Journal of Consumer Marketing

Effects of Store Music on Shopping Behavior

Richard Yalch Eric Spangenberg

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To cite this document:
Richard Yalch Eric Spangenberg, (1990),"Effects of Store Music on Shopping Behavior", Journal of Consumer Marketing,
Vol. 7 Iss 2 pp. 55 - 63
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000002577
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J. Duncan Herrington, (1996),"Effects of music in service environments: a field study", Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 10
Iss 2 pp. 26-41 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/08876049610114249
Richard Yalch, Eric Spangenberg, (1990),"Effects of Store Music on Shopping Behavior", Journal of Services Marketing, Vol.
4 Iss 1 pp. 31-39 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000002502
Jillian C. Sweeney, Fiona Wyber, (2002),"The role of cognitions and emotions in the music-approach-avoidance behavior
relationship", Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 16 Iss 1 pp. 51-69 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/08876040210419415

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EFFECTS OF STORE MUSIC ON

SHOPPING BEHAVIOR
Richard Yalch
Eric Spangenberg
After a review of research on the use of
store music, an experiment
was
conducted
comparing
the effects of background
and
foreground music on clothing store shoppers.
In-store interviews revealed a preference for
foreground music but customers' moods and
unplanned purchases were not
substantially
enhanced
by hearing foreground
music.
However, customers'
perceptions
of their
shopping time varied with the type of music,
depending
on their
age. Counter
to
expectations, the effects of music did not vary
with the type of music, depending on their
age. Counter to expectations,
the effects of
music did not vary with time of day. These
results suggest that choosing to play store
music solely to satisfy customers'
preferences
may not be the optimal approach but rather
music should be varied across areas of a store
that appeal to different-aged
customers.

Many retailers and service organizations use

some form of environmental music to enhance
their atmosphere and influence customer
behavior. For example, some restaurants use
b r i g h t l i g h t s a n d f a s t - t e m p o m u s i c to
encourage rapid turnover during lunch times
when the demand for tables is high, but in the
evening, when few customers are waiting use
d i m l i g h t s a n d s l o w m u s i c to e n c o u r a g e
customers to linger and consume high-margin
items such as cocktails and desserts. Although
the i m p o r t a n c e of m u s i c in establishing an
atmosphere is obvious little is known about
how atmospheres affect customers.
In 1973 the concept of atmospherics was
i n t r o d u c e d . It refers to t h e d e s i g n of a n
e n v i r o n m e n t t h r o u g h t h e u s e of c o l o r s ,
lighting, sounds, and furnishings to stimulate
p e r c e p t u a l and e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s by
c o n s u m e r s , a n d u l t i m a t e l y to affect t h e i r

Richard F. Yalch is Professor of Marketing and International Business at the University of Washington in Seattle. He
earned his Ph.D. from Northwestern University in 1974, majoring in Marketing. His numerous research publications are
concerned primarily with assessing how consumers respond to promotional efforts.
Eric Spangenberg is a doctoral student in marketing at the University of Washington. He earned his M.B.A. from
Portland State University. He plans to do his dissertation research on some aspect of consumer behavior.
The authors would like to thank the Center for Retailing and Distribution Management at the University of Washington
School of Business Administration for financial assistance in completing this project.

Vol. 7 No. 2 Spring 1990 55

THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

behavior. Music is one of the most frequently

used atmospheric factors to enhance the
delivery of services to customers. Support for
the use of music to enhance service offerings
comes from studies conducted
by
psychologists and consumer researchers. Our
review of this research suggested several
possible effects from using music in a retail
setting, and we have been conducting research
to help us better understand these effects. This
article reviews published research on the
effects of music and then discusses one of our
experiments.

