag cement
(SCA, 2005)
If used more than 25% in the cement material in PCC it is found that the slag increases the time
of set. When substituted for portland cement in quantities between 25- 65%, slag cement
significantly reduces the permeability (SCA, 2005).
The availability of Slag Cement is in the U.S. is high. However, currently in Washington State
most of the slag used is imported from Japan (Correspondence with Rob Shogren, Technical
Service Engineer, Lafarge North America, February 2007). This does add some cost to the
material however it is still cheaper than conventional cement. The important question is what this
transportation activity does to the environmental impacts embodied in the material. Incentives for
locally made materials should be given.
8.3.5
Fly-Ash
Coal fly ash, usually referred to as fly ash, is a combustion material remaining in the combustion
of coal consumed to generate electricity. Coal is not all carbon, and fly ash is the mineral remains
23
from combustion in the form of a fine powdery ash (ACC, ACCA, 2006). This material can be
used as replacement for some of the portland cement in concrete pavement as well as fine
aggregate in asphalt pavements. It can also be used in stabilized base course, flowable fills and
embankments (FHWA, 2003).
Fly ash is classified as either Class C or Class F, depending on the materials chemical
composition. Class C ash is also referred to as high calcium fly ash because it typically contains
more than 20 percent CaO. Class F, or low calcium fly ash has less than 10 percent CaO (FHWA,
2003).
Some of the benefits of using fly ash in concrete include increased strength, increased workability,
decreased permeability, reduced heat of hydration, higher resistance to sulfate and other chemical
attack (ACA&ACAA,2006; SCA, 2005; EPRI, 2002). Fly ash is typically used to replace 20-40%
of the Portland cement in a concrete mix (ACAA, 2006, FHWA, 2003).
In asphalt mixtures fly-ash can be used as substitute for some of the fines aggregates, as well as
part of asphalt concrete base courses. Most asphalt mixtures contain 3-7% fine aggregate to
ensure cohesiveness, and base courses usually 12-24%. Fly ash in asphalt pavements is found to
increase the stiffness of the asphalt, improve the rutting resistance of pavements, and the
durability of the mix (FHWA, 2003).
Considerations to take into account in using fly-ash as a replacement in PCC is it can increase air
entraining properties and also has lower early age compressive strength (ERIS, 2002, FHWA,
2003). It is agreed that not all the available fly-ash is suitable for use in concrete. (Malhotra,1999).
The two most important parameters of a fly-ash for concrete use is the fineness and carbon
content.
Availability of fly-ash Class F is limited in Washington. Most of the fly-ash is imported from
Alberta (Canada) and Montana, however some of this fly ash is of type C (correspondence with
Rob Shogren, Lafarge, North America, February 2007; and Jeff Uhlmeyer, WSDOT, February
2007). As with the use of slag cement, considerations should be taken to the embodied impacts
the transportation activities bring to the materials.
24
In addition to fly-ash, other coal combustion products can be used as well, such as Bottom Ash
witch is a heavier ash particle that basically falls to the bottom of the power plant boiler.
Bottom Ash is usually used in structural fill applications and as aggregates in manufacturing of
concrete bricks (ACA&ACAA, 2006).
8.3.6
Glass
Crushed glass or glass cullet, is made of recycled glass products. The quality of the glass varies
and it is important to process it properly to separate the glass from dirt, paper and plastics before
appropriate gradations. If the glass is properly processed it can have characteristics similar to that
of a gravel or sand. It is usually used as a substitution for aggregates in base courses or fills, but it
has also been used as an aggregate substitute in asphalt pavements. Asphalt containing glass
cullet as an aggregate is also called glassphalt (NAPA, 2006).
U.S. DOTs usually allow between 10-20% of crushed glass in base course, and in some cases as
much as 30% in the subbase (RMRC, 2000).
Long term performance of using recycled glass in pavements is at an early stage in research.
Glass aggregate has showed problems in both asphalt concrete and PCC pavements (IDOT, 2002).
In concrete pavements, this material is problematic due to the harmful alkali-silica reaction with
the cement paste. In bituminous pavements, this material bonds poorly to the asphalt, which
results in stripping and raveling problems.
8.3.7
Scrap Tires
In the U.S. approximately 280 million waste tires are produced each year (FHWA, 1997,
Amirkhanian, 2001). In Washington State, approximately 4 million tires were reported as waste
in 2004 (Washington State Department of Ecology, 2005). Of these tires about 55% were
recycled (or diverted), about 23% went to tire-derived fuel, and about 22 % went to landfill
disposal. Over the United States, approximately 800 million scrap tires are currently stockpiled
(Amirkhanian, 2001). This is a huge source of material.
Ground or crumb rubber can be included in asphalt pavement in two principal ways. In the wet
process the crumb rubber is blended with the asphalt binder as a modifier (it increases its
viscosity) (FHWA, 1997). Typically the content is 15-20% of rubber by weight of asphalt. The
25
product resulting from the wet process is called asphalt-rubber cement. In the dry process the
rubber is blended directly into the HMA (Iowa DOT, 2002). The product resulting from the dry
process is called rubberized asphalt. The crumb rubber content blended in the mix is usually 1225% rubber by weight of mix (FHWA, 1997).
Most laboratory and field experiments indicate that the rubberized asphalt mixtures, in general, show
an improvement in durability, crack reflection, fatigue resistance, skidding resistance, and resistance
to rutting (Hicks et al. 1995; Xiao et al, 2005, Amirkhanian, 2001). Another important finding is the
fact that asphalt containing rubber can reduce tire-pavement noise (Munden, 2006).
The most common objections to using asphalt rubber is high initial costs, issues with recyclability
of the rubberized pavements, hazardous emissions and expensive equipment modifications (to
produce the new asphalt).
8.3.8
Shingles
Shingles contain about 20 % asphalt binder by weight (Mallick et al, 2002) and in many ways
asphalt shingles closely resemble RAP (Amirkhanian et al, 2001). Sources of recycled asphalt
shingle are either the by-product or scrap from the manufacturing of roofing shingle, or, the
construction debris generated when shingle roofs on buildings are removed. Shingles can be used
to modify the asphalt binder, but can also work as an aggregate substitute (FHWA, 1997). Use in
HMA can reduce the need for new asphalt binder significantly, hence cost as well as the need for
new materials.
The results from a study performed in Massachusetts show that the use of manufactured waste
shingles in HMA does not cause a significant difference in the quality of the HMA. The rutting
resistance is even shown to be improved by using manufactured waste shingles. (Mallick et al,
2000). Other benefits using shingle in HMA can be increased stability, decrease in temperature
susceptibility, improved compaction, and improved smoothness (CIWMB, 2006).
Many state DOTs in the US allows 5% of asphalt roofing shingles in asphalt pavements
(CIWMB, 2006). The quality of the recycled shingle depends weather it origins as a by-product
from manufacturing of new shingle or as a waste from old roofs. Many state DOTs only permits
recycled shingles sourcing from the manufacturing process and not the scrap shingle from old
roofs (RMRC, 2003).
26
8.3.9
Foundry sand
Recycled foundry sand (RFS) or Waste Foundry Sand (WFS) is silica sand with many of the
same properties as natural sands. It is a byproduct of the ferrous and nonferrous metal casting
industry, where sand has been used as a molding material (AASHTO (NCHRP), 2006)
It can be used in many of the same ways as natural or manufactured sands. This includes many
roadway construction applications such as embankments, flowable fill, HMA and PCC (FHWA,
2004). It can also be blended with either coarse or fine aggregates and used as a road base or
subbase material.
Studies have shown that foundry sand can be used to replace between 8 and 25% of the fine
aggregate content in HMA (FHWA, 2004, AASHTO, 2006) and as much as 45% of the fine
aggregate in concrete (AASHTO, 2006).
DOTs in the U.S allows the use of recycled foundry sand in HMA between 5-20%.
It is important that the foundry sand is cleaned of clay, dust, and other toxic materials.
Additionally, metals present in the sands need to be removed either manually or magnetically.
Foundry sand properties vary in samples taken from one foundry, and there is increased variation
from foundry to foundry. This makes it difficult as a reliable source of material for road
construction.
Foundry sand is gray to black. In some concretes, this may cause the finished concrete to be
darker which may not be desirable.
The leakage rate of chemicals to stormwater runoff from the use of foundry sand is found to not
be worse than that from natural soil (FHWA, 2004).
8.4
POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES
When reusing materials as well as recycle materials, consideration has to be taken to the actual
processes involved. Sometimes a pre-consumer or post-consumer material has to go through
additional industrial processes before being feasible as a construction material.
27
The opportunity to use pre-consumer materials (previously post-industrial) as part of a roadway
structure is like described in previous sections big. Fly-ash and slag cement, both materials
produced in other industrial processes, are good examples of this. No additional energy is
required, no additional emissions are released as the main process is taking place anyways. Figure
7, 8 and 9 shows comparisons in terms of embodied environmental impacts of fly-ash, slag
cement and conventional portland cement production.
The reduction in embodied green house gas emissions in concrete production is measured by CO2.
By using a 50 percent slag cement substitution as an example, a 42 to 46 percent reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved (SCA, 2005).
Figure 7. Effect on embodied greenhouse gas reduction in concrete

(SCA, 2005)
The reduction in embodied energy requirements in concrete production is measured by Mbtu/yd3.

Portland cement constitutes 70 percent or more of the total energy content in concrete (SCA,
2006). Reducing the use of portland cement by substituting a portion of it with slag cement or flyash significantly reduces the embodied energy.
Figure 8. Effect on embodied energy reduction in concrete

(SCA, 2005)
28
One ton of Portland cement requires about 1.6 tons of raw material, because of mass lost due to
emissions and other factors (Malhotra,1999) Substituting 50 percent slag cement can save
between 6 and 15 percent of embodied virgin material extraction (SCA, 2006).
Figure 9. Effect on embodied virgin materials extraction in concrete

(SCA, 2005)
The opportunity to use post-consumer materials is large too, especially the reuse of demolished
PCC (RCP), reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and base material as discussed earlier.
From a pavement design perspective, recovered materials should be used in such a manner that
the expected performance of the pavement will not be compromised. Increasing the use of
recycled materials can lead to decreased durability of the pavement, as one example. Careful
design and research has to be carried out to find appropriate limitations.
8.5 COST
Cost is an important factor in terms of recyclability and reuse of material and can be an incentive
to use such material. The construction industry is already recognizing the economic benefits of
using recycled materials, such as crushed PCC and aggregates for roadbase, and steel as an
example of very high recycling rate which originally derive from the economical benefits of using
used steel. The cost-effectiveness of substituting conventional aggregate with recycled materials
is highly dependent on the location, the quality and cost of local aggregates. Comparable figures
are very difficult to find in the literature depending on these local conditions and equipment cost.
Recycling versus tipping fees and distances to landfills are other important aspects for the
feasibility of recycling.
In some urban areas recycling can be more profitable than in rural areas. In rural areas recycling
can be expensive and impractical due to high transportation cost and the lack of nearby materials.
29
On the other hand, if materials are available, reuse of materials that otherwise have to be
transported can be very cost effective. Whatever is the closest and cheapest alternative can be
considered to be the most attractive.
8.6 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS ENVIRONMENTAL FOCUS
Discussing materials and resources and their environmental impacts is not only about
recyclability and the reuse of materials. One of the most important approaches to every design
that should be made is to look at the total life cycle impacts of the material. Life cycle analysis
(LCA) focusing on cost is usually carried out for projects. Life cycle analysis focusing on
environmental impacts is related to these costs and has to be considered as well.
The life cycle consists of many different processes and activities and for a pavement construction
the main activities can be categorized in: the extraction of the material, the production of the
material, all the transportation activities related to these activities, the construction activities
related to the placement of the material, the maintenance activities related to the structure and the
end of life of the pavement.
All these stages uses materials, require energy and release emissions contributing to the overall
environmental impacts from the pavement over its entire life. All these stages also relate to many
other activities and processes that use materials, consume energy and release emissions as well.
The cradle to grave of many processes that interrelate is included in a LCA. Chemical leakage,
the embodied energy content and the embodied greenhouse gas emissions are some measures that
can give a sense of how the materials really perform. Using virgin materials may not be superior
to using recycled materials (Carpenter et al, 2006).
Using recyclable materials may decrease the life of the pavement, and if this is the case, the
overall embodied energy content and embodied emissions content might be higher than if using
conventional materials (due to the increase in construction and maintenance activities this shorter
life of the stucture brings).
There are a wide variety of LCA approaches and design tools available in the market. It is a
complex process to carry out detailed LCAs with environmental focus, and its a matter of
setting up boundaries for when the cycle starts and where it ends, what processes to include and
30
what material flows to study. Once performed however, it can provide the very useful information
needed to decide weather one approach is superior to another.
8.6.1
LCA Tools for Pavement Design
The Pavement Life-cycle Assessment Tool for Environmental and Economic Effects (PaLATE)
is a design tool developed at the University of California at Berkeley for the Recycled Materials
Resource Center (RMRC) and the FHWA (Horvath, 2003). It provides a life-cycle assessment
(LCA) framework and computer-based tool including environmental and economic parameters
for evaluation of pavement construction. The purpose of this tool is to assists decision-makers in
evaluating the use of recycled materials in highway construction and maintenance activities
(Horvath, 2003).
This tool evaluates the environmental performance of emissions and energy use associated to
construction, transportation and maintenance of asphalt and Portland cement concrete pavement,
subbase, embankment and shoulder material. It provides an assessment of the use of recycled
material from demolished pavements as well as an assessment of industrious by products that
may be used in road construction and pavement structures. It also performs an analysis of life
cycle costs. The results between different design alternatives can be compared to each other in
regards to these environmental as well as economical performances.
The results are provided in graphs describing each phase, effects from processes, material
transportation and materials production. This tool can be very helpful in deciding between design
options and the feasibility of actual environmental and economical impacts. Credit will be given
for analysis performed in PaLATE.
8.7 TRANSPORTATION ACTIVITIES
The effects of transportation on fossil fuel consumption and the resulting pollution is well
established and it is significant (EPA, 2002). The construction of roads certainly include large
masses of materials that needs to be transported over great distances. This impact not only release
air pollution and consumes fossil fuel, but also has impact on infrastructure maintenance in terms
of road usage.
In regards to the use of material and resources, the effect of transportation of these materials has a
considerable effect on the actual impact over the entire life cycle of the material. The use of fly-
31
ash and slag cement as replacement in PCC is increasing in Washington state, but the availability
of theses materials from this region is low. Large quantities of slag cement is imported and
transported from Japan. Fly-ash is available in Washington State and in Oregon, but large
quantities are also imported from Alberta, Canada. This needs to be addressed and could be
considered in an LCA. Additionally, to use regional or local products can support regional
economies by promoting growth for local businesses. See Appendix A for evaluation of
recyclable materials and their availability, and see Appendix E for available virgin quarries and
pits in Washington State used by WSDOT for HMA and PCC pavements.
LEED-NC (v. 2.2) credit MR 5 award building materials or products that have been extracted,
harvested or recovered, as well as manufactured, within 500 miles of the project site for a
minimum of 10% (based on cost) of the total materials value. This measure can provide an
incentive for the above mentioned aspects and this credit will be adapted to this system as well.
8.8 REGULATIONS IN WASHINGTON STATE
WSDOT Standard Specifications (WSDOT, 2006) state requirements and limitations for the use
of recycled content in materials in pavement applications. Before setting criteria limits, these
regulations needs to be considered. General Requirements for Recycled Materials are stated in 903.21.
Asphalt concrete pavements

The contractor has the option of utilizing recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) up to 20% of
the total weight of the aggregates (5-04.2). The RAP may be from pavements removed
under the contract, if any, or pavement material from an existing stockpile. For Ballast,
Crushed surfacing and Gravel Backfills the limit is set to 1.2 % (of the binder) (903.21(2)).
Fly-Ash
Fly ash may be used in cement concrete pavements and shall not exceed 35 % by weight
of the total cementitious material (5-05.3(4)). It shall conform to (9-23.9) and shall be
limited to Class F with a maximum CaO content of 15 % by weight.
32
Slag Cement (Ground Granulated Furnace Slag)
Ground granulated blast furnace slag may be used and shall not exceed 25 % by weight
of the total cementitious material (5-05.3(4)) and shall conform to (9-23.10).
When both ground granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash are included in the concrete
mix, the total weight of both these materials is limited to 35 % by weight of the total
cementitious material.
Blended Hydraulic Cement

As an alternative to the use of fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag and cement as
separate components, a blended hydraulic cement may be used (5-05.3(4)). It shall
conform to AASHTO M 240 and the Types as described in (9-01.2(4))
Recycled Portland Cement Concrete Rubble

May be used as or blended up to 100% with ballast, shoudler ballast, crushed surfacing
base and top course, gravel aggregate, gravel backfill and as foundation material Class A,
B and C (9-03.21(3)). RCM is not allowed as fine or coarse material in new PCC or as
aggregates in HMA or as Asphalt treated base.
Glass
Recycled glass may be used as ballast, shoulder ballast, crushed surfacing and gravel
aggregate up to 15% by weight as noted in 9-03.21(4). As foundation material and gravel
backfill in certain situations 100% glass may be used as stated in 9-03.21(4).
These are the mentioned recyclable materials in WSDOT specifications. As mentioned previously,
there are other materials to be used as replacement of virgin materials and these could be
considered as well. Following information in addition to the specifications was retrieved by
correspondence with Linda Pierce, State Pavement Engineer, WSDOT, February 2007:
Scrap Tires are not prohibited to use but need to get special approval.
Shingles are currently not being used by WSDOT.
Glass is being allowed as stated above but is not being used, mainly due to cost.
33
8.9 CRITERIA DEFINITIONS
A total of 8 credits can be achieved in this category; Materials & Resources (MR).
Table 3. Credits available in category Materials & Resources
Materials & Resources (MR)
Credits
Construction Waste Management
Reuse of Pavement 1
Reuse of Pavement 2
Recycled Content 1
Recycled Content 2
Life Cycle Analysis
Regionally Provided Material
Total credits available
Environmental credit is given to reuse and recycling of asphalt, PCC and other pavement
materials to substitute for virgin material production and minimize impacts related to this activity.
The life of recycled pavement materials starts at breaking up existing old pavement, followed by
transportation to deposit or asphalt/concrete plant, followed by crushing, mixing of new pavement
material and transportation to the location of the new pavement.
The life of pre-consumer materials starts at the end of the manufacturing process, such as the
product of fly-ash in the combustion process, or slag cement in the furnace.
A description of the credits with their intent and requirement follow.
34
8.9.1
MR-1. Construction Waste Management
The intent of this credit is to reduce the amount of waste going to landfills or incineration and
provide an incentive to include waste management practices in the project.
Construction Waste Management
1 Credit
Recycle or salvage at least 70% of non-hazardous construction and

demolition debris.
A plan for handling construction waste in the project should be submitted including calculation of
percentage of construction demolition waste (CDW) according to the recycling rate calculation
(modified from LEED v. 2.2):
CDW Re cyclingRate[%] =
Re cycledWaste[volume]
Re cycledWaste[volume] + LanfilledWaste[volume]
The Plan should include:
Quantities of construction waste generated presented by application.
A plan for processing, transportation and disposal of the waste.
A description of all material being disposed and location of disposal.
A description of recycled waste going back to manufacturing process and a description

of possible reuses in current or future projects.
Comments:
A possibility of earning a greater beneficial impact from the Construction Waste Management
credit could be to weight specific wastes depending on their impacts in regards to availability and
to promote recycling of specific materials depending on regional priorities or waste prevention
strategies. This should be developed in between agencies and their decisions.
35
The 70% limit comes from the fact that about 67% of total diverted materials related to
construction in Washington State account for asphalt or concrete debris as described in Chapter
8.2.2., Construction Debris in Washington State. (Diverted material means materials taken from
the solid waste stream that previously ended up in landfills but now are being used in new
products). These numbers are approximate but can give an indication of quantities that are being
reused or recycled.
36
8.9.2
MR-2. Material Reuse 1
The intent of this credit is to salvage construction materials in the project to reduce the extraction
of virgin materials and/or production of new materials including all processes involved in theses
activities.
Reuse of Materials 1
1 Credit
Maintain 85% of the existing pavement material in new pavement

structure as base material or as total construction material based on
weight.
This credit is intended mainly for rehabilitation work.
Example:
Reuse PCC pavements, asphalt pavements or reuse native soil, sand, gravel and rocks for new use
in top courses, base courses, embankments and fills.
Re usedRate[%] =
Re usedmaterial [tons ]
Basematerial [tons ]
Or
Re usedRate[%] =
Re usedmaterial [tons ]
TotalMaterial [tons ]
A description of the material to be reused and its new application should be submitted together
with the estimates.
37
8.9.3
MR-3. Material Reuse 2
Same intent as MR-2, with further incentive for material reuse.

Reuse of Materials 2
1 Credit
Maintain additional 10% (Total 95%) of existing pavement materials in

new pavement structure as base material or total construction material
based on weight.
Same requirement and calculation as MR-2.

Comments:
Analysis of different pavement types, rehabilitation of commonly used pavements in Washington
State, and the reuse of variations of the materials are evaluated to set the criteria limits. See
Appendix B for example.
The idea of credit MR-2 and MR-3 is derived from LEED-NC v. 2.2 credit MR 3.1 and 3.2,
Materials Reuse in Materials and Resources.
38
8.9.4
MR-4. Recycled Content 1
The intent of this credit is to promote the use of recycled material to minimize the extraction of
virgin materials and impacts from production processes as well as reduce waste.
Recycled Content 1
1 Credit
Use recycled content to a minimum of 25% in the HMA/PCC and 40% of

the total material in the structure if base course is included in the project.
Recycled content is based on replacement of conventional material to a percentage based on the

weight of the aggregates. For assembled materials, calculate the recycled content specifically for
the assembly.
Example:
Binding mediums material would be one assembly group, aggregates used another, steel another,
etc. Use the Application Table 2 in Design Options for assembly groups. See Appendix B for
examples.
Assembly Re cycledContent[%] =
MaterialWeight [tons ] Re cycledContent[%]

TotalWeightAssembly[tons ]
HMAandPCC Re cycledContent[%] =
TotalMaterial Re cycledContent [%] =
( Assembly Re cycledContent[%] TotalWeightAssembly[tons])

TotalWeightHMA / PCC [tons ]
(Assembly Re cycledContent[%] TotalWeightAssembly[tons ])

TotalMaterialWeight [tons ]
Example technologies:
Fly-ash, Slag cement, glass, scrap tires, foundry sand or shingles are possible recycled materials
that can replace part of the virgin materials. The use of RCP and RAP can contribute to this credit
as well.
39
8.9.5
MR-5. Recycled content 2
Same intent as MR-4.

Recycled Content 2
1 Credit
Use recycled content additionally 10% (total 35%) in the HMA/PCC and
50% of the total material in the structure if base courses are included.
Comments:
Analysis of different pavement types, rehabilitation of commonly used pavements in Washington
State and the reuse of variations of the materials has been performed to set the criteria limits. See
Appendix B for example sheets.
The idea of credit MR-4 and MR-5 is derived from LEED-NC v. 2.2 credit MR 4.1 and 4.2,
Recycled Content in Materials and Resources.
40
8.9.6
MR-6. Life Cycle Analysis
The intent of this credit is to minimize the extraction of virgin materials, impacts from production
and construction processes, transportation as well as reduce waste and costs.
Life Cycle Analysis
2 Credits
Perform a life cycle analysis in PaLATE and document the results for the
project alternatives for environmental impacts as well as costs.
Present the results with comparisons and describe the selected option for the project in which
categories it was beneficial in terms of energy, emissions, recycled materials quantities, leakage
releases, life cycle costs, etc.
Comments:
PaLATE is available from FHWA and the Recycled Materials Resource Center (RMRC). The
idea of this credit is to encourage the design team to think in life cycle terms of material and
construction alternatives and their environmental as well as economical impacts.
41
8.9.7
MR-7. Regionally Provided Material
The intent of this credit is to reduce environmental impacts from transportation activities as well
as support regional/local economy.
Regionally provided material
1 Credit
A minimum of 50% of total material (based on cost) should be

manufactured, extracted, or processed within a radius of 150 miles of the
project.
In order to calculate the Local Regional Product Rate (LRPR) following equation can be used
(modified from LEED v.2.2).
Local Re gional Pr oductRate[%] =
Local Re gional Pr oductCost [$]

TotalMaterialsCost [$]
The total material costs (excluding labor and equipment) of individual products that are
manufactured within 150 miles each contribute to the local regional product cost. If only a
fraction of a product or material is extracted/harvested/recovered and manufactured locally, then
only that percentage (by weight) shall contribute to the regional value (LEED NC v.2.2,
USGBC).
Comments:
This credit is benchmarked from USGBC LEED-NC v. 2.2, however a larger quantity is set as
limit compared to LEED-NC v. 2.2 due to the type of materials used in roadway construction, and
a lower radius limit is set as well (the radius limit is 500 miles in LEED). See Appendix E for
available virgin quarries and pits in Washington State used by WSDOT.
The radius can be discussed. An idea is to develop the credit and base the thresholds on ton-mile
values rather than only miles, which would include weight as well as distance, since weight also
an important factor in emissions rate and fuel needs. This should be further analyzed.
42
8.10 DISCUSSION
Quality of the products containing recycled material is often source dependent and careless use
can lead to bad performance. Specifications and requirements should of course be met in the first
hand, the intent of this category is to force additional innovative ideas in the design and give an
opportunity to design and get credit for this.
LCAs can determine the different parts of a materials cycle and their actual impacts on the
environment. Collection, transportation and processing of reclaimed material for recycling can
require significant amounts of energy depending on situation and methods. It can be the case that
different environmental goals collide, and trade offs will be the result.
In 2005, the Solid Waste and Financial Assistance Program (SW&FAP) at The Department of
Ecology in WA started a Green Building Partnership with Cascadia Green Building Council (The
North West Chapter of USGBC developing the LEED standard). This partnership is intended to
educate research and promote green building initiatives as a way to reduce waste and promote
recyclability. A similar partnership should definitely exist for the green road research and
construction of road industry as well.
For this category Materials & Resources, consider including credits for pavement markings,
railings and other smaller objects as well.
43
9. STORMWATER MANAGEMENT (SM)

Impervious surfaces can have large impacts in water flows and water quality hence impacting
lands, waters, living organisms and habitats. Stormwater management encompasses the
engineering efforts used to control rainwater runoff from impervious surfaces and these adverse
effects. Stormwater management is also a heavy regulated category on a Federal, State and Local
level.
With this taken into account, the intent of this chapter will be to set up credit requirements in
addition to these prescriptive regulations with the assumption that further research and
development of this category has to take place. Background, impacts, Best Management Practices
(BMPs) and credit ideas will be described with an effort to not conflict with anything that is
already controlled by regulation. The intention is to influence decision making where this is
possible. Ideas of credit will be presented with the presumption that additional detailed analysis
needs to be conducted in order to fully develop stormwater management credits.
9.1 OVERVIEW
Stormwater runoff is all precipitation in the form of rain or snow that falls on surfaces such as
paved streets, gravel roads, parking lots, rooftops, sport fields, or any developed land. These
surfaces are usually impervious (not allowing the water to seep through the surface) which causes
large impacts in the environment due to changes in quantity and quality of water flows. These
impacts are significant and can change hydrological cycles, natural habitats, geological conditions
and create severe pollution of all water bodies. The impacts are mainly concerns related to
(Department of Ecology, 2005 Brattebo & Booth, 2003; LID, 1999):
A reduction in infiltration which impacts water discharge
An increase in surface runoff volumes and rate of flow
An increased amount of pollutants entering all waters
Other impacts due to increased impervious surfaces in an urban environment involve

contributions to the urban heat island effect described in Chapter 10; Energy and Environmental
Control.
44
Reduction in infiltration:
A big percentage of the precipitation falling on a surface is supposed to infiltrate into the ground
contributing to groundwater recharge. Impervious areas create a reduction in this infiltration. This
can result in a decreased groundwater recharge (Brattebo & Booth, 2003) and therefore impact
the water table by allowing less water to be held in the ground. The reduction in infiltration can
dry up small streams and wetlands in the summer (WSDOT, 2006; LID, 1999) and cause aquatic
habitats to be uninhabitable during these times.
Increased surface runoff:

Poor infiltration causes an increase of surface water during a rain event initiating irregular flow
rates as the water run off faster and in greater amounts than from undeveloped pervious areas.
These increases in runoff flows can result in higher and more rapid peak stream flows which can
cause bank erosion, increased sediments transport as well as cause stream channel changes that
can destroy habitat for fish and other organisms (Brattebo & Booth, 2003; Department of Ecology,
2005; Collins et al, 2006; LID, 1999). Figure 10 presents a relationship between runoff,
infiltration rates and the percentage of impervious areas for different urban developments. Under
natural and undeveloped conditions, surface runoff can range from 10 to 30 percent of the total
annual precipitation (LID, 1999), but as much as 50 percent in developed urban areas.
Figure 10. Infiltration and runoff rates in relation to imperviousness

(LID, 1999)
45
Water pollution:
As water runs off any impervious surface it picks up and mixes with materials on the ground,
some of which are known pollutants. Examples of these polluntants are oil, grease and coolants
from vehicles, fertilizers and pesticides from farming or gardening, soil from construction sites,
trash and animal waste. The dirty runoff then flows directly into streams, wetlands, rivers, lakes
and other waters without being treated and cleaned of pollutants. This polluted water impacts fish
and other habitat significantly (Department of Ecology, 2003), as well as groundwater quality and
swimming waters (for public health). In addition to surface pollutants, rain can also contain
airborne pollutants due to atmospheric deposition (WSDOT, 2006).
In Washington State, The Department of Ecology estimates that 30 percent of all the polluted
water in the state is polluted by stormwater runoff (Department of Ecology, 2003). Less than half
of all salmon and steelhead stocks in Puget Sound are considered healthy due to this pollution and
65 percent of estuaries in the state have temperatures exceeding state water quality standards
(Department of Ecology, 2003). Overall, the Puget Sound Area is highly concerned with impacts
from stormwater runoff (LID, 1999) because of its rapid urban development.
Managing storm water runoff is important to help to reduce these pollution problems that make
all water, hence all related activities, unhealthy in the ecological, hydrological, geological cycles
as well as for all wildlife habitats as well as for public health.
9.2 STORMWATER AND ROADWAYS
Typically, roadways are impervious surfaces covering large areas of land, especially when
considering paved parking lots (see also Chapter 10; Energy & Environmental Control, The
Urban Heat Island Effect).
Runoff from roadways usually contains pollutants due to traffic activities, road construction and
road maintenance. Hydrocarbons (Hc), volatile matters (VM), suspended solids (SS) and heavy
metals are all constituents of pavement runoff (Legret et al, 1996; Sansalone et al, 1996; WSDOT,
2006). Leakage from the materials used in the structure can have impact on the runoff pollution,
however, it is important to remember that most of the pollution from a roadway is not from the
pavement itself, but rather from the activities taking place during usage of the roadway.
46
Leakage of oil and grease are examples of hydrocarbons, and also contributes to phosphorus
pollution and heavy metals. Tire wear is a source of zinc and cadmium (Sansalone et al, 1996;
WSDOT, 2006; Legret & Pagotto, 1999) Break wear is a source of copper, lead, chromium and
manganese (Sansalone et al, 1996; Legret & Pagotto, 1999). Engine wear and fluid leakage is a
source of aluminum, copper, nickel and chromium. Lead comes mainly from the gasoline in the
car, and studies in France has shown the use of unleaded gasoline resulted in a significant
decrease in lead released in the runoff (Legret & Pagotto, 1999). Unlike other organic compounds,
metal elements are not degraded in the environment and are usually washed off the pavement
during the first rain, referred to as the first-flush. (Sansalone et al, 1996).
The impacts of stormwater runoff from state owned rights-of-way vary widely (WSDOT, 2006),
depending on surrounding land use, climate patterns, soil characteristics, receiving water
characteristics, and other local factors. While the runoff discharged from highways and other
transportation infrastructure represents only a portion of the runoff affecting nearby water bodies,
it contributes to the increasing degradation of those waters (WSDOT, 2006). No data is found of
how much of the polluted water in the state is estimated to come from paved roads.
9.2.1
Best Management Practices, BMPs
To address storm water management practices, Best Management Practices (BMPs) have been
developed to mitigate the effects of stormwater runoff.
BMPs are defined as physical, structural, and

managerial practices that, when used individually
or in combination, prevent or reduce pollution of
water and attenuate peakflows and volumes
(WSDOT, 2006).
BMPs are categorized as temporary or

permanent.
Temporary
BMPs
are
typically used only during the construction

phase of a project. Permanent BMPs are
used to control and treat runoff throughout
the design life of the project site.
Temporary BMPs are discussed more in Chapter 11; Construction Activities, Temporary Storm
Water Control.
There is a wide variety of design options available as permanent BMPs. Depending on the project
size, the site characteristics, surrounding geological and hydrogeological circumstances,
47
surrounding habitats and nearness to wetlands and water bodies, etc, individual evaluation is
needed to decide on the most feasible option for each project.
In regards to the three key issues described in the overview (reduced infiltration, increased
surface run-off and water pollution) BMPs are often categorized into three major target areas:
Source control: Prevents or reduces the introduction of pollutants to stormwater by

treating the source.
Flow control: Balances and lessens the increased rate of discharge caused by
impervious surfaces.
Runoff treatment: Captures and reduces the physical, chemical, and biological
pollutant loads generated primarily from roadway usage.
WSDOTs Highway Runoff Manual (WSDOT, 2006) describes conventional and evaluated
BMPs feasible for control of these functions and provide guidelines of design choice and
considerations.
9.3 BMP OPTIONS
The following overview provides information on the most commonly used runoff treatment
BMPs available for roadway applications as well as present some new emerging techniques.
9.3.1
BMPs for Stormwater Source Control
Source control is mainly related to the activities taking place on the actual roadway such as
choice of deicing technique, dust control, maintenance activities, spills of oil and other toxic
compounds, landscaping management etc. These source control activities are important to address
since removal of the source would reduce the need for pollution treatment. However, these
activities will not be treated in more detail here as this Thesis focuses on the impacts from the
actual permanent structure and not the activities taking place by using it. Temporary source
control for construction activities is dealt with in Chapter 11; Construction Activities.
9.3.2
BMPs for Stormwater Runoff Treatment
Runoff treatment BMPs are designed to remove pollutants picked up by the stormwater and
transported with this water. These treatments can be a variety of techniques including
sedimentation, filtration, plant uptake, ion exchange, adsorption, precipitation, and bacterial
48
decomposition (WSDOT, 2006). Some of the techniques to use can provide both runoff treatment
and flow control functions. Table 4 present a summary of BMPs described in the HRM for runoff
treatment.
Table 4. Stormwater runoff treatment BMPs
BMP Type
Infiltration
Dispersion
Biofiltration
Wet Pools
Technique
Bioinfiltration pond
Infiltration Pond
Infiltration Trench
Infiltration Vault
Natural Dispersion
Engineered Dispersion
Vegetated Filter Strip
Biofiltration Swale
Wet Biofiltration Swale
Continuous Inflow
Biofiltration Swale
Ecology Embankment
Wet Pond
Combined Wet/Detention
Pond
Constructed Stormwater
Treatment Wetland
Combined Stormwater
Treatment
Wetland/Detention Pond
WSDOT Reference
HRM Section 5-4.2.1
HRM Section 5-4.2.2

HRM Section 5-4.1.3
HRM Section 5-4.1.4
Features
Treatment and
flow control.
(Can be LID
design)
Treatment and
flow control.
Treatment.
(Can be LID
design)
Treatment
(possible flow
control).
Infiltration BMPs are structures that recharge groundwater by seeping the water through material
such as sand and slowly releasing it back into the environment. Pollution treatment is very
efficient (WSDOT, 2006; UNH, 2005) and achieved by filtering the water and settling of the
sediments and the particles. Conventional infiltration facilities usually need a settling basin and
therefore require larger spaces.
9.3.3
BMPs for Stormwater Flow Control
Flow control BMPs are intended to prevent higher stormwater runoff volumes and rapid flow
rates beyond those of natural conditions. The BMPs can be infiltration, dispersion and detention
ponds. Infiltration is the preferred method of flow control according to the HRM. Some of the
techniques to use can provide both runoff treatment and flow control functions. Table 5 presents a
summary of BMPs described in the HRM for flow control.
49
Table 5, Stormwater flow control BMPs
BMP Type
Infiltration
Dispersion
Detention
Technique
Bioinfiltration pond
Infiltration Pond
Infiltration Trench
Infiltration Vault
Drywell
Permeable Pavement
Natural Dispersion
Engineered Dispersion
Detention Ponds
WSDOT Reference
HRM Section 5-4.2.1
Features
Treatment and flow
control
HRM Section 5-4.2.2
Treatment and flow

control
Flow Control
HRM Section 5-4.2.3
Detention ponds are a frequently used conventional strategy for flow control (WSDOT, 2006).
They are efficient in stormwater treatment (UNH, 2005) but they may be considered inefficient
use of developable land. According to the EPA detention ponds are prone to early siltation and
clogging, create long-term aesthetic problems and can cause insect breeding and weed growth as
well as odor. (EPA, 2006)
9.3.4
Emerging Techniques
There are newer technologies that have been developed to meet urban stormwater control needs.
According to the HRM, Emerging BMPs are Technologies that have not been evaluated using
approved protocols, but for which preliminary data indicate that they may provide a desirable
level of stormwater pollutant removal.
Because no standardized statewide procedure for evaluating these technologies has been available,
local jurisdictions and commercial establishments have had to individually decide on their use.
This has resulted in differences in the standard for accepting new and unproven technologies. As
a result, the Washington State Department of Ecology developed a program for evaluating
unproven technologies. They also approve information and decisions on their use (Department of
Ecology, 2006).
The Stormwater Center at the University of New Hampshire has performed research in
stormwater design methods. During one year, they evaluated 12 stormwater treatments (both
emerging technologies and conventional techniques) for water quality, pollutant removal, flow
reduction, maintenance and materials. Interesting results showed that several Low Impact
Development designs (LID) as well as new manufactured devices were very efficient in pollution
removal and peak flow recharge, whereas traditional approaches did relatively worse (UNH,
50
2005). Note, this result reflect the circumstances under which they were conducted and does not
mean emerging techniques in general are better than conventional.
9.3.5
Low Impact Development Design (LID)
Low Impact Development design, sometimes called just Low Impact Design, is a category of
stormwater management that focuses on using natural soil, plants and landscaping design to
mimic natural conditions to as large extent as possible.
Research results (UNH, 2005) comparing a variety of BMPs under identical conditions indicate
that LID approaches generally remove the highest levels of contaminants and at the same time
provide flow control. Examples of LID and their hydrolic functions and treatment efficiencies are
listed in Table 5 and Table 6. Some but not all of these techniques are listed as BMPs in the
Highway Runoff Manual and the Stormwater Management Manual for Eastern and Western
Washington (WSDOT, 2006; Department of Ecology, 2005; LID, 1999)
Table 6. LID preferred management practices (PMP) and their hydrologic functions
(LID, 1999)
The ratings High, Moderate, Low, and None stands for the degree of impact in respective
hydrologic function by the named preferred management practice (PMP).
51
Table 7. LID practices and their pollutant removal efficiencies
(LID, 1999)
Compared to conventional BMPs, LID can decrease the use of storm drain piping, inlet structures,
and eliminate or decrease the size of large stormwater ponds. As an example one of the most
common LID designs used (UNH, 2005; LID, 1999) is the bioretention system. This system
removes pollutants, reduce peak flow and peak volumes through infiltration but also by
evapotranspiration. The bioretention system is an example of a practice with many functions.
Figure 11 present an illustration of the functions and Figure 12 present an image of how the
surface landscaping could look like over a bioretention system.
Figure 11. Illustration of a typical bioretention system

(LID, 1999)
52
The tree and vegetated layer captures the water and provides ecological, hydrologic, and habitat
functions. The storage area provides runoff detention. The organic ground cover provides
pollutant removal and water storage. The planting bed soil provides runoff infiltration, pollutant
removal through groundwater recharge and evapotranspiration through the plant material.
Figure 12. Example of bioretention system landscaping

(LID, 1999)
9.3.6
Manufactured Devices Subsurface Treatments
One other alternative to the conventional systems mentioned in Table 4 and Table 5 is to use
manufactured underground detention and infiltration systems. Typically these are used under a
constructed facility such as a parking lot or roadway and do not require additional land. A couple
of commonly used examples (out of many) will be introduced here. One example is the
Underground Detention Unit, see example in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Underground detention units

(UNH, 2005; EPA, 2006)
53
It can consist of two units in a series, a water quality unit and a larger detention unit. The water
quality unit is usually made of HDPE (High Density Polyethylene). Stormwater is treated for
sediments and floatables in the HDPE pipes and then flows into the adjacent storage infiltration
unit where a sandy subbase filtrate and treat the water from pollutants. The pollution treatment
rate (over 90%) and the average peak flow reduction rate (over 80%) are found to be very
efficient (UNH, 2005).
There
are
many
proprietary
compact
subsurface treatment systems available too.