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Literature Review
Published research on music in retail
settings is surprisingly limited but fairly
consistent in showing that sales may depend
on the type of music being played. For
example, research sponsored by the MUZAK
Corporation, conducted in two grocery stores,
reported higher sales per customer when
MUZAK music was played, compared with
radio music, contemporary environmental
music, or no music. Another supermarket
study reported a 38 percent increase in sales
when the store played slow music compared
with fast music. This sales increase was
attributed to music's effect on shoppers' pace
of movement in the store. They spent 17
percent greater time traveling between two
observation points in the store when slow
music was played relative to fast music. In a
second study by the same researcher, it was
reported that a restaurant's customers spent
more time at their tables, consumed more
alcoholic beverages, but ate no more food
when slow music was played compared with
fast music. 5 However, not all research has
found a sales effect. A study looking at the
effects of volume determined that shoppers
spent less time in a store when loud music was
played compared with soft music but it saw no
effect on sales or customer satisfaction. It is
noteworthy that in all these studies, any
improvement in sales was attributed to
customers spending more time in the outlet,
either because they moved at a slower pace or
merely because they stayed longer.
A significant amount of research on the
effects of music in education and in work

56

place environments has been conducted. Much

of this research involves the use of music as a
learning aid, an issue relevant to advertising
rather than to service delivery. However, some
of this research is useful in that it provides a
basis for understanding how music may affect
human behavior in a retail setting. The
following application illustrates how
psychological research might be applied to
retailing situations. A psyhological experiment
found that discussion groups spent a longer
time and had more verbal interaction when
exposed to soothing background music
compared to stimulating music or no music.
This finding suggests that soothing music
would be appropriate in retail settings such as
a clothing store, where it is desirable for the
salesperson to engage the customer in
conversation prior to the purchase decision.
This psychological experiment further
reported that soothing music's effect is clearest
in novel or anxiety-arousing situations. Thus
the choice of music would be more important
in stores selling high-priced, infrequently
purchased items than in stores offering lowpriced, frequently purchased goods. However,
generalizing to specific retail or restaurant
environments requires knowing what
behaviors are desired. For example, music that
facilitates discussion between individuals may
be desirable where customers are likely to seek
the advice of the salesperson but be
undesirable in a self-service grocery store,
where customers engaged in conversation tie
up the shopping carts and clog the aisles.

Development of Research Questions

In our review of published research, several
issues became apparent to us which suggested
the need for an in-store experiment. The first
issue concerned what aspects of shopping
might be affected by the choice of store music.
Although most part research has considered
time to be a critical factor in explaining how
music affects sales, only actual time has been
considered. Little consideration has been given
to customers' perceptions of time.
Psychological research has shown that the
tempo of environmental sounds can alter
individuals' perceptions of the amount of time
that has elapsed. If individuals budget a

EFFECTS OF STORE MUSIC ON SHOPPING BEHAVIOR

certain amount of time to shopping and they

perceive that this time period has elapsed, they
may decide to quit shopping.

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If individuals budget a certain

amount of time to shopping and
they perceive that this time period
has elapsed, they may decide to quit
shopping.
Another subjective factor that might be
influenced by music is the customer's mood.
Music clearly can alter one's mood, as is
evidenced by its use in movies to augment
various scenes. It also seems reasonable to
expect that buying decisions reflect shoppers'
moods. On the basis of this reasoning, we
decided to focus our research on mood and
perceived time as key measures of music's
impact in a retail setting.
The second consideration in our research
was the choice of music. Music can be
characterized in many ways, such as by type
(e.g., popular, country and western, and
classical), tempo, and presence or absence of
vocals. One of the most frequently used
classifications in between foreground and
background. They differ primarily in that
foreground music includes original artists and
lyrics, whereas background music uses studio
musicians playing i n s t r u m e n t a l . Also
background music tends to be more restricted
in its range of tempos, frequencies, and
volume. Some music suppliers claim that
foreground is more suited for retail
environments than is background music.
Generally, foreground music commands more
attention from customers while they shop. We
wondered, then, whether foreground music
might alter their mood and their perception of
the amount of time elapsing more than would
be the case with background music.
Another consideration in the choice of
appropriate music in a retail setting was
recognizing that customers' music preferences
vary. Although it might be possible to segment a
store's customers by music preference, it is more
common to choose the type of music that is