The Aqua Swirl and Aqua Filter system (made
by Aquashield, Inc) is one example, see Figure
14. These type of systems can be used as a
treatment chain where the swirl provide pretreatment followed by the filtration chamber
capable of removing fine sediments of both
soluble and insoluble pollutants (UNH, 2005).
Figure 14. Illustration of Aqua Swirl and Filter
They basically function to remove fine treatment system.

particles from stormwater but provide no peak
(EPA, 2007)
flow reduction. These systems are usually made of High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) which
prevents corrosion, are recyclable and makes them lightweight and durable (EPA, 2006).
Currently the Department of Ecology issues this technique as approved for pilot use designation,
which means it is a promising technique but need more verification testing. Field studies are
currently underway for performance and use in Washington State (Department of Ecology, 2006).
Other manufacturered hydrodynamic separators are also available for design to avoid larger
stormwater treatment facilities. Most are only water quality treatment facilities and provide no
flow control. The primary contaminant treated is sediments and oil. One major disadvantage of
these manufactured devices are that they generally require frequent inspections and cleaning
(UNH, 2005), hence higher maintenance costs and efforts.
54
9.3.7
Partial Exfiltration Trench (PET)
A partial exfiltration trench (PET) is an engineered trench. As shown by the cross-sectional view
in Figure 15, the PET is a hybrid design consisting of a porous pavement surface, a column of
sand working as a filter, and an underdrain (Li et al, 1999; Sansalone et al, 1996). During a
runoff event, surface flow infiltrates the porous pavement and percolates down through the sand
column. Some of the flow exfiltrates to the surrounding soil, and some discharge into the
underdrain. Suspended solids and dissolved metals are treated in the sand column. Also
temporary storage of infiltrated water in the pore space of the sand reduces the peak flow rate.
Hence, the PET serves a dual function: treatment of run-off as well as flow control.
Figure 15. Cross section of a PET.

(Li et al, 1999)
The PET is suited for installation along paved surfaces, such as roads and parking lots, where it
can capture and treat surface runoff. Disadvantages can be the clogging of the porous top
capturing the water, due to dust, particles or possibly even trash along the roadside.
9.3.8
Permeable Pavements
Permeable pavements, also called pervious or porous pavements, is a construction technique

found to be an efficient alternative to conventional BMPs (NAPA, 2003; McNally et al, 2007;
EPA, 1999). Permeable pavements are said to promote infiltration, improve water quality and
eliminate the need for a detention basin or other large surface demanding BMPs. The pavement
55
may be permeable concrete or permeable asphalt, or manufactured systems such as interlocking
brick for parking spaces and sidewalks.
Permeable Pavements have shown dramatic reductions in surface runoff volumes and peak flow
rates and research indicates that permeable pavements are more efficient than conventional
materials at improving the quality of runoff while maintaining infiltration (Collins et al, 2006;
Brattebo & Booth, 2003; McNally et al, 2007; EPA, 1999; NAPA, 2003).
Permeable pavement may be used on parking areas, roads with light traffic and shoulders
provided that the grades, subsoils, drainage characteristics, and groundwater conditions are
suitable (EPA, 1999).
9.3.8.1 Porous Asphalt Pavements
Porous asphalt pavement is growing in popularity in usage for parking lots and low volume roads
(NAPA, 2003). Porous asphalt pavement consists of an open-graded surface course, a top filter
course, a reservoir course, filter fabric and existing soil or subgrade material. (NAPA, 2003; EPA,
1999). Figure 16 present an overview of a typical pourous asphalt pavement structure.
Figure 16. Typical porous asphalt pavement structure

(Modified from presentation: Kent Hansen, NAPA)
The following description is based on the National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA)
publication Porous Asphalt Pavements, (NAPA, 2003). The porous asphalt course is usually 24 inches thick and has a void space of 16% or more. The open pores in the permeable surface
56
allow water to penetrate through the surface into the filter course and to the reservoir course were
water can be stored like a detention basin. The filter course provides some filtration of particles,
but also serves as protection for the reservoir course during placement of the asphalt mix. The
reservoir course is minimum 8-9 inches thick and consists of uniformly graded crushed stone.
The void space is about 40% which provide stormwater storage as well as passage. Water then
slowly penetrates further through the structure into the soil. This reduces the rate and volume of
discharge while treating the stormwater of pollutants.
9.3.8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Water quality in a study (Brattebo & Booth, 2003) performed for long term performance of
permeable pavements (porous asphalt) of a large parking area South of Seattle in WA has found
that water quality was significant better than surface runoff from the conventional asphalt parking
areas. Durability was inspected after 6 years of heavy use of the parking area, and no significant
signs of wear were shown (Brattebo & Booth, 2003). Other studies have given similar results
(Collins et al, 2006; NAPA, 2003; EPA, 1999). The peak flow rate is also found to be reduced
significantly when compared to conventional asphalt pavement runoff. Substantial volume
reductions have been observed in the total amount of water leaving the permeable pavement
sections as runoff and also as exfiltrate in the soil (Collins et al, 2006).
Other advantages are lower pavement noise (Munden, 2006), increased skid resistance (NAPA,
2003; EPA, 1999) and possible cooling of the pavements due to evapotranspiration (See also
Chapter Energy & Environmental Control: Cool Pavements & The Heat Island Effect).
Figure 17 show how rainwater remains
on the surface on a conventional HMA
pavement (right side) compared to a
porous asphalt pavement (left side).
Figure 18 show how water easily
penetrates through the open graded top
course.
Figure 17. Porous asphalt in Arizona and skid resistance

(Image from presentation: Kent Hansen, NAPA)
57
Figure 18. Porous asphalt water penetration (right)

(Image from presentation: Kent Hansen, NAPA)
However, the use of porous pavements is constrained (EPA, 1999; WSDOT, 2006). Generally,
they require deep permeable soils, restricted traffic, and there is also a risk of groundwater
contamination if the system is not used properly. Pollutants that are not easily trapped, adsorbed,
or reduced, may continue to move through the soil profile and into the groundwater (EPA, 1999).
Another disadvantage is that porous pavements need to be maintained to obtain design efficiency
and design life.
One other issue is the clogging of pavement pores by sediments, dust (NAPA, 2003; EPA, 1999)
and ice (in wintertime). University of New Hampshire (UNH, 2005) is currently doing research to
see if less salt can be used in de-icing in a porous parking lot. It appears that much less salt is
needed to treat the porous material, since salt crystals tend to remain on the porous asphalt. On
regular asphalt, salt washes away with the run-off.
The WSDOT HRM currently does not consider porous asphalt pavements as stand-alone runoff
treatment or flow control BMP. However, when used as part of a project surface, it can reduce the
total runoff, thereby providing an overall reduction to the size and placement of other acceptable
runoff treatment and flow control BMPs.
The HRM suggest the use of permeable pavement surfaces to be used at nonpollution-generating
surfaces such as pedestrian/bike paths, raised traffic islands, and sidewalks. Permeable surfaces
58
with a media filtration sublayer (such as sand or an amended soil) could be applied to pollutiongenerating surfaces such as parking lots and low volume roads.
9.3.9
Alternative Road Layout for Residential Areas
Traffic or road layout can have a very significant influence on the total imperviousness hence
hydrology of a site plan. Data from the National LID Manual (LID, 1999) suggest that the total
impervious surface associated with roads for a particular development can vary from 20,800
linear ft for a typical gridiron layout to 15,300 linear ft for a loops and lollipops layout (Figure
19). According to this data, selection of an alternative road layout can result in a total site
impervious surface reduction of 26 percent. This type of approach is outside the scope of this
thesis as this relates more to Sustainable Alignment (see Chapter 13; Sustainable Alignment), but
should be considered in a future analysis.
Figure 19. Road layout options and impervious area.

(LID, 1999)
59
9.4 POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES
The variety of BMP available is big and depends on the specific project and its site specific
conditions. In addition to the BMPs described in the HRM and the procedure to choose the most
feasible option, these are some other aspects which could be considered in making decision or
choosing between optimal BMPs. These can be defined in terms of pollution prevention
opportunities such as:
Effective Life
Footprint
Material Usage
Maintenance Needs
Pollution Treatment and Flow Control Efficiency
Emerging Techniques
Effective life. Design life is important when it comes to sustainability (and also cost). The longer
life of the stormwater structure, the less overall environmental impacts due to less construction
maintenance and operations as well as less material extraction. Table 8 from the HRM present an
overview of effective life of different BMP options. This is not an absolute measure and
evaluation for each specific site should be carried out.
60
Table 8. Overview of effective life for BMPs
(WSDOT Highway Runoff Manual, Table 5.3.1)
Footprint. The less footprint required for a structure, the less impact in habitats and surrounding
natural land.
Conventional stormwater management has focused on large systems and possibly overlooked the
consideration of smaller solutions or facilities placed under the actual pavement structure.
Smaller footprints provide an opportunity to preserve hydrologic, geologic and ecologic functions
of a landscape.
Table 9 presents examples of structures and their design area in relation to catchment area. The
area of a designed device will of course depend on the specific situation, but the intention is to
give and idea of the different footprints needed in comparison to each other. In some cases the
facility is below the pavement surface, in some cases additional footprint is required outside the
limits of the pavement.
61
Table 9. Summary of stormwater strategies and related footprints
(UNH, 2005)
Stormwater Design
Underground
Detention Unit
(Water Quality Unit)
Underground
Infiltration Unit
BMP Type
Manufactured
device
Surface Sand Filter

(Filtration)
Low Impact
Development
Design
Conventional
Structural
Retention Pond
Bioretention System
Aqua-Swirl and Aqua
Filter
Hydrodynamic
Separator
(sediment removal)
Gravel Wetland
(infiltration and
filtration)
Stone Swale
(Infiltration, limited
filtration)
Manufactured
device
Low Impact
Development
Design
Manufactured
device
Manufactured
device
Low Impact
Development
Design
Conventional
Structural
Catchment Area
1 acre
Peak flow 1 cfs
Treatment Volume 3,264 cf
1 acre
Peak flow 1 cfs
1 acre
Peak flow 1 cfs
1 acre
Peak flow 1 cfs
1 acre
Peak flow 1 cfs
1 acre
Peak flow 1 cfs
1/3 acre
Peak flow 1/3 cfs
Treatment Volume 327 cf
1 acre
Peak flow 1 cfs
2 acre
Peak flow 2 cfs
Area Impacted
5 ft x 20 ft
22 ft x 40 ft
Filter bed 8 ft x 20 ft
Top Width: 31 ft x 41 ft
Overall: 46 ft x 70 ft
(varies)
Total Area: 4,100 sf
Swirl: 4.5 ft Diameter, 8 ft tall
Filter: 6.75 ft Diameter, 12 ft
long
Diameter: 4 ft
Depth: 6.5 ft
Total Area:
5,450 sf
Length: 280 ft
Width: ~10 ft
Material Usage. The less engineered material usage the less extraction of virgin materials and
impacts from production processes. The use of typical engineering materials such as concrete,
steel and plastic require production processes that need materials, energy and release emissions.
By using materials such as native plants, soil and gravel these systems can be more easily
integrated into the landscape and appear to be much more natural. Some considerations:
1. If engineered, the material should consist of recycled content and be recyclable,
see also Chapter: Material & Resources.
2. The embodied energy content of the materials to be used should be evaluated and
compared to conventional systems.
3. The embodied green house gas content should be evaluated and compared.
Embodied energy content and embodied green house gas content are focused life cycle analysis
of all processes that goes into the life of a material, such as all energy or emissions related to
material extraction, material production, transportation and end of life product.
62
Maintenance Needs. The construction with lower maintenance needs that requires less
mechanical equipment should be considered favorable. Maintentance needs vary greatly between
the different design options and can over the life of the system significantly impact the
sustainability measure (as well as cost). Look at the options over the life cycle of the system, the
activities related to these options and define the maintenance needs.
Pollution treatment effectiveness. The construction with the most effective pollution treatment.
As mentioned pollution treatment efficiency varies greatly and the need for treatment at different
sites as well. Treatment could be enhanced treatment a described in Table 3-1, HRM, which
provide additional treatment compared to the basic treatment as described in the HRM (WSDOT,
2006).
Flow control effectiveness. The construction with the most effective flow control function.
As mentioned flow control efficiency varies greatly and the need for flow control at different sites
as well. Perform further research to define this measure.
Emerging Technology. Motivate innovation and design. Use LID techniques that are approved
by the Department of Ecology and the WSDOT, or other emerging techniques. EPA lists
emerging techniques.
63
Stormwater runoff management practices are regulated on the Federal, State as well as on the
Local level.
Federal:
On a Federal level there are several regulations that have to be taken into consideration. The
Clean Water Act
from 1987 requires a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) permit or water quality discharge permit for all construction projects. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has given the Department of Ecology the authority to
implement these permits in Washington State.
State:
The Department of Ecology has developed Stormwater Manuals for Eastern and Western
Washington and in accordance with this WSDOTs Highway Runoff Manual provides the
regional requirements with listed BMPs.
In the Highway Runoff Manual, Chapter 3, minimum requirements are listed and should always
be met for the specific projects in Washington State. The chapter describes nine minimum
requirements that apply to the planning and design of stormwater management facilities and best
management practices (BMPs) for existing and new Washington State highways, rest areas, parkand-ride lots, ferry terminals, and highway maintenance facilities.
There are different treatment targets listed in the minimum requirements for Runoff Treatment
Control; 1) Basic Treatment, 2) Enhanced Treatment, 3) Oil Control and 4) Phosphorus Control.
Table 10 is taken from the HRM as example.
Local:
Additional more stringent guidelines may apply in local ordinances.
64
Table 10. Runoff treatment targets and applications for roadway projects
(WSDOT,HRM Table 3-1)
65
The intent with this category is not to compete or modify current stormwater regulations, but
rather to serve as an incentive to choose more sustainable option when given this choice
depending on regulation. The intention is to make decision maker think beyond basic
requirements.
A total of 7 credits can be achieved in this category; Stormwater Management (SM).
Table 11. Credits available in category Stormwater Management
Stormwater Management
Credits
Storm Water Management
Storm Water Design 1 Runofff Treatment
Storm Water Design 2 Permeable Area
Storm Water Design 3 Permeable Pavements
Innovative Stormwater Technology
Generally, to get credit in this category, proof must be shown for additional effort in regards to
environmental impacts than the basic requirements.
Minimum requirements in HRM Chapter 3 should be met, and approved BMPs in the HRM are
assumed to meet the basic treatment criteria. If local ordinance is more stringent, it should be
applied.
The process to approve an emerging technology through permitting is complex and requires much
work. Innovation in design is assigned additional credits to provide an incentive for efforts in
development of innovation and new technologies.
A description of the credits with their intent follow.
66
9.6.1
SM-1. Storm Water Management
The intent of this credit is to provide an incentive to reduce the impact on natural land and
resources by reducing footprint and material usage and including more sustainable design
practices for storm water management. The objective is to influence projects to consider other
measures beyond basic requirements and cost.
Stormwater Management
2 Credits
For the stormwater strategy chosen, meet at least 5 of following listings

in comparison between different BMP options:
Estimated life of structure
Footprint
Material usage
Amount of recyclable material
Maintenance needs
Pollution treatment efficiency
Infiltration & Flow control efficiency
Use of Emerging technology
Submit documentation and reasoning for suggested method.
In situations where more than one stormwater treatment BMP or combination of BMPs is allowed
to be considered, document a comparison of alternate BMP plans to include this information as a
minimum. The conclusion of the comparison shall include a recommended stormwater treatment
plan based on a review of the comparison and the data presented.
Comments:
Additional research in this credit will be required to decide exactly what kind of documentation to
be submitted. Analysis has to be performed using case studies to decide measurable targets and
possible calculation methodologies. Material usage documentation should submit quantities and
type of materials to be used, as well as data on embodied energy content and embodied green
house gas emissions. This will give an idea of Life Cycle Impacts from the structure.
67
Pollution and Flow Control Efficiencies is to a certain extent handled in Credits SM-2 and SM-4
of this category and can be considered to be taken care of if those credits are also applied for.
68
9.6.2
SM-2. Storm Water Design 1 - Runoff Treatment
The intent of this credit is to provide an incentive to increase the runoff treatment rate for higher
water quality in all wetlands, streams, rivers, lakes and for improved habitats and for public
health.
Runoff Treatment
1 Credit
Meet the criteria for enhanced treatment, oil control and phosphorus
control in addition to the minimum requirements as described in the HRM
Chapter 3.
The basic criteria should always be met. Regardless of project site additional treatment effort
should be taken into consideration in the project.
Comments:
The idea and limits in this credit comes from the regulations stated in the WSDOTs HRM.. Note
that these enhanced treatments may not always be practical or useful; if there is no evidence of
phosphorus or oil, obviously the enhanced phosphor or oil control is not necessary. This credit
should be object for future consideration.
LEED-NC v. 2.2, uses corresponding Basic Treatment as stated in the HRM (and the Washington
State Department of Ecologys Stormwater Manuals) as a goal for Credit 6.2: Stormwater
Design: Quality Control. This means BMPs used to treat runoff must be capable of removing
80% of the average annual post development total suspended solids (TSS) load.
80% removal is considered the basic treatment, see WSDOT Highway Runoff Manual Table 3-1,
taking place in all projects with stormwater control and will not be awarded credit in this system.
69
9.6.3
SM-3. Storm Water Design 2 Permeable Area
The intent of this credit is to provide an incentive to reduce impervious surface area in order to
decrease stormwater runoff, which can reduce erosion, sedimentation, water pollution and
flooding.
Permeable Area
1 Credit
As a minimum, design a pervious surface for at least 20% of the total

impervious area.
OR
Replace at least 20% of paved impervious surface area with a pervious
surface.
Example Techniques
Use pervious pavements, vegetated filter strips and other high infiltration techniques. Use porous
pavement for shoulders, bike-lanes, pedestrian walkways and parking lots.
Pervious pavement is defined as:
A permeable surface that readily transmits fluids into the underlying base material. The
pavement may be permeable concrete, permeable asphalt, or manufactured systems such as
interlocking brick or a combination of sand and brick lattice. (WSDOT, HRM, 2006)
Impervious pavement is defined as:
A hard surface area that either prevents or retards the entry of water into the soil mantle as
occurs under natural conditions (prior to development), and from which water runs off at an
increased rate of flow or in increased volumes. Common impervious surfaces include but are not
limited to rooftops, walkways, patios, driveways, parking lots, storage areas, concrete or asphalt
paving, gravel roads, packed earthen materials, and oiled or macadam surfaces. (WSDOT,
HRM, 2006)
70
Comments:
The HRM allows only pervious areas to a certain extent. This is why the % is so low. (20 %
accounts for 6 feet shoulders of a 4 lane 12 ft wide road, as one example). Additional credits
could be given for a higher amount pervious area.
Note that impervious surfaces that need to contain pollutants, such as manufacturing facilities and
specific industries, should not be replaced by a pervious surface at any time.
71
9.6.4
SM-4. Storm Water Design 3 Permeable Pavement
The intent of this credit is to mitigate storm water pollution, peak flow rates and at the same time
minimize the impact and development of natural land, soil and waters.
Permeable Pavement
1 Credit
If the impacted project area has 2,000 ft2 or more of new, replaced, or
new plus replaced impervious surfaces
OR
if the project have land-disturbing activities of 7,000 ft2 or more,
credit is given for the use of permeable pavements for more than 80% of
the new impervious area.
Pervious and impervious are defined in Credit nr SM-3.
Example technologies:
Use permeable pavements such as porous asphalt pavement, pervious concrete, or other
impervious surface materials.
Comments:
The area requirements for credit application are the minimum requirements as stated in the HRM
for storm water management implementation.
The difference between this credit and credit 4 in this category is the intent of focusing more on
the whole pavement structure rather than just obstacles such as roundabouts, traffic islands,
sidewalks etc. This credit can be assumed to be applicable for parking lots to a large extent.
72
9.6.5
SM-5. Innovative Stormwater Technology
The intent of this credit is to give an incentive to use emerging technologies with higher
sustainable attributes to promote innovation and design in this important category.
Innovative Stormwater Technology
2 Credits
If the impacted project area has 2,000 ft2 or more of new, replaced, or
new plus replaced impervious surfaces
OR
if the project have land-disturbing activities of 7,000 ft2 or more, credit is
given for the use of new emerging stormwater technology (as approved
by the Department of Ecology).
Submit reasoning and sufficient proof of reliability of the system, its environmental impacts as
well as reasoning why this is an innovative stormwater technique as well as its sustainable
attributes. Approval for use must be given by the Department of Ecology in Washington State.
Comments:
2 credits are available in this category. This to provide an incentive to the importance of
innovation and design in emerging techniques.
This can require a fair amount of judgment by the owner. The approval function by the
Department of Ecology will reduce the complexity of this judgment and simply enough; if
approved by the Department of Ecology as an emerging BMP, this credit is given.
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10. ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL (ECC)