preferred by the majority of customers sharing

some key demographic characteristics. For
example, radio stations target listeners varying
in race, age, and sex by their choice of music
format. Age appears to be strongly associated
with preference differences in music format.
These differences are evident in shopping
environments, with young-adult-oriented stores
playing different music than Brooks Brothers.
Given this observation, we wondered if
different-aged customers reacted differently to
foreground and background store music.
The final issue to be explored was the time
of day. Customers clearly differ in their
purpose for shopping. Some have specific
purchase intentions and enter a store expecting
to fulfill these intentions. Others are less
certain about their needs and may in fact have
little intention to purchase anything. These
browsers may expect to acquire p r o d u c t
information or may be merely killing time.
However, a buying impulse could occur,
resulting in an u n p l a n n e d p u r c h a s e .
Discussions with retailers revealed some
feelings that the percentage of shoppers fitting
into either category, purposeful versus
leisurely shopping, varied by time of day. A
greater percentage of purposeful shoppers was
expected during the morning than during the
evening or on the weekends. Given that it was
possible that music would affect purposeful
shoppers differently than it would leisurely
shoppers, we decided to study its effects
during different time periods.

The Field Study and

Predictions
A field experiment was conducted to
explore the relationship between types of
music provided in a retail store and in-store
shopping behavior. The experiment was
conducted at a department store that is part of
a major West Coast chain. The retail store
selected has two adjacent departments catering
to different-age shoppers and typically served
by different types of music. The experiment
involved systemically varying the music
played in the d e p a r t m e n t s . Interviewers
stationed at the exit doors intercepted
shoppers and asked them to respond to a brief

57

THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

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questionnaire as part of a university's research

project. A major part of the questionnaire
concerned the shopper's mood, and the
responses were later combined to form three
measures of mood. Other questions concerned
the shoppers' age, unplanned purchases, and
an estimate of how much time was spent
shopping. Details of the methodology are
provided in Appendix A.
Three causal factors were of interest. One
was the type of music being played in the
store, foreground or background. In addition to
varying the music between these two types, a
no-music condition was used to assess the
effects of using any type of music. The second
causal factor was age. The existence of two
departments appealing to individuals of
different ages made it convenient to select
samples with a wide range of ages and to
divide them into two age groups (24 and under
versus 25 and older) based on store
management's view of the target customer for
each department. A third variable was the time
period when individuals were shopping.
Observations occurred in two-hour blocks
during a variety of time periods (morning,
afternoon, evening, weekday and weekend) to
ensure that both shoppers with a specific
purpose and those merely browsing were
interviewed, assuming that this aspect varied
with these time periods.
The basic predictions were that foreground
music would result in a more positive mood
that background and that either would be
better than no music. Second, because it was
more distracting, customers' perceptions of
time were expected to be longer when exposed
to foreground music than to background
music. Further, it was thought that any mood
effects would be of more importance to
leisurely shoppers than to purposeful
shoppers, whereas time effects might impact
purposeful shoppers more than leisurely
shoppers. Finally, these effects of store music
were expected to depend on the shoppers' age.
Younger shoppers were expected to react more
positively to foreground music than to
background music, and the opposite was
expected for older shoppers.