This category includes measures that impact energy use and environmental control as a result of
various design parameters. Environmental in this case means human and ecological health
relating to more subjective perceptions such as light, noise and temperature perceptions and
improved quality of life such as pedestrian/bicycle access, animal crossings and landscaping and
architecture.
Light Pollution, the Heat Island Effect, Quieter Pavements, Eco-Viaducts (Wildlife and Fauna
Crossings), Visual Quality and Pedestrian/Bicyclist Access are credits that should be included in
this category. Again, some of these sub-categories are outside the scope of this thesis and will just
be mentioned here as important ideas. Impacts such as the heat island effect and quieter pavement
depend on the pavement structure and the design and are research in more detail here. Impacts
such as lighting system, animal crossings, urban planning and landscaping and architecture
depends on structures outside the actual roadway and are not research in detail here.
10.1 LIGHT POLLUTION
The intent of these credits is to reduce the adverse impacts from light on neighborhoods and
wildlife, reduce energy and cost, and increase the night sky visibility. The science of street
lighting has improved in recent years, and many might not know about the opportunities in
technology and design and how these can significantly reduce energy and cost.
The American National Standard Institutes Practice for Roadway Lighting (ANSI/IESNA RP-800) provides three methods for roadway lighting: illuminance, luminance and small target
visibility (STV). These all depend on mounting height, luminaire and lamp type, spacing and
placing along the road (one side, both sides or median).
Selection of lighting design should be carried out to optimize this placement, reduce the width of
beam spread and reduce the use of electric energy that is required for the lighting system. (This
has to take place without reduction in visibility performance which can impact safety). Cutoff or
full-cutoff luminaires could be specified to limit light pollution.
74
Another aspect is to reduce the use of electric energy that is not from a renewable energy source.
One idea for credit requirement is to make sure the lighting system (or a certain part of this) uses
high efficiency luminaries and lamp types (as performance allows) and maximized space between
fixtures as well as uses electricity that comes from renewable energy resource such as hydro,
wind, solar or biomass energy.
2 credits are suggested to be available in this sub-category.
1. Light Pollution Visibility and Night Sky
2. Light Pollution Energy Optimization
10.2 ECO-VIADUCTS
The intent by this credit is to provide access for wildlife and fauna to their otherwise undisturbed
environment that might be separated by the roadway alignment.
Eco-viaducts provides an
ecological corridor beneath
or
over
the
ecological
road.
An
corridor
is
important as it ensures the

sustainability
of
local
wildlife and fauna. This

might
be
important
in
especially
areas
of
regionally native vegetation

or were habitats of wildlife
are endangered or have
certain significance.
Figure 20. Eco-Viaduct constructed in Croatia, Europe.
(State Institute For Nature Protection, Croatia)
One credit is assumed to be given in this sub-category if eco-viaduct is provided.
75
This could be applied to highway construction and possible major arterials but are not suitable for
residential roads. Analysis of wildlife and specific species and the impact of the road alignment in
habitats in the area around the roadway have to take place. Analysis have to show that there is a
separation in habitats and that such construction is necessary for the wildlife and fauna considered.
10.3 VISUAL QUALITY (LANDSCAPE & ARCHITECTURE)
The intent with this credit is to improve visual appearance as well as provide more greenery to
reduce impervious areas and promote habitat growth.
Landscaping and architecture is important as sustainable feature as it defines the character of a
space (a region). This has social and economical impacts as it can create appeal for a region and
attractive areas. It can also provide vegetation along the side of the road which will help erosion
and sedimentation control as well as provide opportunities for habitat growth.
1 credit is should be available in sub-category for visual quality in terms of architecture and
landscaping design. This can be for rest-areas, parking lots, medians, and shoulders. Landscaping
should not impair with safety.
This credit might not be easily measured or quantified as it is subjective and highly relates to
traffic behavior and safety. Further analysis and ideas should determine feasibility.
10.4 PEDESTRIAN/BICYCLE ACCESS
From a pavement design perspective bike paths and walkways are important structural
components that have to be available to provide a more pleasant and alive urban environment as
well as provide an option to transportation mode other than car.
Credit could be given if bicycle lanes are included in the design in both directions, and if
pedestrian walkways are available. These design components of course depend on the type of
road, the project size, and the surrounding environment (rural or urban).
1 credit is assumed to be given for Pedestrian and Bicyclist access.
This credit might not be easily measured or quantified and this speaks against having this credit in
the system. Further analysis and ideas should determine feasibility.
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10.5 COOL PAVEMENTS & THE HEAT ISLAND EFFECT
This category is research in detail as it relates to the pavement structure.
10.5.1 Overview
Temperatures in urban areas can be several degrees higher than surrounding rural areas, a
phenomenon referred to as the urban heat island (UHI) effect. This occurrence is due to the
reduction of natural vegetation, increased human activity and the absorption and radiation of solar
energy in all built surfaces. Roofs, parks, water bodies and pavements all have different
properties deciding how much of the suns heat is absorbed and released, and they all interact
together with other systems in an urban area impacting the total Heat Island Effect. The definition
should not be mixed with global warming when the urban heat island effect is a local temperature
increase, generally the difference between urban and surrounding rural areas. Studies and
simulations performed for 10 large cities in the U.S. indicate an average UHI effect of 2C,
compared to surrounding rural areas (Pomerantz, 2003) and some cities have as much as 10F
(5.6C) warmer than surrounding natural land cover (EPA; 2003). The main impacts of this
temperature increase are:
1. Create additional need of energy use (air conditioning) in dense urban areas.
2. Increase air pollution in urban areas.
3. Contribute to adverse impact of human health and comfort measures (EPA; 2005).
Figure 21. Illustration of an urban heat island over a city
(EPA; 2003)
Pavements are found to be a large contributor to this temperature increase as they in urban areas
stand for a large percentage of surface coverage. Analysis has shown that pavement coverage for
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travel and parking in large cities in the U.S. counts for 29 to 39 percent of the total land coverage
in the urban area (Akbari et al; 2003), see Table 12. A large portion of this is pavement for
parking. In Houston, Texas, close to 60 % of the transportation land use is used for parking,
where as in Sacramento pavement for parking stand for 29%. Roads still stand for the majority of
pavement coverage ranging from 33% in Houston to 59% in Sacramento (EPA report), see Table
13.
Table 12. Land cover percentages in four urban areas
(Akbari et al; 2003)
Urban Area
Sacramento
Chicago
Salt Lake City
Houston
Pavement
(%)
45
37
36
29
Vegetation
(%)
20
27
33
37
Roofs
(%)
20
25
22
21
Other
(%)
15
11
9
12
Total
(%)
100
100
100
100
Table 13. Percentage of pavement area by type of use

(EPA, 2006)
Urban Area
Sacramento
Chicago
Salt Lake City
Houston
Roads
(%)
59
50
48
33
Parking
(%)
29
42
35
60
Sidewalks
(%)
12
8
16
7
Total
(%)
100
100
100
100
10.5.2 Impacts
The air pollution related impacts found at this point are mainly the effect on the production of
photochemical smog, or Ozon (O3 ). Smog is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC's) in the atmosphere, which leaves particulate
matter (PM) and ground-level ozone. It is a temperature sensitive reaction, and the production is
increased by increased temperature. The impacts of humans are significant and include breathing
difficulties, headaches, fatigue and can worsen respiratory problems.
For every 1F (0.6C) increase in summertime temperature, peak utility loads in medium and
large cities increase by an estimated 1.5-2.0 % (EPA; 2003).A reduction of 1-2C region average
temperatures can result in a 10% decrease of the peak energy demand, hence lessen annual energy
cost and all impacts related to energy extraction. Field experiments and numerical estimations
suggest that an energy reduction by 30% and an ozone production reduction by 20% can be
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achieved in large urban areas in the U.S. if all surfaces absorption of the suns heat is decreased.
(Taha et al; Pomerantz, et al; 1999, Rosenberg et al; 1996).
Cool Pavement strategies is one important method to mitigate the effect of heat islands in urban
areas.
10.5.3 Cool Pavements

Cool pavements are designed to reduce the absorption of the suns energy, consequently radiate
less heat to the surrounding environment. The solar absorption is measured as the pavements
Albedo.
Albedo, or solar reflectance, is a measure of a material's ability to reflect sunlight on a scale of 0
to 1. An albedo value of 0.0 indicates that the surface absorbs all solar radiation, and a 1.0 albedo
value represents total reflectivity. Albedo is sometimes referred to as the reflectivity of the
pavement. For conventional paving materials, it usually ranges between 0.05 to 0.40, when new,
see Table 14.
The solar energy is absorbed by the pavement surface, and becomes stored as heat in the
pavement. Paving materials can reach as much as 150F (EPA; 2005) on sunny days, radiating
this heat during the day and during the night back into the air as well as heat storm water that
reaches the pavement surface.
Studies in California (Pomerantz et al; 2000) have estimated that if the solar absorption of all
pavements were reduced from 90% to 65%, the peak air temperature in an urban area would
decrease by 1F (0.6C ). This decrease is roughly equivalent to an albedo of 0.25 on 25% of all
pavements in a certain urban area (Pomerantz et al; 2000). Experimentally and by calculation it is
found that an increase in albedo by 0.1 produces a change in pavement surface temperature of
about -7F (-4C) (Pomerantz et al; 2003).
If the temperatures in the pavement surface are decreased on hot days, it might be that cooler
pavements also have longer lifetimes due to reduced thermal stresses. Pavements than are more
durable save money by reducing the additional expense of repaving as well as reduce the
environmental impacts related to maintenance operations.
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10.5.4 Properties Of Cool Pavements

Cool pavement strategies can be used to impact the properties of the pavement to reduce the
surface temperature. These strategies are intended to help control how pavements absorb, store
and radiate heat. Figure 22 illustrate the relationship of heat transfer mechanisms in a pavement
structure.
There are mainly two types of cool paving strategies related to construction. They are either using:
1. Lighter-colored materials.
Lighter-colored materials have higher solar reflectance, or albedo, so they absorb
less of the sun's energy and stay cooler.

2. Porous materials.
Porous, or permeable, pavements allow water to pass through the voids of the
pavement, and the pavement can use the effect of evaporative cooling.
Figure 22. Illustration of the interrelationship of heat transfer in a pavement structure
(EPA; 2005)
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Most studies mention the effect of heat island mitigations taking place in the top-layer due to
variations in albedo and porosity. However, other studies have shown that a change in albedo
alone may not be the only important factor in determining the pavement surface temperature
through a whole year. Factors such as pavement thickness, heat storage capacity, the materials
thermal conductivity and density are also important considerations (Golden, Kaloush; 2006, EPA,
2005) More research is required in this area to be able to define theses impacts.
Albedos correlate to pavement age (Pomerantz et al; 1999), see Table 14. Cement concrete is
darkened by the presence of iron oxide and dirt. The pavement albedo is approximately 70% of
the aggregate it is made of (Pomerantz et al; 2000). To achieve a pavement albedo of 0.35, an
aggregate albedo of 0.5 should be used. Asphalt concrete tends to get lighter as it ages. As the
asphalt wears off, the aggregate shows, and the albedo of the pavement approaches the albedo of
the aggregates. Also, the asphalt itself becomes lighter due to oxidation.
Table 14. Comparisons of albedo for new and weathered pavement top-layers
(Pomerantz et al, 1999)
Pavement Type
Composition
Asphalt Concrete
7% asphalt + 93%
aggregate by weight
Portland cement/sand/stone
(about 1/3/5 by weight)
White aggregate+cement
which is low in Fe oxides
Portland Cement Concrete

White Cement Concrete
Thickness
(in)
4
4
4
Albedo
New: 0.05-0.1
Weathered: 0.15-0.2
New: 0.35-0.40
Weathered: 0.25-0.30
New: 0.70-0.80
Weathered: 0.40-0.60
Another factor to take into account is that reflectivity of a paved surface changes over time, due
to shadowing trees, buildings, and also vehicles casting shadows over the pavement. Some of the
reflected light might be reabsorbed by surrounding infrastructure.
Figure 23, presents an overview for different pavements and their corresponding albedo in
Phoenix, Arizona (Golden, Kaloush; 2006). Some of the pavements were tested and compared
when painted with white paint. Computations of surface temperatures of concrete pavement in
Seattle in the summer has been found to have an average temperature of 95F, (35C), whereas in
Tucson Arizona the same type of pavement can be 115F (46C) (Bentz, 2000). Temperatures
presented in Figure 23 represent different meteorological conditions impacting the pavement
temperature compared to various locations in WA, however peak ambient temperatures in the
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Eastern part of Washington could be assumed to be similar for summer conditions. Discussion of
the different construction techniques to achieve higher albedo or reflectivity is discussed in the
next section.
Figure 23. Surface temperature and albedo for selected types of pavements in Phoenix, Arizona, 2004
(EPA, 2005)
Wind and sea breeze has an effect likely to lessen the effect of increased albedo. Increasing wind
speed lower the surface temperature of the pavement due to convection. In Washington State,
cities in eastern Washington might be more suitable to the use of high albedo pavements than
cities on the coast. Permeability might be less effective cooling mechanism in dry climates than in
wetter climates.
The benefits of cool pavements are not limited to the heat island effect reduction. There are other
properties of a pavement material featuring beneficial attributes in regards to environmental
impacts. These attributes are:
Permeable pavement:
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The use of permeable pavements reduce the percent of covered land with
impervious pavements, beneficial for stormwater mitigation.
Noise:
o
The open pores of a permeable pavement is shown to reduce tire noise (Sandberg,
2002)
Safety:
o
Permeable pavements improve safety by reducing water spray from moving

vehicles and increasing traction through better water drainage.
Illumination:
o
Additional nighttime illumination might be necessary to enhance safety on darker

pavement types. (Which will need more energy and cost more). Some sources
cite nighttime illumination enhancements of 3 to 10 % with more reflective
pavements (EPA; 2003).
10.5.5 Design Options

Both new construction and resurfacing provide an opportunity to use cool pavements. There are
mainly three ways to reduce a pavements contribution to the urban heat island:
1. By providing a surface with higher reflectivity
2. By increasing the ability of the pavement to cool at night
3. By allowing the pavement to cool through evaporation
There are various construction techniques available to achieve cooler pavements. The practices
mentioned here are meant as suggestions of possible cool pavement strategies in regards to albedo
and permeability used for different conditions. The outline is not intended to go into detail of
each practice, but significant characteristics of each pavement are mentioned. Appendix C
provide a summary evaluation of the methods described here.
10.5.5.1 Conventional Portland Cement Concrete Pavement
PCC, Portland Cement Concrete pavement is one option for cool pavement strategy because of
its light color and its reflectivity, see Figure 3. The average of PCC albedo is distinctly higher
than that of aged AC and chip-seals (Pomerantz et al; 2003). The durability of PCC is long, and it
can be used for low as well as high volume roads.
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10.5.5.2 Concrete Additives
Concrete additives can be used to create lighter pavements.
Slag-cement can be used in place of and in combination with portland cement. The slag cement
will make the concrete lighter and increase reflectivity of the finished surface. The slag cement
also provides other benefits to the pavement in terms of workability and performance. When
substituted for portland cement in quantities between 25% and 65%, slag cement plays a critical
role in reducing permeability in concrete (SCA; 2006). This reduces the ability of evaporative
cooling. In the production of concrete, the use of slag-cement reduced the release of greenhouse
gas emissions and embodied energy content compared to the production of portland cement
concrete, see Figure 4 and 5 (EPA; 2005, SCA; 2006).
Light fly-ash is another option for the use of light aggregate. It reduces the greenhouse gas
emissions and embodied energy compared to the use of portland cement concrete (EPA, 2003,
SCA; 2006), see figure 4 and 5. The drawback is the wide range of colors of fly ash produced
when burning the coal. Fly ash can be tan to dark grey depending on its chemical and mineral
content. Tan and light colors are associated with high lime content. A brownish color is
associated with iron content (FHWA; 2003). Fly ash color is usually very consistent for each
power plant and coal source. Fly-ash in concrete provide benefits such as higher strength,
increased workability, durability and reduced shrinkage. Permeability is however decreased.
Figure 7, 8 an 9 in Chapter Material & Resources describe pollution prevention opportunities for
the reduction of embodied greenhouse gas and embodied energy content in concrete versus slagcement and fly-ash.
10.5.5.3 White Topping and Ultra-Thin White Topping
Thin white topping, TWT, or Ultra-thin white topping, UTW, is a technique to achieve higher
albedo surfaces in rehabilitation of old asphalt pavement (reference EPA, PCA; 2006). UTW
provide the light color and the reflectivity of concrete and is often placed as a 2 to 4 inch thick
layer. The concrete mix is usually fiber reinforced to increase strength. Construction method is
the same as for conventional PCC pavement (NCHRP; 2004), however UTW requires
significantly less time to construct and repairs last much longer (Churilla; 1998). TWT and UTW
are viable alternative for roads of light to moderate traffic, and in some cases applicable for
84
highways and high-traffic city-streets and intersections (NCHRP; 2004, PCA; 2006, Churilla;
1998). Permeability is less than for PCC due to the dense mix with reinforcement, but still in
moderate range (Amos, D; 2001). The pavement has no seasonal weakening. (Rodden, Lange;
2006)
Cost are found to be similar to other pavement strategies (NCHP; 2004), the material is more
expensive, but the strength allows for reduction of dowel bars, hence lessen the total cost. The
construction cost could be expected to be less due to shorter construction time. Over the life of
the pavement, due to the durability and strength, the life cycle cost could be expected to be less
than other overlay techniques.
10.5.5.4 Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement
Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement, RCC, may be used where a strong and durable pavement
is the primary need, and speed and smoothness are not critical. It's placed with conventional or
high-density asphalt paving equipment and then compacted with rollers. RCC is usually used for
larger heavy used pavement areas such as highway weight stations, docks, ports, parking,
intersections and military facilities (PCA; 2006).
RCC provide a hard, durable, and light-colored surface. It has performed well in cold as well as
hot climates. RCC is best used in applications with low speeds and heavy loads, but if it is
smooth enough, it can be used for high speed traffic as well. It is sometimes used as a base layer
topped with HMA, however, this would eliminate the albedo effect. Compared to conventional
concrete RCC it is said to have higher permeability and to be less costly (EPA, PCA; 2006,
Delatte et al, 2003).
10.5.5.5 Light Aggregate in Asphalt Concrete Pavement
The use of light aggregate in Asphalt Concrete Pavements (ACP) is another strategy to acheive
higher reflectance of an asphalt concrete pavement. By volume, aggregate generally accounts for
92 to 96 percent of HMA (WSDOT PGI; 2006), and as mentioned previously, the top course
albedo is 70% of the reflectance of the aggregate it is made of. Limestone is one option for
lighter aggregates, if the material is available locally. In Washington State the use of limestone is
limited. Lighter Granit or Dolomite could be alternatives (USGS; 1998).
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10.5.5.6 Chip Seals with Light Aggregates
Asphalt chip sealing is an overlay strategy in which a thin layer of asphalt emulsion binder is
applied and immediately covered with a layer of light-colored aggregate. Afterwards, the
aggregate is pressed into the binder using a heavy roller. The result is an exposed aggregate
surface with increased reflectance which is intact as the surface wears. Research has shown that
this technique provide a higher albedo than conventional asphalt concrete overlays, but lower
than conventional PCC pavements (Pomerantz et al; 2003). Another benefit is the exposure of
aggregates improving skid resistance. The technique is usually used on lower volume roads
(AASHTO; 2006), and is found to work well in cold climates as well. If light colored material is
available locally, as discussed, this is a good option for rehabilitation technique.
10.5.5.7 Porous Pavement
The use of porous, or permeable, pavements is possible for both asphalt and concrete structures.
The air void content (AVC) in the structure provide an opportunity for evaporative cooling. This
is feasible in wet climates, however this might not be feasible for winter conditions. Freezing of
the water in the voids might cause the pavement to crack.
The air void content can have a significant effect of the pavement if it is too high or too low.
Findings in Oregon and Washington for example suggest that for every 1-percent drop in AVC
there is a corresponding 10-percent loss of pavement life (NCHRP; 2002). A target range for
HMA to minimize future development of fatigue cracking and rutting was suggested to be 5-6 %
(NCHRP; 2002), at the same time as HMA with high permeability (Open Graded Friction Course)
can have an AVC of 18-22% (ADOT).
Porous pavements are good for other mechanisms such as noise reduction and storm-water
drainage (skid resistance). Durability on high speed, high volume roads depend on climatic
conditions. See also Chapter 9; Stormwater Management and Chapter 10; Energy and
Environmental Control (Quieter pavements).
10.5.5.8 Rubberized Asphalt
Rubberized Asphalt is a broad term describing Hot Mix Asphalt, HMA, containing ground rubber
made from recycling of tires. Pavements in Arizona used for reduction of tirepavement noise
indicate a reduction in surface temperature compared to adjacent PCC (Golden), as opposed to
what is presented in Figure 23. The pavement might have lower albedo, though, the permeability
86
of this kind of pavement can result in evaporative cooling. Ongoing research is investigating this
further.
Research in California and Arizona has shown this to be a durable pavement. However, it has
been found that due to climate as well as the use of studded tires during the winter months has
lead to early failures of this kind of pavement surfaces in Washington State. (Munden, 2006).
10.5.6 Pollution Prevention Opportunities

To be able to do a correct analysis or the options listed, each alternative should be evaluated in
regards to these life-cycle stages: 1) Extraction of the material (emissions, energy use, waste
products, 2) Manufacturing of the material (emissions, energy use, waste products), 3)
Construction activities related to placing the material (emissions, energy use, waste products), 4)
Life of pavement / maintenance (emissions, energy use, waste products, recyclability), 5) End of
life product (recyclability, reuse opportunities, energy conservation).
Availability of locally available materials should be considered as very important when
transportation is found to have the largest impact on the environment in terms of pollution and
energy usage compared to other stages of a products chain.
In the classification criteria for cool pavements in this thesis no life cycle analysis (LCA) are
performed for each alternative when this is an extremely comprehensive and time demanding
procedure. (LCAs are a methodology where all material and energy flows are quantified and
evaluated).
87
10.6 QUIETER PAVEMENTS
This category has been research in more detail as it relates to the pavement structure.
10.6.1 Overview
While noise has many different sources, transportation noise is one that has great effects in both
urban and rural areas. Noise is defined as unwanted sound (EPA, 1973). One of the most
significant causes of noise for humans is the annoyance and how this impacts the quality of life.
(This annoyance is related to well known adverse health effects such as increased stress,
disrupted sleep, fatigue, and impact in speech communication.) In addition to the physiological
and emotional responses of transportation noise, it also impacts real estate values hence
contribute to a greater impact of a community; its social and economical status and urban and
rural development.
Sound is part of the science of acoustics, which is a broad and complex field about the generation,
the propagation and the reception of sound. This chapter will not go into details in explaining the
background or the physics behind noise propagation. Terms and definitions will be used with the
assumption that the reader either is familiar with these terms or will find them in references.
It is important to point out however the complexity in analyzing sound and the difference of
sound perception in humans. The response to any sound is a subjective experience and can
depend on age, health, familiarity, time of day, etc, this in addition to the characteristic of the
sound itself. This complexity makes it difficult to easily express and compare sound level
reductions in dB(A)s, which is the unit used to describe transportation noise.
10.6.2 Noise From Roads

It is important to keep in mind that noise from a road is generated by the activities taking place on
the road, by the traffic. The noise generated from traffic depend on traffic volume, traffic speed
and vehicle type, but also on the characteristics of the surrounding environment such as
topography and density (rural or urban area). Traffic noise can be very disturbing either as a
constant noise (steady stream of traffic such as from a highway) or as single events such as
passby of a truck or a bus (or even light traffic by cars).
88
Traffic noise generated from vehicles can be further categorized in four major sub-sources
(Bernhard et al, 2005): 1) engine/drivetrain noise, 2) exhaust noise, 3) aerodynamic noise and 4)
tire/pavement interaction noise.
Figure 24. Sound levels related to vehicle speed for noise generated from vehicles
(FHWA, 2005)
Figure 24 present the relation ship between these noise sources and their relation to vehicle speed.
As demonstrated tire noise has a big impact in the overall noise generated. This noise include the
interaction of the tire and the pavement, hence, this is where the relation of pavement surface and
noise generation becomes important.
10.6.3 Pavement Surface And Noise Generation

It is found that the noise generated by traffic to a large extent is influenced by the pavement type
and the condition of the pavement (VTI, 2000). The difference between the best and the
worst case can be as much as 10 dB(A). (VTI, 2000). (This can correspond to a factor of 10
increase of traffic volume if translated into the effect of sound level equivalence Leq (or sound
energy)).
89
The interaction between the tire and the pavement is causing several mechanisms that create
energy that eventually radiates as sound, or noise. (Sandberg, 2002). These mechanisms depend
to a large extent of the tire, but also on the pavement type and the characteristics of the pavement.
Some of the characteristics of a road surface that can greatly influence noise generation are
(Munden, 2006; Sandberg, 2002): texture of the surface, skewing (orientation of pavement
texture), thickness of the pavement, porosity, tire/road adhesions and elasticity of the pavement
surface. It is also found that age has a significant effect on pavement, both for durability and
noise reduction properties (Munden ,2006).
Quieter pavement is a term that is used to describe pavement types that reduce the tire/pavement
noise generated at tire interaction compared to traditional pavements.
10.6.4 Design Options

There are several design options available for a pavement surface to achieve a quieter pavement.
Some of the most common technologies used are (Munden, 2006, Sandberg 2002):
Porous Pavements
o
Porous Concrete
Porous Asphalt (Open Graded Friction Course, OGFC)
Poroelastic pavements (PE)
SMA
Rubberized Asphalt (RCA)
PCC (limited)
For detailed descriptions of these design options for quieter pavements the reader is referred to
Quieter pavement strategies for Washington State (Munden, 2006). (The cool pavement section
in this Chapter and Chapter Materials & Resources describe general characteristics of some of
these technologies.)
Other advantages found by using porous pavements (other than reducing noise) is less splash and
spray in rainy weather, improved skid resistance, and smoother surface (which can lead to
reduced fuel consumption).
90
Disadvantages are as described the life of the pavement, and the durability of the quieter
properties which is found to be short. Figure 25 present the noise reduction over 6 years for
double layered porous asphalt pavements in Denmark. This is just one example of many that
shows reduced tire/pavement noise reduction over time. A relationship can be seen that
pavements three years and older have higher noise levels than pavements that are two years and
younger (Munden, 2006). This is important to take into account designing for the pavement and
weighting different sustainable features.
Figure 25. Noise reduction of double-layered porous asphalt in Copenhagen over 5 years.
(VTI, 2005).
10.6.4.1 Design Options for Washington State
Several States around the U.S has found successful results to use some of the quieter pavements
techniques. However, early experiments with rubberized asphalt concretes (RAC) and open
graded friction courses (OGFC) to achieve lower noise pavements in Washington State did not
lead to the same results that other states had seen (Munden, 2006). It was found that the States
climate as well as the use of studded tires during the winter months was leading to early failures
of the lower noise pavement surfaces (WSDOT, 2005).
A summary of quieter pavement strategies for Washington State suggest following pavement
types to be used (Munden, 2006):
91
SMAs and double layer porous asphalts have the ability to achieve lower noise levels and
maintain a rut resistant surface.The ability of these pavements to stand up to rutting due
to studded tire wear and prior research on their noise reduction abilities indicate that
SMAs may be well suited for Washington.
Double layer porous asphalts should be considered as an option. While these are still not
as common in the U.S. hopefully information could be gained from Europe and a good
product developement could take place that would be low noise and rut resistant.
Further investigations and analysis are currently taking place in the State for the use of some of
these technologies.
10.6.5 Pollution Prevention Opportunities

The pollution prevention opportunity in this section is to reduce the noise generated from the road
to the surrounding environment. This can be by either reducing the sound at the source, at its path,
or at the receiver (Gilchrist et al, 2003).
The human ear cannot detect noise changes below 3 dB(A) and notable noise reductions need to
be greater than 3 dB(A). Therefore the term lower or quieter should indicate at least a 4
dB(A) noise reduction (Munden, 2006). It is important however to remember that these
reductions depend on complex interactions of the specific location, measurement method,
neighbourhood type (rural or urban), distance, pavement type, traffic flow and traffic volume, as
well as human perception.
For roadway pavement design the opportunity is represented by impacting the pavement
characteristics to reduce the noise generated at the tire/pavement interaction, as described
previously, in other words; to use a quieter pavement technique.
There is also the opportunity to reduce the noise at its path, by constructing noise walls or barriers.
This is a commonly used mitigation strategy, however, it is not considered to be a pollution
prevention opportunity in this case since these constructions:
1) require large quantities of engineered material (engineered meening
manufactured and processed) such as concrete walls. Concrete made by cement is
92
known to require large quantities of virgin materials, require large quantities of
energy, see also Chapter: Materials & Resources.
2) usually are large structures that need to be of a specific height and specific
length to reduce the noise significantly, and this only reduces the noise at a
certain distance from the road and the noise wall.
3) are permanent structures that disrupts the environment and significantly reduce
visual quality.
Figure 26. Noise-wall installation in Washington State

(WSDOT)
The prevention of noise pollution by impacting the pavement surface characteristics hence is
considered to be the most sustainable way to reduce noise by design.
10.7.1 Cool Pavements

There is no official standard or labeling program in Washington State to designate cool paving
materials or construction techniques.
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10.7.2 Quieter Pavements

There is no specific standard for the use of quieter pavement alone. However, research is ongoing.
The Federal traffic noise standard provides criteria for sound level analysis, impact and mitigation
in 23 CFR 772 for all federal funded projects. A traffic noise analysis is required by law for
federally funded projects and required by state policy for other projects that conform to Type I
(WSDOT, 2006). WSDOT is evaluating noise abatement for traffic noise from highways under
two project types:
Type I (new construction) as described as:
Involve construction of a new highway
Significantly change the horizontal or vertical alignment
Increase the number of through traffic lanes on existing highway
Type II (retrofit)
The implementation of Type II projects are not mandatory from 23 CFR 722, however WSDOT
prioritize retrofit projects (as funding allows) by traffic noise levels, number of benefiting
residences or residential equivalences, cost, and the achievable noise reductions. WSDOTs
requirement is a refinement and extension of the federal highway traffic noise standard 23 CFR
772.
Local more stringent ordinances might apply.
94
A total of 7 credits can be achieved in this category; Energy & Environmental Control (ECC)
Table 15. Credits available in category Energy & Environmental Control
Energy & Environmental Control (EEC)
Credits
Cool Pavement & the Heat Island Effect
Quieter Pavement
Light Pollution Visibility and Night Sky
Light Pollution Optimized Energy
Eco-Viaducts
Visual Quality (landscape & architecture)
Pedestrian/bicyclist access
Cool Pavements and Quieter pavements are the credits being studied in more detail. The others
are left for future research and assigned 1 assumed credit each here (however are nonetheless just
as important in the final system).
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10.8.1 EEC-1. Cool Pavements

The intent with this credit is to reduce the heat island effect in urban areas which will decrease
energy use and improve human and ecological health.
Cool Pavements & The Heat Island Effect
1 Credit
Use a light colored/high albedo pavement with a minimum albedo of 0.3

and/or use a porous pavement.
Example Technologies:
Use a light pavement such as PCC, chip-seal with light aggregate, ultra thin white topping or
porous concrete or asphalt pavement.
Comments:
No additional credits are given if higher albedo/higher permeability is used due to the comparison
if credit weighting. This credit is not assumed to be the credit with the highest environmental
impact (weighting) in Washington State. An overview of design option impacts and feasibility is
presented in Appendix C.
The albedo of pavements are measured following ASTM Standard E1918-06. Solar reflectance is
most commonly measured using a solar reflectometer (ASTM C1549) or a pyranometer (ASTM
E1918).
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10.8.2 EEC-2. Quieter Pavements

The intent of this credit is to reduce the environmental noise generated from a road to improve
human wellbeing and health and also improve the quality of life in communities.
Quieter Pavements
1 Credit
For rehabilitation: Use a quieter pavement construction technique

showing an initial reduction in noise levels of 4 (dBA) compared to the
old pavement.
For new construction: Use a well known quieter pavement technique.
Provide approved measurements by consistent method such as the International Standard

Organisations (ISO) (FHWA, 2006): 1) Measurement of the influence of road surfaces on traffic
noise -- Part 1: Statistical Pass-By method (ISO 11819-1:1997), 2) Measurement of sound
absorption properties of road surfaces in situ -- Part 1: Extended surface method (ISO 134721:2002), 3) Measurement of the influence of road surfaces on traffic noise -- Part 2: Closeproximity method (ISO/CD 11819-2:2000).
Use porous asphalt pavements, poro-elastic pavements, rubberized pavements or Open Graded
Friction Course (OGFC).
Comments:
A well known quieter pavement technique can be pavements that are shown to reduce pavement
noise and that has been used and tested to a large extend. Techniques in other parts of the world
should be considered as well.
As some studies have shown that durability of the pavement is shorter with some of these
techniques, this should of course be considered as well since durability is a very important
measure in relation to sustainability. Again, there is a trade of between achieved properties due to
97
design choices and the specific project circumstances need to determine which is the most
desirable effect to pursue.
10.9 DISCUSSION
The criteria for cool- and quieter pavement strategies suggested here are based on current
research performed in the area.
Research in cool pavement area is in an early stage and most research performed in the US is at
this point performed in California and Arizona. Research specific for Washington State needs to
be carried out to define the impacts more precise. At this stage summer months from May to
October is the time when hot surface temperatures in pavements is assumed to cause problems in
Washington urban areas. Future changes in urban growth, population increase and climate change
are drivers to actually give credit for the use of cool pavements at this stage.
The relationship between air temperatures and surface temperature depends on the local climate
and conditions. This should be taken into consideration in evaluating if cool pavements are
feasible alternative. Climate, geography, latitude, peak temperatures and urban form are all
important. Subjectivity is an important factor when it comes to the public reaction and their
perception of lighter pavements as well as quieter pavement. Too light pavement can possibly
give problem of glare, or just the fact of being used to other surfaces. Quieter pavements can be
considered quieter also from the user perspective as reduced roughness and vibrations in the car.
This can add to the overall perception of such pavement. The term lower noise or quieter
pavements needs to be defined.
Other factors affecting performance, cost, and environmental benefits must also be considered
when selecting paving materials. In fact, the best solutions may occur where multiple benefits are
obtained from a paving approach (e.g., porous pavements may help with stormwater runoff, tirepavement noise as well as provide a cooler surface and a smoother surface). Appendix A and C is
intended to give some overview over these preferences. Local materials should always be used if
possible.
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11. CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES (CA)

11.1 OVERVIEW
While they are only temporary activities that take place over a relatively short period of a roads
life, construction activities can be major sources of pollution, waste, energy use and health issues.
In all, construction activities can constitute a significant part of a roads entire environmental life
cycle impact. Major concerns can be categorized as:
Site Disturbance
Waste Materials Generation
Emissions & Energy usage
Health of workers
The site disturbance can be further divided into noise, light, water and air emissions pollution. All
equipment and many of the activities such as crushing and grinding of existing pavement generate
noise, release particle emissions and require energy. Working at night or in mornings and evening
causes light pollution in nearby neighborhoods. Stormwater runoff or water used on the site can
pick up construction-related dust and particles and become contaminated if not properly treated.
Construction generates large amounts of waste while simple movement and use of materials can
generate dust and particulate matter. Construction can also impact worker health in regards to
both safety and exposure to emissions and noise.
For this chapter, construction activities is defined as all activities taking place on the actual
construction site. The boundaries of construction activities is set to not include activities such
as extraction, processing, and manufacturing of construction materials (including plant
operations) or end of life activities (such as recycling, landfill or incineration activities).
11.2 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION IMPACTS
11.2.1 Air Pollution

Construction air emissions is mainly due to 1) dust and particles from the construction activities,
also called fugitive dust, 2) emissions from construction equipment exhausts, or 3) emissions
from construction materials (such as fumes and vapors from hot asphalt).
99
11.2.1.1 Fugitive Dust
Emissions from fugitive dust can be associated with land clearing, demolishing and crushing of
existing pavement, ground excavation, earth moving, and materials loading and unloading. A
large portion of the dust and dirt emissions also results from the equipment traffic over temporary
roads at the construction site. (EPA, 1995).
Dust emissions often vary substantially from day to day, depending on the level of activity, the
specific operations and the weather conditions (Muleski et al, 2005). Construction dust is
classified as Particulate Matter (PM), PM10 and PM2.5, which means particles less than 10 m and
2.5 m in diameter. Research has shown that PM penetrate deeply into the lungs and cause a wide
range of health problems including respiratory illness, asthma, bronchitis and even cancer (EPA,
2004). PM can stay in the air for a long time and it can travel far distances from the actual
construction site.
Figure 27. Fugitive dust from construction

(Reference: EPA, 2002 Status and Trends)
11.2.1.2 Construction Equipment Emissions

The other major source of air pollution from a construction site comes from the equipment.
Construction equipment is also called non-road or off-road vehicles (EPA, 2003). This term
includes all outdoor construction machinery and equipment which usually is driven by diesel
engines.
100
Diesel engines emit a complex mixture of gaseous pollutants and fine particles and are a major
source of air pollution. Particular emissions are nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM),
sulfur oxide gases (SOx), and other toxic air pollutants which contribute to serious adverse health
and environmental effects (EPA, 1995; ICF, 2005).
The emissions from diesel engines are found to include over forty cancer causing substances, and
EPA has concluded that diesel exhaust is likely to be carcinogenic to humans by inhalation at
occupational and environmental levels of exposure (EPA, 2002).
According to EPAs National Emission Inventory (2005 year data) (NEI, 2005), non-road diesel
engines (this including construction equipment only and not other non-road vehicles) are
responsible for 4 percent of NOx emissions nationally (764,000 tons per year), and for one
percent of fine particulate emissions (PM-2.5) (66,000 tons per year) nationally. These
percentages can be considerably higher in some urban areas.
The Washington State Department of Ecology has identified diesel exhaust as the air pollutant
most harmful to public health in Washington State. Seventy percent of the cancer risk from
airborne pollutants is from diesel exhaust, mainly due to the PM
2.5
emissions (Ecology, 2006).
Until the mid-1990s, emissions from these engines were largely uncontrolled. According to the
Department of Ecology in Washington, construction activities alone are responsible for 18% of
the States PM2.5 emissions (2002 data), see Figure 28.
101
Figure 28. Sources of diesel PM-2.5 in Washington State in 2002

(The Department of Ecology, 2006)
In order to combat the health effects of diesel emissions, the EPA has initiated a program to
reduce diesel engine emissions taking effect in 2007 (EPA, 2004). The plan is estimated to reduce
emissions by more then 90% by 2030. For Washington State the Department of Ecology has a
strategic plan related to this program, see WA Regulations.
11.2.1.3 Fumes From Hot Asphalt
One issue related to the health of workers is the emissions from the asphalt mix or the material
used on site. Asphalt is a complex mixture consisting of paraffinic and aromatic hydrocarbons
and compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen (NIOSH, 1997). Emissions from heated
asphalt are also complex mixtures that include both vapors and fumes (fumes are small particles).
Asphalt fumes have known severe adverse health effects and there are work place recommended
exposure limits of airborne fumes set by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH). The limit is 5mg/m3 which should not be exceeded at any time, and the exposure
should be reduced as much as possible.
102
Figure 29. Emissions and fumes from paving

(Photo courtesy: Steve Muench)
11.2.2 Water Pollution

Sources of water pollution on construction sites include 1) stormwater runoff and 2) water used in
the actual construction activity.
Stormwater runoff can pick up soil erosion, diesel and oil, solvents and other liquid materials,
leaching of asphalt emulsion and concrete mix, construction debris and dirt and carry them as
pollutants from the site. When these substances get into waterways they cause severe and long
lasting impacts if appropriate actions are not taken to control water quality (WSDOT, 2006).
Pollutants from construction sites can also soak into the groundwater, which, once contaminated,
is more difficult to treat than surface water. For Stormwater impacts, see also Chapter 9;
Stormwater Management.
Water used for construction activities is primarily water used for dust control, in other words,
water used to mitigate fugitive dust. It can also be water used for cleaning of trucks and
equipment, cooling water for PCC grinding or water curing of PCC pavements. (Water curing are
methods that prevent moisture loss from the placed PCC and could be supplying additional water
to the PCC surface by continuously spraying the slab with water (PGI, 2003)).
103
Figure 30. Polluted stormwater on a construction site