58

Experimental Findings
Table 1 presents the results of the
experiment broken out by treatment condition,
with the scale ranges in the far right columns.
Our first question concerned the relationship
between store music and customer mood, and
these results are presented in the first three
rows of the table. If we look at customers' state
of mind when s h o p p i n g , we see that
foreground music resulted in a higher level of
perceived activity while shopping than did
background music. Interestingly, the no-music
condition was even more arousing than the
foreground music condition, possibly because
of the loss of sound masking provided by
music. Another aspect of mood, pleasant
versus unpleasant, was unaffected, with the
exception of slightly more positive feelings
among the younger shoppers exposed to the
background music. The third factor, a feeling
of being dominant or submissive (i.e., the
extent to which a customer feels in control of
the interaction with the salesperson or
controlled by the salesperson), did not vary in
any significant way.
Also shown in Table 1 are the effects of
music on shoppers' spending more money and
time in the store than they had expected ad
their liking of the music. The only significant
difference was for liking, with the customers
expressing a somewhat positive attitude
toward the foreground music (4 would be
neutral) and a negative attitude toward the
background music.
The next issue was whether the type of
music played in the store had similar effects
for young and older shoppers (See Table 2). It
was predicted that individuals who usually
listened to Top Forty music (those under 25
years of age) would respond better to the
foreground music than the background music.
The opposite was expected for those who
tended to listen to easy-listening-type or
background music (individuals age 25 or
older). However, the analysis of reported liking
of the music revealed an unexpected finding.
Both young and old shoppers rated the
foreground music as more desirable than the
background music, though there was a sharp
decline in liking of the foreground music
among shoppers 50 and older. Among those

EFFECTS OF STORE MUSIC ON SHOPPING BEHAVIOR

under 50, however, the foreground music was

consistently better received than the
background music. This finding was
particularly surprising because conversations
with salespersons in the two departments
revealed that they frequently received
complaints from older shoppers about the
obtrusiveness of the foreground music.

The most interesting effect of age was a

significant interaction between type of music
and age of shopper on perceived time spent
shopping. Younger shoppers reported that they
spent more time shopping than they planned
when exposed to the background m u s i c ,
whereas older shoppers reacted this way to the
foreground product. The research design does

Table 1
Effects of Store Music

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Measures
Active Mood
Pleasant Mood
Dominant Mood
Unplanned Buying
Unplanned Time Spent
Liking of Music
Group Size

Foreground
Music

Background
Music

No
Music

Lowest
Possible

Highest
Possible

23.0
46.5
12.9
2.7
3.6
4.8b

21.2 a
48.2
12.8
3.4
4.0
3.4b

24.7a
48.0
12.2
3.2
3.3

5
9
3
1
1
1

35
63
21
7
7
7

33

32

21

Means are significantly different from each other (F[1,54]=3.8, p<.03) indicating shoppers felt more
active when there was no store music compared with background music.
b

Means are significantly different from each other (F[1,6l]=8.1,p<.01), indicating shoppers preferred the
foreground music to be the background music.

Table 2
Effects of Store Music by Age of Shopper
Measures
Active Mood
Pleasant Mood
Dominant Mood
Unplanned Buying
Unplanned Time Spent
Liking of Music
Group Size

Under 25
Background
Foreground

25 and Over
Background
Foreground

22.3
46.7
13.0
2.4
2.6a
4.9

20.6
50.2
12.1
3.8
4.6a
3.3

23.9
46.4
12.9
2.6
4.9 a
4.7

22.1
46.1
13.4
3.0
3.4a
3.5

18

15

17

15

The interaction between age and type of music is significant (F[1,61]=14.6, p<.00l), indicating that
younger shoppers felt they spent more time when listening to background music whereas older
shoppers felt they spent more time when exposed to foreground music.

59

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THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

not allow us to determine whether actual time

varied or only perceived time. There were no
significant interactions between music and age
on the mood measures.
A third set of predictions involved time of
day as a moderator of the effects of store music
on shoppers. It was predicted that shoppers
would be in a better mood because of their
preference for the foreground store music and
this feeling would result in more unplanned
purchases during leisurely shopping times
than during purposeful times. The results
(Table 3) revealed two significant effects.
During the purposeful shopping times
(mornings and afternoons), shoppers reported
being in a more active mood and making fewer
u n p l a n n e d purchases when listening to
foreground music compared with background
music. There were no differences for these
measures during the leisurely shopping times
(evenings and weekends).

Conclusions
Despite widespread beliefs that music
enhances a retail environment and thus results
in increased store traffic, greater customer
satisfaction, and higher sales, a literature

review revealed minimal direct evidence

supporting these beliefs. Consequently, a
program of research was started to enhance our
understanding of the complex relationship
between retail shopping and such atmospheric
factors as music.
The initial effort was successful in
establishing that this research can be
conducted in a field setting without disrupting
normal business activities. Further, despite its
limited scope and sample, the results suggest
that shoppers do respond psychologically and
behaviorally to environmental factors such as
music even though few shoppers consciously
note the presence of music. However, our
ability to measure these effects is still
relatively primitive, as is evidenced by the
small differences in the psychological scales
between the groups exposed to different types
of music.
Perhaps the most intriguing finding of the
initial research is the clear difference in
perceptions of the amount of time spent
shopping as a function of shoppers' age and
type of music. When shoppers were exposed to
music that they normally listen to (foreground
for young shoppers and background for older

Table 3
Effects of Store Music by Time of Day
Purposeful Times
Foreground
Background
Active Mood
Pleasant Mood
Dominant Mood
Unplanned Buying
Unplanned Time Spent
Liking of Music
Group Size

Leisurely Times
Foreground
Background

27.1 a
44.0
12.5
2.4b
3.8
4.4

22.4a
47.8
13.0
4.8b
4.2
3.3

20.7
48.0
13.2
2.8
3.5
5.1

21.0
48.3
12.7
3.1
4.0
3.4

12

21

26

The interaction between age and type of music is significant (F[1,61]=3.6, p<.07), indicating that
during purposeful shopping times shoppers were more active when foreground music was playing.
There was no effect during leisurely shopping times.

T h e interaction between time and music is significant (F[1,61]=3.7, p<.06), indicating that during
purposeful shopping times, shoppers made more unplanned purchases when listening to background
music. There was no effect during leisurely shopping time.

60

EFFECTS OF STORE MUSIC ON SHOPPING BEHAVIOR

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shoppers), they reported spending less time in

the store than they had intended relative to
w h e n t h e y l i s t e n e d to m u s i c t h e y d o n o t
usually select (background for young shoppers
and foreground for older shoppers). We have
t w o p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s . O n e is t h a t
shoppers who experience a nontypical
e n v i r o n m e n t a l factor pay more attention to
what is happening, and their ability to recall
more events results in their perception of time
as b e i n g g r e a t e r t h a n it a c t u a l l y w a s .
Correspondingly, familiar environments
require less monitoring, customers recall less of
what happened while they shopped, and
consequently they think that little time has
passed. This phenomenon is probably similar
to o n e ' s p e r c e p t i o n of h o w m u c h longer it
takes to drive to a destination than to return.
A n a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t
individuals actually increased or decreased the
a m o u n t of time they shopped depending on
the type of music being played. If so, their
p e r c e p t i o n s may reflect this u n a n t i c i p a t e d
c h a n g e from the a m o u n t of t i m e t h e y h a d
planned or normally shop. Additional research
exploring this issue is warranted and should
i n c l u d e m e a s u r e s of a c t u a l as w e l l as
perceived times.

Managerial Implications and

Recommendations
It is interesting to speculate about how store
managers should respond to our findings about
the effects of music on s h o p p e r s . First, we
would like to encourage more research in this
area. Most stores select music on the basis of
its a p p e a l to its c u s t o m e r s and, to a lesser
extent, its employees. Research on store music
and our findings do not establish that liked
m u s i c is n e c e s s a r i l y the m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e
m u s i c to u s e i n all s i t u a t i o n s . S e r i o u s
consideration should be given to establishing
d e s i r e d s h o p p e r b e h a v i o r s and h o w m u s i c
might affect these b e h a v i o r s . For e x a m p l e ,
more social interaction between shoppers and
the sales staff might be encouraged by music
played at a low volume. On the other hand,
m a n a g e r s can e n c o u r a g e s h o p p e r s to s h o p
faster by playing faster m u s i c or slower by
playing slow music. Shoppers might perceive
m e r c h a n d i s e to be h i g h e r p r i c e d w h e n