Construction projects involving slopes, exposed and unstabilized soils or other loose materials
can be significant sources of sediment and soil pollution. This can adversely affect drainage
systems on a site as well as receiving waters. Figure 30 shows sediment pollution at a
construction site.
11.2.3 Noise Pollution

Construction sites produce a lot of noise, mainly from vehicles, heavy equipment and machinery
and activities involved with crushing, demolition, and moving and placing materials (including
vibrations generated by rollers and other equipment). Their impacts vary depending on activities
being performed, the equipment being used, and the physical nature of the surrounding
environment (i.e., urban area versus open field conditions). (Gilchrist et al, 2003). Excessive
noise is a concern for the workers on a site as well as surrounding neighborhoods.
Noise can be annoying and distracting and can lead to hearing loss (through longtime exposure),
high blood pressure, sleep disturbance and stress (EPA, 1973). High noise levels have a
significant negative influence on construction site safety (EPA, 1973; OSHA, 1994) and high
104
noise levels also disturb the natural cycles of animals and impact their habitat adversely (EPA,
1973).
11.2.4 Energy Consumption

The construction of roads consumes energy through the use of fossil fuels by:
The transport of construction materials and products.
Construction and demolition activities.
The transport of construction and demolition wastes.
Other operations on the construction site (such as contractor offices etc).
(Note: as defined by this paper, construction activities does not include extraction, processing,
and manufacturing of construction materials)
The consumption of fossil fuels depletes a finite natural resource as well as leads to the
production of greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2), which contributes to global
warming (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007).
During 2005, approximately 83 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions consisted of
carbon dioxide (EIA, 2006). Most of this carbon dioxide (98 percent) is emitted as a result of the
combustion of fossil fuels; consequently, carbon dioxide emissions and energy use are highly
correlated. Carbon dioxide emissions in the U.S. have grown by an average of 1.2 percent
annually since 1990 (EIA, 2006).
Energy required for transportation and construction activities can vary tremendously depending
on a wide range of variables including travel distance, equipment type, and the condition of travel
surfaces. Also, more details in the specific equipment being used such as engine type, the load of
material and the average hours of engine usage impact the actual fuel consumption.
105
Figure 31. Various construction equipment and activities on a project site

(Pavement Research Center)
Not many studies have been performed to quantify the actual use of fossil fuels in construction
related activities, especially for the sub-category of roadway construction. Reasons for this could
be (1) construction vehicles (non-road) have previously not been recognized as important mobile
sources of air pollution, and more focus has been paid to on-road vehicles (cars, trucks and buses)
(Kean et al, 2000), (2) fossil fuel use between construction projects can vary widely depending
upon the actual activity, the equipment fleet, and the location and size of project, and (3)
availability of consistent data is limited.
One award winning study from Europe (IERD, 2002) including 5 countries performed an
assessment of flexible and rigid pavements and the total energy usage for both types of
pavements from initial extraction and manufacture of materials through placement on the
construction site. This study showed that on average 16% of the cost of constructing a road was
energy cost and 12% of this energy was used in the actual construction activities of the pavements
(this only included pavement construction and not material extraction and manufacture).
106
Figure 32. Trucks waiting in line

(Pavement Research Center)
The transport of materials for road construction and maintenance is another major energy issue.
The transportation sector accounted for 33 % of total U.S. energy-related carbon dioxide
emissions in 2005 and out of these (33%) diesel fuel accounted for 22 % (EIA, 2006). This is for
the whole transportation sector, taking all diesel freight trucks into account (Note that this does
not account for construction activities energy and emissions such as paving, demolition, etc., it is
only for transportation).
The cost of transportation both environmentally and economically makes it advisable to use local
materials. LEED, as mentioned previously, encourage local material use as this will reduce the
number and length of vehicle journeys required in construction and maintenance activities as well
as promote local economy. This is included and discussed in Chapter 8; Material & Recourses,
credit Regionally Provided Material, MR-7.
11.3 PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
The activities in pavement construction differ somewhat depending on the choice of pavement
design. The main activities involved are presented by category and their respective sub-activities.
107
11.3.1 Rigid Pavements

Rigid Pavements such as PCC pavement usually involve following construction activities (PGI,
2003):
1. Surface Preparation
2. Transportation
3. Steel Placement
4. PCC Placement
5. Consolidation
6. Finishing
7. Curing
8. Jointing
Depending on if fix form paving or slip form paving is used, different construction techniques
apply.
On next page, Table 16 presents an overview of the construction activities for rigid pavements
and their respective sub-activities and their environmental impacts and possible mitigation
options.
108
Table 16. Rigid pavement construction activities
Construction
Stage
Surface Prep.
Related Activities
Demolition
Excavation
Stabilization
Compaction
Grinding/Milling
Rubblization
HMA Overlay
Equipment &
Material
Excavators
Trucks
Rollers
Grinders
Pavers
Aggregates
HMA
Environmental
Impacts
Fuel Use
Emissions
Dust and
Particles
Waste Material
Noise Pollution
Light Pollution
(Plant
Operation)
Truck Mix PCC
Mobile mixer
Transportation
Hauling
aggregates
Hauling PCC
Truck washing
Concrete
mixing truck
End dump
truck,
Bottom dump
truck
Water
Chemicals
Trucks
Cranes
Slipform
paver
Trucks
Slipform
paver
Spreader
Powered
screeds
Fuel Use
Noise
Water Pollution
Water collection
and treatment
Fuel use
Emissions
Noise
Water pollution
(high PH)
Water collection
and treatment
Steel
Placement
Manual
Mechanical
PCC
Placement
Placement of mix
Screeding
Fuel use
Emissions
Noise Pollution
Fuel Use
Emissions
Waste Materials
Water Pollution
Noise Pollution
Fuel use
Emissions
Noise
Fuel use
Emissions
Noise pollution
Waste Material
Consolidation
Vibration
Vibrator
Finishing
Curing
Floating
Texturing
Water Curing
Sealed Curing
Manually
Mechanically
Curing
compound
Water
Plastic
Burlap
Mechanically
Jointing
Saw Cutting
Sealing
Pollution
Prevention
Use low
emitting and
fuel efficient
vehicles.
Reuse
materials
Dust and
erosion control
Noise mitigation
Emissions
filtering
Use low
emitting and
fuel efficient
vehicles.
Manage waste
materials
Dust control
Noise mitigation
Use low
emitting and
fuel efficient
vehicles
Use low
emitting and
fuel efficient
vehicles
Emissions
filtering
Dust control
109
11.3.2 Flexible Pavements

Flexible Pavements such as asphalt pavements usually involve following construction activities
(PGI, 2003):
1. Surface Preparation
2. Transportation
3. Placement
4. Compaction
Table 17 present an overview of the construction activities for flexible pavements and their
respective sub activities and their environmental impacts and possible mitigation options.
Table 17. Flexible pavement construction activities
Construction
Stage
Surface Prep.
Transportation
Related
Activities
Demolition
Excavation
Stabilization
Compaction
Grinding/Milling
Overlay
Moving
materials
Loading and
dumping
Release agent
use
Equipment
& Material
Excavators
Trucks
Rollers
Grinders
Pavers
Aggregates
HMA
Dump
trucks
Tack trucks
Environmental
Impacts
Fuel Use
Emissions
Dust and
Particles
Waste Material
Noise Pollution
Fuel Use
Emissions
(fugitive)
Waste Materials
Noise Pollution
Water Pollution
Mix Placement
Placement and
Paving activities
Hauling mix
Pavers
Material
Transfer
Vehicles
Trucks
Manual
labor
Fuel use
Emissions
Noise pollution
Compaction
Compaction
Rollers
Manual
compactors
Fuel use
Emissions
Noise pollution
Pollution
Prevention
Use low emitting
and fuel efficient
vehicles
Dust and particle
control
Exhaust filtering
Noise mitigation
Use low emitting
and fuel efficient
vehicles
Exhaust filtering
Dust and particle
control
Noise mitigation
Water collection
and treatment
Use warm mix
asphalt
Low emitting and
fuel efficient
vehicles
Dust and particle
control
Rated pavers
(NIOSH)
Use low emitting
and fuel efficient
vehicles
Dust and particle
control
Noise mitigation
110
11.4 POLLUTION PREVENTION OPPORTUNITIES
There are several pollution prevention opportunities to apply in a construction project, and they
should always be well integrated into the design process. While some of these practices are taking
place as part of construction regulation requirements the suggestions for credits in this category
are intended to provide incentives for additional environmental applications other than what is
already required, and give ideas for extended environmental efforts. In some cases such as
Temporary Stormwater Control and Dust and Particle control the stipulated regulations are
considered being the pollution prevention to aim for due to their complexity and already existing
policy requirements.
11.4.1 Reduce Emissions From Dust Control

Some strategies to reduce PM10 and PM2.5 from fugitive dust on a construction site are: (WSDOT,
2006, Ecology, 2006)
Minimize land disturbance and leave maximum vegetation cover, or replant vegetation as
soon as possible.
Apply fine water sprays to control dust from on-site unpaved areas.
Screen the whole site to stop dust spreading, or alternatively, place fine mesh screening
close to the dust source.
Cover all trucks hauling loose materials.
Cover piles of building materials like cement, sand and other powders, regularly inspect
for spillages, and locate them where they will not be washed into waterways or drainage
areas.
Wash off all wheel covered with dust and dirt before leaving the construction site.
The use of water to control dust need to be controlled however not to let the polluted water back
into natural waterways without treatment (Temporary Stormwater Control).
11.4.2 Reduce Emissions From Diesel Vehicles

The EPAs Clean Diesel Campaign promotes several basic options to reduce diesel emissions:
retrofits with exhaust after-treatment devices, refueling (with alternative fuel), repowering
(engine replacement), and replacing older equipment.
Table 18 present a summary of available options for reducing diesel emissions and their estimated
reduction of some air pollutants.
111
Table 18. Available options for emission control and related reduced air emissions
(Reference: Diesel Technology Forum 2006, referencing EPA)
112
11.4.2.1 Fuel Trends
The current trend in fuel use is towards cleaner burning fuel and renewable fuel such as ultra low
sulfur diesel (ULSD) and biofuel. ULSD is a diesel product that has eliminated more than 99
percent of the sulfur content. (Diesel Technology Forum, 2006). In a study of fuel sulfur effects,
the Department of Energy (DOE) found that fuel sulfur had significant effects on particulate filter
PM emissions because sulfur actually damages emission-control devices and reduces their
effectiveness (Ecology, 2005). ULSDs primary benefit, then, is the improved effectiveness of
catalysts and emissions filters. (Ecology, 2005). ULSD adoption will then make it possible for
engine manufacturers to use more advanced emission control systems that can achieve higher
reductions in both PM and NOx emissions.
Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be manufactured from new and used vegetable oils and
animal fats. Biodiesel in its pure form is known as B100, but it can also be blended with
conventional diesel, most commonly as B5 (5 percent biodiesel and 95 percent diesel) and B20
(20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent diesel) (EPA, 2006). Biodiesel provides significant
greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions. B100 reduces lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by
more than 50 percent, while B20 reduces GHG emissions by at least 10 percent (EPA, 2006). It
also reduces emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), and sulfates, as well as
hydrocarbon and air toxics emissions. However, some studies have demonstrated small NOx
emissions increases up to 10 percent using B100 (ICF, 2005).
The Washington Department of Transportation (WSDOT) uses biodiesel in maintenance vehicles.

In 2005, WSDOT started using five percent biodiesel (B5) mixed with regular diesel in
maintenance vehicles operating in the Central Puget Sound area. B5 is being pumped at 16
WSDOT fueling stations (in 2006). By 2009, WSDOT plans to use 20 percent biodiesel (B20) in
all feasible applications (Ecology, 2006). In 2006 WSDOT got approved federal funding for
installation of engine filters and exhaust retrofits on about 150 vehicles (Ecology, 2006).
As of early 2007, both ULSD and biodiesel are available in Washington State.
Construction Equipment Replacement And Retrofit

It is estimated that there are over 127,000 non-road diesel engines in Washington State and about
44,000 of these are in the heavy duty category (heavy duty defined as 175 hp). Of these heavy
113
duty vehicles it is estimated that about 15,000 comes from Construction and Mining (Ecology,
2006). Not all of these 15,000 heavy duty non-road engines are suitable candidates for exhaust
retrofits. According to the Washington Department of Ecology, non-road engines newer than
1996 and 175 hp are potentially suitable candidates for exhaust retrofits. Older engines (1995
and older) are more suitable for replacement (either engine or entire vehicle) rather than exhaust
retrofits (Ecology, 2006).
11.4.2.2 Pace of Change
Although major efforts to reduce diesel emissions are underway, significant impacts may be years
away. Off-road diesel equipment can last 20 to 30 years and typical new emissions standards are
not meant to be met by existing equipment. Therefore, the impacts of such changes are likely to
be felt as a majority of equipment fleets age and are replaced by equipment meeting newer, more
stringent regulations. Furthermore, change and its pace will likely be controlled by the private
sector as they own nearly 90 percent of diesel vehicles and diesel engines (Ecology, 2006).
Efforts to incent the private sector to change ahead of natural equipment turnover rates may help
make diesel emission reductions happen sooner.
11.4.2.3 Cost Considerations
A majority of construction companies are small firms. To retrofit or change their equipment
requires large capital investments, which they may not be able to bear. For many private smaller
construction companies, this cost is significant and is naturally interfering with the environmental
benefits this would achieve. Also the cost of using alternative fuel or low-sulfur fuel is an issue.
EPA estimates the cost of producing 500 ppm fuel to be on average 2.5 cents per gallon, and 15
ppm around 5 cents per gallon. (This takes into account all the necessary changes in both refining
and distribution practices, however this estimated costs vary widely for equipment of different
sizes and for different applications.)
For the vast majority of equipment, the cost of meeting emission standards will be roughly 1-2%
compared with the typical retail price. As an example, EPA estimates that for a 175-hp bulldozer,
it will cost an additional $2,600 to add the advanced emission control systems to the engine and
to design the bulldozer to accommodate the modified engine. A new 175-hp bulldozer costs
approximately $230,000 (EPA information), so the increased costs are about one % of the total
purchase price. In addition, engines running on low-sulfur fuel will have reduced maintenance
114
expenses. (EPA Document 4). Costs could range higher for some types of equipment. As
incentive, there are several grant programs available at local and federal level for companies to
retrofit or change part of their equipment fleet (Ecology, 2006; Diesel Forum, 2006; EPA,
http://www.epa.gov/cleandiesel/).
The benefits to society of reduced health costs are substantial. The California Air Resources
Board has found that every dollar invested in reducing diesel emissions results in three to eight
dollars in savings in improved health, avoided health problems, or lower operating and
maintenance costs for diesel fleets (Ecology, 2006).
11.4.3 Reduce Fossil Fuel Dependency

Some options for fossil fuel usage reduction in construction projects can be:
Use construction materials that are produced or stockpiled locally to avoid energy use
and pollution generated from transportation activities.
Repowering (engine replacement)
Replace fossil fuel by alternative fuel such as biodiesel (see previous section).
Reduce engine idling
Improve operations (improved logistics to reduce truck queuing and other delays)
While some of the strategies are related to the specific equipment being used, some of the
reduction can be made by controlling the activities in construction productivity and logistic
analysis.
11.4.4 Mitigate Construction Noise

There are mainly three ways to reduce construction noise. Alternatives of each activity for
construction noise mitigation can be found in Gilchrist et al, 2003.
1.
Source Control
Controlling a noise at the source is the most effective method of eliminating construction
noise nuisances and is the easiest to oversee at a construction site.
2. Path Control
115
A physical barrier can destroy some of the sound energy by absorbing the sound and (or)
redirecting the sound away from the receptor. The three strategies for path mitigation are
distance, absorption, and reflection.
3. Receiver Control
This tends to be the most difficult and costly mitigation technique, as the critical receptor
may be humans or precision equipment that is sensitive to low levels of ambient noise
and vibration.
The need of mitigating construction noise depends on the specific project attribute such as
location, size of project, actual activity and working hours. The sensitivity of the environment
varies. Urban environment can be assumed to need more mitigation than a rural environment. A
construction noise analysis in the design phase can find sensitive elements (such as schools,
hospitals, residential buildings, etc) and provide important information of most feasible
mitigation strategy.
11.4.5 Temporary Stormwater Control

The objective of construction stormwater pollution prevention is to make sure that construction
projects do not harm water quality. This is usually done by not allowing sediment to discharge
from the site or allowing pollutant spills (WSDOT, 2006). May want to say that this is generally
controlled by regulation it is not voluntary
The two components of construction stormwater pollution prevention are (HRM):
1. Temporary Erosion and Sediment Control (TESC) planning.
2. Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasures (SPCC) planning.
Many of the operations to control stormwater in the construction stage is by source control, (see
also Chapter 9; Stormwater Management). Temporary Best Management Practices (BMPs) are
designed to prevent the introduction of pollutants into runoff for the duration of the construction
project. Common examples of temporary BMPs include prevention of soil erosion, mulching of
bare ground, silt fencing, and spill control and containment (WSDOT, 2006; Department of
Ecology, 2005).
Other things to consider for pollution prevention of stormwater can be:
116
Use non-toxic paint (pavement markings), solvents and other hazardous materials
wherever possible
Separate, cover and watch toxic substances to prevent spills and possible site
contamination.
Cover up and protect all drains on site.
Collect any wastewater generated from site activities in settlement tanks, screen,
discharge the clean water, and dispose of remaining sludge according to environmental
regulations (HRM).
11.4.6 Emissions from HMA Paving

One construction technique that can be used for lowering of emissions and reduce energy
consumption for asphalt paving is to use warm mix asphalt (WMA). WMA lowers the
temperature at which asphalt mixtures are produced and placed, which can provide the following
pollution prevention benefits (Kristjnsdttir et al, 2006):
Lower plant emissions during production, which benefits the environment and personal
health.
Reduced energy consumption, which lowers fuel use and production costs.
Reduced mixture viscosity, which can improve workability and compaction efficiency
and effectiveness.
Figure 33-36 show some visual comparisons of fumes emitted from HMA versus WMA paving
close to residential buildings (Figure 33 and 34) and at a HMA plant (Figures 35 and 36).
Figure 33. HMA paving in WA
Figure 34. WMA paving in WA
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Figure 35. HMA leaving the plant
Figure 36. WMA leaving the plant
Table 19 present a summary of energy and emissions reduction achieved by using different
technologies compared to standard HMA. Note, these numbers represent plant operations and not
construction site operations.
Table 19. Warm mix asphalt technology summary
(Kristjnsdttir et al, 2006)

Technology
Producer
Technology
Recommended
addition rate
Advertised mixing
temperature
reductiona
Plant modifications
WAM Foam
Shell & KoloVeidekke,
Norway
2-part process:
soft asphalt
added first then
hard, foamed
asphalt
78 - 113F (43 63C)
Yes, for foam
Aspha-Min
Eurovia Services
GmbH Germany
Sasobit
Sasol Wax GmbH
Germany
Evotherm
MeadWestvaco,
U.S.
Zeolite (21%
water)
Fischer-Tropsch
(FT) paraffin wax
Emulsion (70%
asphalt) with
additives
0.3% by mix
weight
54F
(30C)
0.8 to 3% by weight
of asphalt binder
32-97F (18-54C)
Yes, to add
material
75 90%
Yes and nod
100 - 130F (5075C)

Minimal, if any
Reduced
30-98%
No information
40 60%
emissionsb
Reduced energy
30 40%
30%
20%
50 75%
consumptionc
a. As compared to a standard of 325F (160C) for HMA. Some references of
documentation/claims are (1,2,3,4,5).
b. Some references of documentation/claims are (6,7,8).
c. Some references of documentation/claims are (7,8,9,10,11,12).
d. Modifications are necessary if Sasobit is to be added to the mixture, modifications are
not necessary if Sasobit is to be added to the asphalt binder beforehand.
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At present the cost of WMA per ton of mix is greater than the anticipated fuel savings
(Kristjnsdttir et al, 2006). However, as emission standards get more stringent and the cost of
energy change, this ratio is likely to change. The technology is still fairly new and more studies
such as full life cycle impacts should be carried out (Kristjnsdttir et al, 2006), yet the
environmental benefits of using this technique are at this point found to be very good.
One incentive for contractors to use this technology other than cost savings and stringent
emissions regulations can be to give credit for usage in the environmental rating system.
11.5.1 Emissions
EPA regulates emissions from new non-road diesel engines. EPA also sets standards for fuel
composition (ICF, 2005). In June 2004, EPA finalized the Clean Air Non-Road Diesel Rule (EPA,
2006). The rules mandate the use of lower sulfur fuels (ULSD) in diesel engines beginning in
2007, and sets a 500 ppm limit for sulfur in diesel fuel produced for non-road diesel
engines(diesel fuel for non-road engines currently contains about 3,000 ppm sulfur (ICF, 2005)).
Aftertreatment technologies will start phasing into the diesel sector beginning in 2011 for nonroad vehicles with a limit of 15 ppm sulfur (ULSD) for non-road fuel.
These regulations are phased in with emission standards for PM and NOx emissions as well.
These emissions standards are based on engine hp and equipment model year. Table 20 shows
these emissions standards for engines between 25 - 750 hp and the year of standard application.
Table 20. EPA non-road diesel standard
(Reference: Diesel Technology Forum, 2006)
Rated Power
hp< 25
25 hp < 75
75 hp < 175
175 hp < 750
hp 750
First Year that Standards Apply

2008
2013
2012-2013
2011-2013
2011-2014
PM
(g/hp-hr)*
0.30
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.075
NOx
(g/hp-hr)*
3.5
0.30
0.30
2.6/0.50
*(g/hp-hr) = grams per horsepower-hour
Note, however, that most EPA standards apply only to new engines and equipment at the time of
manufacture, and do not affect existing equipment.
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11.5.1.1 Washington State Department of Ecology Strategy
There is a Diesel Particulate Emission Reduction Strategy for Washington State. The goals
expected under this approach are (Ecology, 2006):
1. Install emission reduction exhaust retrofits on fifty percent of the public legacy diesel
fleet in four years.
2. Install emission reduction exhaust retrofits and add-on fuel efficiency technologies on
fifty percent of the private legacy diesel fleet in eight years.
3. Evaluate, develop and implement an idle reduction program that addresses and
remedies unnecessary idling through on-board retrofits, on-the-ground infrastructure and
anti-idling regulations.
4. Replace twenty-five percent of older (pre-1996 for non-road) legacy vehicles in the
private fleet in eight years.
11.5.2 Stormwater
Construction site stormwater runoff is regulated on the local, State and Federal level.
Most construction projects require a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permit. Some project requires permits under The Endangered Species Act (ESA) (Department of
Ecology, 2005). According to WSDOT, all nonexempt projects must address Construction
Stormwater Pollution Prevention per Standard Specification 1.07.15(1). WSDOTs construction
stormwater pollution prevention planning components consist of Spill Prevention, Control, and
Countermeasures (SPCC) plans and Temporary Erosion and Sediment Control (TESC) plans. All
projects that disturb 7,000 ft2 or more of land, or add 2,000 ft2 or more of new, replaced, or new
plus replaced impervious surface, must prepare a Construction Stormwater Pollution Prevention
Plan (SWPPP). This plan include a TESC plan in addition to an SPCC plan (HRM Chapter 6;
WSDOT, 2006). More stringent local policies may apply.
11.5.3 Noise
WSDOT Environmental Procedure Manual (EPM) Chapter 446 state the Noise policy, however,
this is not specifically related to construction noise, rather noise generated by traffic activities.
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In most cases, daytime noise from construction activities are exempt from state and local laws
(Email correspondence; Mia Waters, WSDOT). For all other cases, coordination with or permits
from local agencies may be needed.
11.5.4 Energy
WSDOT Environmental Procedure Manual (EPM) Chapter 440 state the Energy policy (partly
with focus on construction activities), in addition to fossil fuel being addressed in Chapter 480
(Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment of Resources).
The Energy policy reference NEPA/SEPA requirements and FHWA technical guidance. For most
projects, only general construction and operational energy requirements and conservation
potential impacts need to be discussed. WSDOT has no other specific requirements for addressing
energy issues at this time. (WSDOT, 2006).
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11.6 CREDIT DEFINITIONS
A total of 6 credits can be achieved in this category; Construction Activities (CA).
Table 21. Credits available in category Construction Activities
Construction Activities (CA)
Credits
Reduce Non-road diesel Engines and Fuel Emissions
Reduce Fossil Fuel Dependency
Temporary Stormwater Control
Noise Mitigation Planning
Reduce Paving Emissions 1
The construction activities credits are intended to complement and not replace policies and
regulations related to this category. The credits should be used as incentives to think beyond these
policies with the result of additional environmental awareness in construction projects and less
adverse environmental impacts from these activities.
A description of the credits with their intent follow.
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11.6.1 CA-1. Reduce Non-road Diesel Engines and Fuel Emissions

The intent of this credit is to decrease the amount of diesel pollution being emitted into the air and
to reduce the adverse health impacts related to these pollutants.
Reduce Non-Road Diesel Emissions
1 Credit
Fifty percent of the non-road diesel engine fleet should have installed
emission reduction exhaust retrofits and add-on fuel efficiency
technologies complying with the EPA Tier 4 emission standard.
Example Techniques:
Exhaust retrofitting, replace engines, switch to use B-50 or B-100, switch to use ULSD.
Comments:
The credit limitation is based on the Diesel Particulate Emission Reduction Strategy for
Washington State (Department of Ecology, 2006), as described in WA Regulations.
The percentages should, as the implementation of EPAs new regulations as well as technology
manufacturing development in the industry of construction equipment, be increased over time.
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11.6.2 CA-2. Reduce Fossil Fuel Dependency

The intent of this credit is to reduce the extraction and usage of fossil fuels and promote the use
of alternative fuels which would lead to resource conservation and decreased emissions of
greenhouse gases.
Reduce Fossil Fuel Dependency
1 Credit
25 percent of the construction vehicle fleet for the project should use
biodiesel B-50 or B-100.
Use biodiesel as a renewable alternative fuel made from vegetable oil such as soybeans,
rapeseeds, sunflower seeds. Use biodiesel that meets ASTM D6751 and is legally registered with
the EPA.
Comments:
Biodiesel is now available in Washington State. The percentage of the vehicle fleet required to
use biodiesel for this credit should, as the implementation of EPAs new regulations take effect,
be increased over time.
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11.6.3 CA-3. Temporary Stormwater Control

The intent of this credit is to ensure that construction projects do not impair water quality by
allowing sediment to discharge from the site or allowing pollutant spills. (HRM, WSDOT, 2006)
Temporary Stormwater Control
1 Credit
Provide a Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) if the

impacted project area has 2,000 ft2 or more of new, replaced, or new
plus replaced impervious surfaces
OR
if the project have land-disturbing activities of 7,000 ft2 or more.
The two components included in the construction stormwater pollution prevention plan (SWPPP)
are:
1. Temporary Erosion and Sediment Control (TESC) plan.
2. Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasures (SPCC) plan.
Guidelines for the design of temporary BMPs used during construction are given in WSDOTs
Highway Runoff Manual Appendix 6A, and in Washington Department of Ecologys Stormwater
Management Manual for Eastern and Western Washington.
Comments:
Due to the complexity of impacts from stormwater pollution control and the already existing
stringent regulations, permits approved by WSDOT and the Department of Ecology, or local
ordinance if more stringent, should be equal to the requirements for this credit.
Further research should evaluate this more.
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11.6.4 CA-4. Noise Mitigation Planning

The intent of this credit is to ensure that construction projects do not cause annoyance and
disturbance in surrounding neighborhoods.
Noise Mitigation Planning
1 Credit
Provide a Noise Mitigation Plan (NMP) if the project has land-disturbing

activities of 7,000 ft2 or more.
This credit accounts for all projects conforming to above description, even if it is exempt such as
day time construction.
The NMP should include:
a description of construction activities taking place
a description of surrounding neighborhood (including type of area: offices, residents,

hospital, school, daycare area, etc (if urban) and rural).
an analysis of expected sound levels in nearby neighborhood ( a noise map)
a description of actions to be used for noise mitigation including source, path or receiver
position mitigation.
if permit is required by State or Local policy, include the permit in the documentation.
Comments:
If construction activities are taking place in rural areas and state or local permits make sure there
is no sensitive or endangered species that can be harmed by the noise activity, this credit will be
given. Nearby neighbourhood needs to be defined as well as how detailed the analysis of
expected sound levels should be. The details of the plan should depend on project size. On idea is
to follow the strategy described in FHWAs Special Report: Highway Construction Noise:
Measurement, Prediction, and Mitigation (Reagan et al).
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11.6.5 CA-5. Reduce Paving Emissions 1

The intent of this credit is to improve workers health and decrease the exposure to hazardous
asphalt emissions in larger projects.
1 Credit
For Highway class pavers as defined by NIOSH,* follow the guideline

found in NIOSH Engineering Control Guidelines for Hot Mix Asphalt
Pavers-Part 1 New Highway Class Pavers
*large paver equipment weighing 16,000 lbs or more.

Comments:
The paver should have a minimum controlled indoor capture efficiency of 80%. This is
determined by the tracer gas method described in the NIOSH document, Engineering Control
Guidelines for Hot Mix Asphalt Pavers-Part 1 New Highway Class Pavers.
PCC pavement construction does not have the fumes, these projects can assume to get this credit.
For HMA projects, this credit might already be met in most cases. Research further.
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11.6.6 CA-6. Reduce Paving Emissions 2

The intent of this credit is to reduce hazardous emissions to improve workers and public health
and to reduce energy dependency and emissions.
1 Credit
For HMA applications, use Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA).
Comments:
Environmental benefits of using WMA are found for plant operations. It is assumed that benefits
are of the same nature for on site operations. Further research should be done to better quantify
these benefits.
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12. INNOVATION & DESIGN (ID)

This category with credits is benchmarked form LEED-NC. The intent is to give project design
teams the possibility to be awarded for additional performance above the requirements set in the
final rating system to promote innovation and performance in the design.
Such credits could be based on innovative designs, approaches, measures taken, technologies
used, etc. that help meet the overall goals (LEED-NC v. 2.1). This includes innovative
performance in green roadway categories that are not specifically addressed by the final rating
system for roadway design.
12.1 CREDIT DEFINITION
12.1.1 ID 1-3. Innovation & Design

The intent is to provide an incentive for additional performance beyond the final rating system
and award efforts in this direction.
Innovation & Design (ID)
1-3 Credits
In writing, identify the intent of the proposed innovation credit, the

proposed requirement for compliance, the proposed submittals to
demonstrate compliance, and the design approach (strategies) that
might be used to meet the requirements (LEED-NC).
Additional 2 Credits could be awarded with the same requirements as above.
Example Technologies
Substantially exceed a rating system credit such as recyclable content or stormwater management.
Apply strategies or measures that demonstrate a comprehensive approach and quantifiable
environment and/or health benefits (LEED-NC v. 2.2).
Comments:
This intent and credit requirement for this credit is benchmarked from LEED-NC v. 2.2, with the
exception of number of credits to earn.
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The specific requirements for earning of credits need to be outlined in more detail to conform to
consistency in judging. This might be a challenge for this credit.
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13. SUSTAINABLE ALIGNMENT (SA)

This category should be included in the final system but is left for future research. The intent with
this category is to give credit for preservation and conservation strategies for wetlands, forests,
farmlands and other ecological sensitive areas impacted by the alignment of the roadway.
Complex inter-agency permits and Federal, State and Local Requirements are one reason why
this category is outside the scope of this thesis.
Suggested areas of credit research is:
Farmland Preservation
Wetland Conservation
Forest Preservation
Ecological Sensitive Areas
Urban and Rural Design
These sub-categories are assumed to be given an equal number of credits at this stage to be able
to do a comparison in the final system model..
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14. IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY & IMPACTS

This chapter will provide an overview of implementation impacts and strategy. Using the U.S
Green Building Councils (USGBC) strategy in regards to LEED as a reference, reasoning and
suggestions of important implementation steps will be presented.
To provide a more realistic and industry based approach to this chapter, interviews were
conducted with industry professionals to learn more about the actual impacts of the
implementation of LEED at an organizational, construction/consultant as well as on a economical
activity level. Interviews represent two major construction contractors, one consultant providing
sustainable services, and one governmental organization:
Skanska
Vice President, Skanska USA Building Inc., Seattle
Turner
Project Manager, Turner Construction Co., Seattle
Stantec
Principal, Stantec Consulting Inc., Seattle
King County
Project Manager, King County, Washington State
This chapter is a summary of personal opinions based on findings from the research interjected
with information from the interviews. The interviews were held in person and presented here is
the writers interpretation of the ideas put forth in the interviews. Appendix D provide a list of
questions being discussed.
14.1 THE IMPACTS OF LEED IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY
Figure 37 present the intentional and assumed impacts of LEED from the USGBCs perspective.
Is this an accurate picture? The interviews held indicate that this can be the case, but it is too early
to tell. There is a relationship between risk taking, cost and sustainability at this point as some of
the technologies are new and not manifested. But, as the market changes environmental
awareness in sustainability and green design should become common practice.
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Figure 37. The intended market position of LEED

(USGBC 1, 2006)
Interview subjects agree that the implementation of LEED has significantly changed the building
industry in the U.S, more so in some parts of the country than others. The awareness of
sustainability and environmental design has increased in the last 5-10 years in construction
projects and LEED has significantly helped to manifest this change on an organizational level,
but also in teams managing construction projects and activities taking place on the actual
construction site (Skanska, Turner, Stantec, 2007). The change can be found in policies as well
(King County, 2007).
14.1.1 Effects Of LEED in Organizations And In Construction Activities

In 2000 The City of Seattle mandated LEED to be used for all buildings larger than 5000 ft2; the
first city in the U.S. to do so (USGBC 5, 2002). King County adopted a similar requirement in
2005 (King County, 2005), and a vast number of other Citys and local Governments around the
country have done the same.
This has created a change where owners, architects and designers request LEED knowledge and
sustainability services from consultants as well as contractors. This means new knowledge is
essential within companies and agencies to meet the requirements and efficiently work with the
owners and each other. LEED has created a new career path, or a new position, to be filled in a
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construction project (Skanska, Turner, 2007); one with significant sustainable understanding and
awareness.
To implement LEED in an organization is working well. As an example King County has
developed its own supplement to LEED to make it work with local policies. In some cases the
local jurisdictions are more stringent, like the energy code and the stormwater regulations. In
other cases, less stringent. How LEED impact the policy development and not the other way
around is not clear at this moment (King County, 2007).
USGBC has an extensive program set up as part of their implementation strategy (USGBC 1,
2006). There is a possibility to take a LEED AP Professional Exam, which includes studies of the
system, its requirements, resources, and processes. As LEED has grown throughout the building
industry, this exam has grown into a marketable benefit for professionals (Turner, Skanska,
Stantec, 2007), a new professional title. USGBC provides lecturers, workshops, and education for
the LEED exam as well as workshops for project managers and companies. At an educational
level, companies or organizations have had to put forth some level of sustainability education
throughout their organization.
The impact of LEED on the actual construction site is also significant. According to interviews
(Turner and Skanska, 2007) LEED requirements are actually making workers interested in
sustainability throughout the construction project hierarchy, and according to (Turner, 2007)
many innovative solutions on the actual construction site is a result from this interest. LEED
requirements have also necessitated additional inspections; many see these inspections going
hand-in-hand with quality and safety control as well since sustainability is really a measure of
quality. Another significant change is the increasing demand for LEED certified buildings by
tenants (the market) as they view LEED buildings can create a healthier and better living and
working environment.
14.1.2 Effects of LEED on Construction Products & Materials

LEED has created a new niche of marketing of construction products. Producers and vendors of
building products and materials use LEED as a marketable benefit often promoting their
products use to obtain LEED credits.
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While product claims should be reviewed critically (in many cases no specific research in life
cycle impacts has been carried out) the end result is the change this effort creates in building
product marketing. Selling and marketing sustainable products can promote more research in the
field and as the market for such product expands, the prices will likely decrease. This incents
builders to use such products and further vet their claims.
LEED has certainly a marketable value (Turner, Skanska, Stantec, King County, 2007). To
achieve the same market transformation in the roadway industry would be an admirable goal. It
would eventually provide more available options and help make sustainability part of mainstream
design and construction.
14.1.3 Reasons for LEEDs Breakthrough

As mentioned sustainability and environmental awareness in construction in the U.S. has
increased rapidly the last 5-10 years. LEED has played a vital part in this change. But why is
LEED successful rather than another rating system or scheme? Interview subjects point to two
main reasons:
1. It is easy to use. LEED provides something to measure against, a framework, or a
checklist of things you can focus on to get a more sustainable product. Benefits are also
in the product itself. In terms of buildings, measurable benefits such as lower water usage
and reduced energy usage can easily prove better performance and save costs. But also
more subtle aspects of performance such as people in the buildings actually feel better,
stay healthier and this is turn result in higher productivity in schools and offices. LEED
provide a common framework and a project goal other than just fulfilling basic
requirements in a construction project, and LEED is a tool for the design team giving a
collective language in how to work towards this goal.
2. Implementation strategy. The strategy USGBC used to implement LEED has been very
successful. The organization behind LEED is very large, and the marketing and
educational effort put forth has made LEED a strong trademark (for more details see
section Implementation Strategies of LEED).
Other trends in the market are mentioned as well (Turner, Skanska, Stantec, King County, 2007).
There is a strong momentum taking place right now in the U.S in regards to sustainability and
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green design. There is a generation shift were a younger generation of professionals have a
stronger interest in global effects and environmental issues. This could be caused by many factors.
For instance as the effects of global warming are more exposed to everybody through media, the
interest and adaptation/use of such a system is more accepted. The timing for LEED was right.
A rating system for roadway design could at this time ride on the wave of the momentum taking
place for sustainability and green design.
What is not working so well? All interviews mention the documentation as something that has
been time demanding and rather difficult to carry out. This also means higher cost. USGBC
introduced online submittals and support in 2006. This has strongly improved user-friendliness.
14.2 LEED FROM AN ORGANIZATIONAL STANDPOINT
USGBC has a very solid organizational setup with the LEED rating system being their main
product. Focus on its quality, consistency and continuous development is well stated throughout
their overall mission as presented in their foundation documents (Foundation documents; LEED
Policy Manual, LEED Product Development and Maintenance Manual, LEED Committee
Charters).
Figure 38 shows how the LEED committees are organized by product and by technical field. The
Product Committees are divided to address vertical and horizontal markets. Technical Advisory
Groups (TAGs) support both Horizontal and Vertical Market Committees and provide the
consistency of approach and performance that USGBC emphasize in their development of the
LEED systems.
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Figure 38. Overview of the LEED development organization

(USGBC 1, 2006)
The LEED rating systems is the USGBCs main product, but with this follow a selection of other
activities: educational outreach in workshops, the LEED Accredited ProfessionalPM program (the
certification of industry professionals), conferences, research initiatives and case studies.
Partnering with governmental and local jurisdictions and commerce is another marketing effort
and also part of the success. The USGBC has formed effective relationships and priority
programs with key federal agencies, including the U.S. DOE, EPA, NIST, and GSA (USGBC 5,
2002).
14.2.1 The Development of LEED

LEED is constantly undergoing refinement, redevelopment and expansion. Since the first system
(v. 1.0) was released in 1998, the basic LEED standard has been developed to an increasing
selection of markets (See LEED for buildings in Chapter 5; Environmental Rating Systems).
The latest version of LEED for New Construction, (version 3.0), is under development (Sacket,
2006) under a multi-year process.
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Certification products are developed and adopted using the following steps (USGBC 2, 2006):
1. Rating Criteria development or review
2. Pilot test of new or revised rating criteria (if necessary)
3. Public comment period on proposed ballot rating criteria
4. Integration of comments into final ballot rating criteria
5. USGBC Membership Ballot
6. Launch of approved product
USGBC policy requires a two-thirds approval of the ballot for a standard to be approved. Many
opportunities for feedback from LEED users are also given in this development process through
meetings, conferences and work shops. (One example is the Future of LEED seminar held in
Seattle in February 2006.)
14.2.2 Implementation Strategies of LEED

Contributing to the success of LEED is not only the structure of the system and the organization,
but also the understanding of what change is behind market transformation. Figure 39 is taken
from The LEED Policy Manual (USGBC 1, 2006) and demonstrates the drivers for change in
green building markets and how they are related back to the actual environmental, economical
and social impacts.
Figure 39. Market relationships

(USGBC 1, 2006)
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The figure provides a good overview of the importance in working on all these activity levels to
make a market transformation. The same counts for the development of a rating system for
roadway design. Not only technical guidance is important, legislation, education, marketing and
supporting activities needs to be implemented as well.
USGBC has a strong network of 75 regional chapters throughout the U.S. (USGBC 4, 2007). The
chapters provide local green building resources, education and leadership opportunities in green
design, construction and operations for professionals from all sectors of the building industry.
More than 50,000 designers, builders, suppliers and managers have attended USGBC educational
programs (USGBC 4, 2007) to gain practical knowledge and learn about sustainability. This is a
huge educational effort, but promoting significant knowledge and activities in the society on all
levels is a very important part of market transformation and this has shown to be successful.
14.3 DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A RATING SYSTEM FOR ROADWAYS
There are mainly three favorable different scenarios for a rating system for roadway design and
construction to be successfully developed and implemented:
1) Adopted by USGBC and developed as a new LEED system for a new sector of the
construction industry (take a step outside the building sector)
2) Developed individually but incorporated in LEED as part of their LEED for
Neighborhoods (New Reference guide under development, planned to be launched in
2009)
3) Developed and used individually/independently in Washington State and later in other
states.
Benefits of being incorporated in USGBC and their LEED program is the strong marketing value,
the already existing organization, strategic business plan and competence in green building design
and construction. The problem is the vast variety of State and Local requirements and regulations
that need to be met. A nation-wide system applied to roads may have to be too general to provide
much specific guidance. Therefore a State-wide independent system in the regime of USGBC and
their LEED program could be one favorable way to go.
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To continue the work with this standard strategically there are some important steps that form this
point needs to be taken:
1. Develop a Strategic Action Plan.