presented with classical music and lower

priced when presented with country and
western music.
A s e c o n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n c o n c e r n s the
relationships between store music, moods, and
shopping behavior. Although our research was
not conclusive, a substantial body of research
has established that music can alter moods and
t h a t m o o d c h a n g e s affect b e h a v i o r s . For
example, academic research has established a
c l a s s i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g effect by w h i c h
individuals evaluated products more favorably
w h e n presented w i t h liked music than with
disliked music. However, we again caution
about selecting m u s i c merely b e c a u s e it is
liked. For most p u r c h a s e s , i n d i v i d u a l s feel
good about acquiring something new and can
be expected to be in a good mood. However,
for some purchases there may be a great deal of
anxiety, and m u s i c that excites i n d i v i d u a l s
could convert this anxiety to anger. Therefore,
soothing music might be more appropriate.
A t h i r d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n is that services
s h o u l d n o t expect o n e type of m u s i c to be
a p p r o p r i a t e for all s i t u a t i o n s . O u r s t u d y
s h o w e d that age d e t e r m i n e d h o w s h o p p e r s
responded to the store music even though the
r a n g e of ages for t h e c u s t o m e r s in t h e
particular store studied was relatively small.
Other factors such as the income, family life
cycle, and education of the customers would
seem good possibilities for segmentation. Thus
a department store that appeals to customers
varying in their demographic characteristics
would probably benefit by offering a variety of
different music for its different departments,
depending on the profile of each department's
target c u s t o m e r s . T h u s a d e p a r t m e n t store
m i g h t p l a y r o c k i n its t e e n - o r i e n t e d
departments, soft rock for its adult-oriented
departments, classical in jewelry and furs, and
country and western in outerwear.
Another consideration is whether the type of
m u s i c s h o u l d be v a r i e d over t i m e . S t o r e s
frequently adjust their music according to the
time of year, most clearly with the playing of
holiday music in December. The results of this
study suggest that consideration be given to
varying the m u s i c between mornings,
afternoons, and evenings as well as during the
week and the weekend.

61

THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER MARKETING

Many other effects of store music remain to

be e x p l o r e d . O u r c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h p l a n s
include determining the effects of store music
on a store's image, customers' evaluations of
individual products, and total shopping time.

Appendix A: Research
Methodology

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Method
The final sample consisted of 86 shoppers in
two men's departments at a mail department
store in a major Northwest city. Respondents
represented each of the cells in a three (music
variation) by two (age of shopper) by two (time
s h o p p e d ) design. The e x p e r i m e n t r e q u i r e d
subjects to respond to several questionnaire
items after s h o p p i n g u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s
described below. The study took place over a
four-day period that included weekdays and a
weekend. Dates were selected in order to avoid
two substantial summer sales at the store.

Procedure
One or two interviewers were stationed at
the exit doors of two men's departments in a
c l o t h i n g s t o r e . After d e t e r m i n i n g t h a t a
shopper had visited one or the other (but not
both) of the two departments, the individual
was intercepted before exiting the store and
asked to respond to a brief questionnaire as
part of a u n i v e r s i t y ' s research project. T h e
questionnaire was self-administered with
c l i p b o a r d s a n d p e n c i l s p r o v i d e d by t h e
interviewer.
After
completing
the
questionnaire, the respondent was thanked.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 p e r c e n t of the p e r s o n s
declined to be interviewed.

Experimental Factors
Three sound conditions were used:
f o r e g r o u n d ( p o p u l a r Top 40 w i t h l y r i c s ) ,
background "easy listening" without lyrics),
and no music. The classification of foreground
a n d b a c k g r o u n d m u s i c w a s c h o s e n to b e
consistent with the environmental music
i n d u s t r y ' s terminology. Each condition was
p r o v i d e d in both d e p a r t m e n t s .
The
d e p a r t m e n t s adjoined one another w i t h no
walls, allowing a single s o u n d system to be
utilized in both departments simultaneously.
Music was controlled by varying the volume