Establish a working group by partnering of staff already familiar with sustainability and green
building design from WSDOT, Ecology, Local Governments and industry professionals. Include
professionals familiar with LEED and the development and implementation of LEED.
It is a challenge to find funding and to make green construction a management priority, so it is
important to gain dedicated personnel for this effort (USGBC 5, 2002). This diverse partnering
group can be set up with developing an action plan to establish a green roadway construction
policy.
The group can perform research and prepare recommendations. Outline what is the overall
mission and goal with the system. Build a base for consistency and outline a time frame and
important key-players and make sure responsibilities are well-documented. This will serve as a
base for system development.
2. Development of categories and criteria

Set up committees and working groups such as USGBCs Technical Advisory Groups. These
groups should represent all areas and levels of roadway construction; technical expertise,
construction professionals, jurisdictional, fiscal, educational and marketing expertise. Include
green building professionals as well.
The working groups work with the development of the categories and the credit criteria. The
categories applied are based on this thesis but need further development. When developing
criteria, it is important, to the greatest extent possible, make the credits: Clear, Concise, Objective,
Doable, Documentable, and Verifiable (suggested by USGBC in their LEED Product
Development and Maintenance Manual, 2006).
3. Advisory Committee
Form an advisory committee with approval function to make sure regulations are met and updated
references are being used. This should be represented by Federal and State agencies with different
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environmental and fiscal focus and include local jurisdictions as well. Example of representatives
are: EPA, FHWA, DOE, WSDOT, Department of Ecology, and Counties and Cities. This
committee can serve as over-viewers of the system development. As suggested by USGBC, interagency cooperation will yield a much more integrated policy for a jurisdiction (USGBC, 2002).
A subgroup could include commercial as well as public interests. To include commercial and
public opinions will help in acceptance of such a system once it will be implemented.
4. Perform Case Studies
Verify and test the practice of the system in case studies and do refinement of the categories and
criteria to establish the optimal credit requirement. (This could be an iterative process which will
also continue after the implementation of the system in future system upgrades.)
As suggested by USGBC (USGBC 5, 2002), to build a local momentum and accelerate the
learning curve more quickly, the principles could be included in local and voluntary Pilot Projects.
5. Develop Certification Process
Using the working groups and advisory committee, develop the certification process and define
submittal requirements and process sequence. Define the certification process, parties for
verifications and set up review teams. Make consistency a key-goal.
USGBC and LEED certification has the following simplified certification steps: 1) Project
Registration, 2) Design Submittal, 3) Construction Submittal, 4) Certification reviewing, 5)
Certification Process.
6. Develop training and outreach

One important step in creating a successful implementation is to ensure support from staff that
will implement the system in projects (Turner, Skanska, King County, 2007). They will need
training to understand and accept the new practices. In addition, there is further need to provide
education and outreach to gain support for the program from the outside professional and building
community (USGBC 5, 2002).
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At this stage an additional advisory group can be established. Such a group might consist of
private sector construction industry representatives and other stakeholders. Involving these
individuals in the development of a green construction policy, or including them in educational
and outreach programs helps promote future acceptance of these new practices by the local
construction industry (as found by USGBC 5, 2002).
Figure 40. Implementation strategy overview
Figure 40 present a simplified overview of how the implementation plan could look like for the
development of an environmental rating system for roadway design and construction.
14.4 DISCUSSION
The roadway construction industry is quite different in the way it works compared to the building
industry. It is a more public industry rather than a more commercial and private one. It is a matter
of where the funding comes from, who pays and what the incentives to use new techniques are.
(Washington funds state transportation spending mostly from the gas tax, and revenues from
licenses, permits, and fees). There is a risk associated with the use of emerging techniques, and
the public sector can be very sensitive taking such a risk when public funds and taxes are used as
funding mechanisms. This can makes it difficult to achieve changes and promote the
implementation of a sustainable roadway rating program.
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The way the horizontal construction works is that many agencies are involved and the permitting
processes are very complex. How can a rating system work around these complex activities? This
is when advisory groups and technical committees with specialization in respectively field
become very important, and multidisciplinary teams with professionals experienced in these
respective field is vital.
The Green Highway Inititative (www.greenhighways.org) is a new partnership program
developed in 2005 by EPA together with FHWA and other organization such as the American
Concrete Pavement Association (Phone Correspondance, Leif Wathne, Director, ACPA, 2007).
The initial reason for the program was to use EPA as an approval organization and streamline the
process of environmental permitting, allowing and simplifying for the use of emerging BMPs to
mitigate water quality issues related to roadways. The initiative has grown to include other
measures as well. Such an initiative is great and could be very helpful to give some incentives to
use new techniques as well as be part of market transformation. Such a program should be
included in partnering.
There has to be a clear understanding of the standing of the system, that it is a voluntary based
system and that it is not an absolute measure of sustainability. However, included in State and
local policy it can have a greater impacts and become common practice. Changes take time, and
as for all new structures and systems, benefits and most feasible practices might need some time
to show under evaluation. A clear understanding of responsibilities and a strong business and
strategic plan is therefore vital for success in implementation.
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15. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

15.1 CONCLUSIONS
Table 16 presents a summary of the suggested system model for the rating system with its
categories, sub-categories and credits available.
Table 22. System model: A summary of categories and credits available
Category2
Sustainable
Alignment
(SA)
Materials &
Resources
(MR)
Stormwater
Management
(SM)
Energy &
Environmental
Control
(EEC)
Construction
Activities
(CA)
Sub-Category3 4
SA-1: Farmland Preservation

SA-2: Wetland Conservation
SA-3: Forest Preservation
SA-4: Ecological Sensitive areas
SA-5: Urban and Rural Design
MR-1: Construction Waste Management
MR-2: Reuse of Pavement 1
MR-3: Reuse of Pavement 2
MR-4: Recycled Content 1
MR-5: Recycled Content 2
MR-6: Life Cycle Analysis
MR-7: Regionally Provided Material
SM-1: Storm Water Management
SM-2: Storm Water Design 1 Runofff Treatment
SM-3: Storm Water Design 2 Permeable Area
SM-4: Storm Water Design 3 Permeable
Pavement
SM-5: Innovative Stormwater Technology
EEC-1: Cool Pavement Heat Island Effect
EEC-2: Quieter Pavements
EEC-3: Light Pollution Visibility and Night Sky
EEC-4: Light Pollution Optimized Energy
EEC-5: Eco-Viaducts
EEC-6: Visual Quality (landscape & architecture)
EEC-7: Pedestrian/bicyclist Access
CA-1: Reduce Diesel Engines and Fuel Emissions
CA-2: Reduce Fossil Fuel Dependency
CA-3: Temporary Stormwater Control
CA-4: Noise Mitigation Planning
CA-5: Paving Emissions 1
CA-6: Paving Emissions 2
ID-1-3: Innovation in Design
Innovation and
Design Process
(ID)
Total Available Credits
Categories suggested to be included in the full system

Credits suggested to be included for each category in the full system
4
Highlighted credits researched in detail in this thesis
3
Credit
Available
Total
Available
Credits
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1-3
3
36
144
LEED-NC has a total of 69 points available within their four categories of certification. Based on
a similar approach for the roadway environmental rating system, Table 23 presents the suggested
levels for certification. Due to the lower number of credits available compared to LEED, three
levels are suggested for the certification of roads.
Table 23. Certification credit requirements
Certification Level
Silver
Gold
Platinum
Range of credits
40-60%
60-80%
80-100%
Number of credits
14-21
22-28
29-36
The work in this thesis provides an overview over suggested areas of environmental concern to be
included in a developed final rating system. The benefits of this kind of rating system for a
roadway construction project can be summarized as:
Defines areas of environmental concern
Provide measurable targets (a checklist)
Improve environmental awareness and knowledge
Provide a project goal
If an environmental rating system could gain the same success in the roadway construction
industry as it has in the building industry, this would lead to great industry improvement and
market transformation in terms of environmental awareness. It is important to remember that this
system is not an absolute measure of sustainability; there is always trade-offs that needs to be
considered depending on project specifics.
There has to be a clear understanding of the standing of the system, that it is a voluntary based
system rather then a mandatory system. However, if included in State and Local policy it would
reach greater impacts and faster become common practice, which should be the goal.
The development of this system has to be an ongoing process. LEED has proven to be very
successful and it is only a matter of time before such a system will be incorporated for design and
construction of roads. The need for incorporation of sustainable features in roadway design and
construction is large and this is the time to put strong movement into development of this kind of
system.
145
15.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The next step is to continue the work with development of this system. Following bullet points
summarize the most important recommendations with some comments:
Research and development should be continued for the credits left for future research in
this thesis as well as development of the ones suggested here. Each credit is a great
opportunity for further studies in different areas of specialization. Use university research
competence and industry knowledge by forming working groups as suggested in Chapter
14; Implementation Strategy & Impacts.
Case studies should evaluate the credit limitations and optimize the requirements for all
credits. The case studies should evaluate different type of construction projects with
various sizes and budgets.
Perform weighting of the credits. The threshold levels in LEED are criticized for not
being industry appropriate and the threshold levels suggested may not sufficiently be
above the norm to be called green. Future research would benefit from doing Life
Cycle Analysis for each credit. This would be the best way to weight the credits based on
their environmental performance.
Define implementation strategy. Chapter 14 suggests one broad method for

implementation which mentions the importance of partnering between agencies, policy
makers and industry in different areas of the market. Education and outreach is a very
central part of implementation strategy.
146
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158
WSDOT, Quieter Pavements: Options and Challenges for Washington State, Prepared by: State
Materials Laboratory, Washington State Department of Transportation
And Acoustics Section Washington State Department of Transportation, May 2005
WSDOT, Traffic Noise Analysis and Abatement Policy and Procedures, Washington State
Department of Transportation, March 2006
WSDOT, Environmental Procedures Manual, Publication Number 31-11, Washington State
Department of Transportation, March 2006
Xiao, F., Amirkhanian, S., Juang, H.C., Rutting Resistance of Rubberized Asphalt Concrete
Pavements Containing Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Mixtures, ASCE Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering, MT/2005/023143
159
APPENDIX A:
DESIGN OPTION EVALUATION FOR RECYCLED MATERIALS
Table A. Design Option Evaluation for Recycled Materials in Pavement Applications

Recyclable Option
Pavement Application
PCC
Asphalt
Fly Ash
Slag-cement
Technical Properties Impact
Base
Layer
Workability
Permeability
Water
Reduction
Air
entrainment
Time of set
Sulfate attack and

Alka Silica Reaction
unstable
++
depend on class
++
--
stable
mitigates
high
albedo
Low
usually bad
Increase
reflectivity
High
noise
reduction
High
++
Scrip Tire
limited
Reclaimed
Asphalt
Recycled
Concrete Material
X
+
++
--
limited
Availability
in WA state
Durability
Glass
Foundry Sand
Other
sustainable
features
(Noise,
stormwater,
albedo)
Strenght
depends
Low
Low
High
High
Possible to use in application

Increase in pavement property
High increase in pavement property
Decrease in pavement property
Strong decrease in pavement property
NOTE: Some of these properties varies with mix design and specific circumstances. This table is only to present common properties generally found
for each recyclable option of material as replacement for virgin material in a pavement application.
160
161
APPENDIX B:
ANALYSIS OF REUSE AND RECYCLED CONTENT
These sheets are examples of the analysis performed for the credit limitations in Material &
Resources, specifically for Reuse of material MR-2 and MR-3, and Recycled Content MR-4 and
MR-5.
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
APPENDIX C:
DESIGN OPTION EVALUATION FOR COOL PAVEMENT
APPLICATIONS
Table C. Design Option Evaluation for Cool Pavements

Construction Option
Albedo/
Reflectance*
Evaporative
cooling*
(porousity)
Pavement
Application
Low Speed
Low Volume
Road
High Speed
High Volume
Road
Cold Climate
Hot Climate
Wet
Dry
Wet
Other sustainable
features (Noise,
stormwater,
recycled content)
Durability
Dry
Feasability/
Availability in
WA state
Life
Cycle
Cost
Concrete additives
Fly-ash
Yes
Yes
Recycled content
Long
Low
Depends
Slag-cement
Yes
Yes
Recycled content
Long
Low
Depends
Conventional PCC
New,
Resurfacing
Yes
Yes
Recyclability
Long
High
Moderate
White Topping and UTW
Resurfacing
Yes
Yes
Long
High
Moderate
Roller Compacted
Concrete
New
Yes
No
Long
High
Moderate
Light Aggregate in AC
pavement
New,
Resurfacing
Yes
Yes
Moderate
Low
Chip seals with light

aggregates
Resurfacing
Yes
No
Skid Resistant
Moderate
Low
Rubberized Asphalt
New,
Resurfacing
Yes
No
Noise, stormwater,
skid resistant,
recycled content
Short
Moderate
High
Porous pavements
Depends
New,
Resurfacing
Yes
No?
Short
Low
High
* Rated 1 to 5 where:
Stormwater
Noise, stormwater,
skid resistant
1= Low
3 = Moderate
5 = High
170
171
APPENDIX D:
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Presented here are questions being discussed in interviews.
172
Interview Questions for Contractors (Turner & Skanska).
Personal Interviews were conducted in February 2007.
For a large consulting company as Stantec, how has LEED impacted the way you work with
sustainability and environmental design?
Would you say Stantec has increased its general awareness of sustainability in the last years?
Would you say it is thanks to the implementation of LEED, or is there other regulations or
incentives that force that development?
What has the City of Seattle requirement of LEED silver for commercial buildings really meat
for Stantec in terms of education, implementation and construction activities?
How much education have you put forth through your company to educate the employees of
LEED? Difficulties? Advantages?
How has the implementation of LEED impacted the way you work on an organizational level?
How has the implementation of LEED impacted the way you work in a construction/consultant
activity level? How?
Economical or business level?
In your opinion, how has LEED changed the building construction industry in the U.S.?
Do you think it is successful? Why or why not?
What is working well/not so well?
What would you like to be different or what do you see is missing in regards to LEED?
What is really the level of interest on the construction site for sustainability and environmental
questions? What governs those activities? Money alone?
Is there a marketing benefit in the term sustainability or LEED in your opinion?
How does business and economics work with LEED in your opinion?
How do you see the future of sustainability and construction in the U:S?
What is your reaction of having a similar environmental rating system as LEED but for roadway
design?
173
Interview Questions for Consultant (Stantec Consulting Inc.)
Personal Interview were conducted in February 2007.
Being an office focusing on sustainability, has LEED changed the way you work with
sustainability and environmental design? Why and Why not? How?
Would you say Stantec (not only this office) has increased its general awareness of sustainability
in the last years?
incentives that force that development?
What are the major limitations in using LEED in a project in your opinion?
Have you seen a change in general awareness among owners, designers and other consultants
in construction projects in regards to sustainability? If so, why is this, LEED or other reasons?
What has the City of Seattle requirement of LEED silver for commercial buildings really meat
for Stantec in terms of education, implementation and consulting activities?
How much education have you put forth through your company to educate the employees of
How has the implementation of LEED impacted the way you work in a construction/consultant
activity level? How?
Economical or business level?
In your opinion, how has LEED changed the building construction industry in the U.S.?
In your opinion, What is working well/not so well?
What is really the level of interest on the construction site for sustainability and environmental
questions? What governs those activities? Money alone?
How do you see the future of sustainability and construction?
design?
174
Interview Questions for Governmental Organization (King County)
Personal Interview were conducted in February 2007.
Would you say King County has increased its general awareness of sustainability and green
design in the last 5-10 years?
incentives that have forced that development?
Why did King County decide to require the LEED methodology/tool to be used for all new
buildings, remodels and renovations of your facilities?
In your opinion, how does/did LEED fit in with King Countys already existing regulations and
requirements? The State regulations and requirements? What is not working, what is working?
LEED too stringent or not?
How has LEED impacted the way you work with sustainability?
What is important in your opinion to achieve a successful implementation of LEED in an
governmental organization? Difficulties?
How much education have you put forth through your organization to educate the employees of
How has the implementation of LEED impacted the way you work with a policy and regulations?
From King Countys point of view, how has the implementation of LEED impact on an economical
or business level?
In your opinion, has LEED changed the building construction industry in the U.S.? If so, how?
What is working well/not so well?
Yes!
How do you see the future of sustainability and construction?
design?
175
APPENDIX E:
LOCATION OVERVIEW OF AGGREGATE SOURCES IN WA (WSDOT)
These illustrations present approved pits and quarries for PCCP and HMA (wearing course and
other courses). The graphs are provided by WSDOT.
176
177
178

Tesis - Diseño Sostenble de Una Carretera - Metodo Leed

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Sustainable Roadway DesignA Model For An Environmental Rating System

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science in Civil Engineering

Program Authorized to Offer Degree:

Goal and Scope ...................................................................................................... 2

U.S. Road Statistics ............................................................................................... 4

5. Environmental Rating Systems ................................................................................................. 6

LEED for Buildings ............................................................................................... 6

6. An Environmental Rating System For Roadways..................................................................... 9

System Categories A Summary .......................................................................... 9

7. The Categories In Detail.......................................................................................................... 10

Criteria Definitions .............................................................................................. 33

9. Stormwater Management (SM) ............................................................................................... 43

10. Energy & Environmental Control (ECC) ................................................................................ 73

Light Pollution ..................................................................................................... 73

10.6.4 Design Options ....................................................................................89

14.1.3 Reasons for LEEDs Breakthrough ...................................................134

Figure 1. Cross section and alignment view of a roadway. ............................................................. 4

Table 1. Summary of System Categories and their intent................................................................ 9

their environmental impacts and importance.

for credit ratings.

and documentations required to earn credits.

define some of the criterias.

2.1 GOAL AND SCOPE

Figure 1. Cross section and alignment view of a roadway.

4.1 U.S. ROAD STATISTICS

5. ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SYSTEMS

LEED Categories And Credits

Energy and Atmosphere,

Materials and Resources

Indoor Environmental Quality

Bonus Credits for Process and Design Innovation

LEED And Sustainability

6. AN ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SYSTEM FOR ROADWAYS

SYSTEM CATEGORIES A SUMMARY

Table 1. Summary of system categories and their intent

Materials & Resources

The intent with this category is to reduce impacts in the

Stormwater Management (SM)

The intent with this category is to reduce major impacts in

Energy & Environmental

The intent with this category is to reduce impacts related to

Innovation and Design

The intent with this category is to provide an incentive for

Categories suggested to be included in the full system model

7. THE CATEGORIES IN DETAIL

8. MATERIALS & RESOURCES (MR)

Reduce the use of virgin materials

Divert materials from landfills

Reduce energy consumption

Decrease costs in construction projects

Use of Virgin Materials:

Energy & Emissions:

Terminology is important to provide a uniform language in this credit:

Figure 2. The Highway environment

Construction Waste and Recycling

Figure 3. Production and consumption by market sector

Construction Debris in Washington State

Asphalt Concrete Aggregate

Asphalt Concrete Asphalt Cement Modifier

Stabilized Base Aggregate

Flowable Fill Cementitious Material (Pozzolan,

Reclaimed Asphalt Pavements