62

Atmospherics remain an area of environmental

p s y c h o l o g y offering g r e a t p o t e n t i a l for
improving the efficiency and effectiveness of
retail and service operations.

and b a l a n c e levels of t h e speakers in each

department so only one music variation was
playing at any given t i m e . In the no-music
condition, both sets of speakers were off.
A second factor was time of day. Shoppers
differ in their goals. Some have a clear need in
mind and shop only as long as necessary to
find a suitable product. Others may h a v e a
variety of needs with none pressing, so they
shop more leisurely and are less likely to make
a purchase on a particular shopping trip. Of
course, both types are found during all times of
day and days of the week. Popular writings
and c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h retail s a l e s p e r s o n s
revealed a belief that shoppers vary in their
orientations toward shopping depending on
the time of day. Morning shoppers are more
l i k e l y to be p u r p o s e f u l t h a n e v e n i n g a n d
weekend shoppers, who are more likely to be
leisurely. Because the questionnaire had to fit
within a one-page limit and we were unable to
inquire directly about each shopper's
orientation, we used time of day as a surrogate
measure of orientation. Each music condition
(foreground, background, and none) was
played once during purposeful shopping times
(in the morning), and twice during leisurely
s h o p p i n g t i m e s ( e i t h e r in t h e e v e n i n g or
weekend). Such an approach understates the
effect of orientation because persons shopping
w i t h a c e r t a i n o r i e n t a t i o n at a time w h e n
shoppers
with
another
orientation
predominate are misclassified. In the future,
q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s s h o u l d be u s e d to
make this determination.
The third factor was the age of the shopper.
Subjects were d r a w n from s h o p p e r s in two
d e p a r t m e n t s : Young M e n ' s Active C l o t h e s
( o r i e n t e d to m e n ages 15-23) a n d M e n ' s
Sportswear (appealing to men over age 20). By
choosing these two departments, we were able
to contact individuals varying substantially by
age. H o w e v e r , it t u r n e d o u t t h a t t h e
departments were not perfectly segmented. Of
t h e 57 s h o p p e r s in t h e Young M e n ' s

EFFECTS OF STORE MUSIC ON SHOPPING BEHAVIOR

D e p a r t m e n t w h o w e r e s u r v e y e d , 22 or 39
percent were over 25, and 11 of the 29 persons
(38 p e r c e n t ) in t h e M e n ' s S p o r t s w e a r
D e p a r t m e n t w e r e u n d e r 25 y e a r s o l d .
Consequently, having included an age question
in t h e s u r v e y , w e u s e d age r a t h e r t h a n
d e p a r t m e n t s h o p p e d to i d e n t i f y w h i c h
shoppers were most likely to be attracted to the
foreground and background music.

Downloaded by UMEA UNIVERSITY At 15:01 05 April 2015 (PT)

Questionnaire Responses
T h e one-page q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t e d of
three parts. The first part briefly described the
study as a university r e s e a r c h project. The
second part consisted of 23 bipolar adjectives
c h o s e n to assess the s h o p p e r ' s mood w h i l e
shopping. These included questions such as:
are you happy or unhappy, sleepy or awake, in
control or under control? Responses to these

items were factor-analyzed to identify which

items were related to each other. Items that had
high factor loadings and that have been shown
to r e l a t e to e a c h o t h e r in t h e p a s t w e r e
combined to form three mood scales (with the
number of items for each dimension listed in
p a r e n t h e s e s : A c t i v e - I n a c t i v e (5 i t e m s ) ,
Pleasant-Unpleasant (9 items), and DominantSubmissive (3 items). The last part had five
questions. Respondents indicated whether
they felt t h a t t h e y h a d s p e n t m o r e or less
money than they planned before entering the
department, whether they had spent more or
less time than they p l a n n e d , their liking or
disliking of the store m u s i c , their age, a n d
w h e t h e r they were regular s h o p p e r s of the
store. Constraints placed on the research effort
by the store m a n a g e m e n t p r e v e n t e d our
collecting measures of actual time and sales.

END NOTES
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