Virendra Kumar 1

Department of Materials Science

and Engineering.
Assoc. Mem. ASME

Mahesh Morjaria
Graduate Student,
Department of Structural Engineering.

Subrata Mukherjee
Assistant Professor,
Department of Theoretical
and Applied Mechanics,
Mem. ASME

Numerical Integration of Some Stii

Constitutive Models of Inelastic Deformation
Several strategies for numerical time-integration of some stiff constitutive models
of inelastic deformation are presented in this paper. Numerical results and comparisons are presented for the integration of one such model for the case of uniaxial
deformation under various prescribed histories of stress or strain. A simple one
step Euler type integration scheme with automatic time-step control, which can be
easily adapted to the solution of multiaxial boundary value problems, -appears promising.

Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

Introduction
There has been considerable interest in recent years in the
development of combined creep-plasticity constitutive models
for inelastic deformation of metals and alloys. These theories
combine plastic and creep strains into a single unified inelastic
strain which they regard as time-dependent. A partial alphabetical list of some recent publications on the subject is given
as references [1-13]. Efficient integration strategies for the
differential equations of these models must be developed if
they are going to be applied on a practical scale in design and
analysis.
The differential equations from these models are, in general,
highly nonlinear and stiff in nature [14-22] (where the word
"stiff" is used in a mathematical sense). Krieg [14] discusses
some of the difficulties involved in integration of these equations. It appears that some innovative integration schemes
with automatic time-step control are required for efficient numerical time integration. Also, these schemes must be such
that they can be used efficiently in conjunction with finite
difference, finite element or boundary integral equation methods
for the solution of multiaxial problems of practical interest.
Two of the authors of the present paper, together with other
co-workers, have been actively involved for some time in the
numerical solution of boundary value problems using Hart's
constitutive model [17-23], In most of these papers, time integration of Hart's equations have been carried out using either
the Runge-Kutta method without time-step control or the first
order predictor corrector method with time-step control [24].
In the present paper, a systematic comparison is presented for
various strategies of numerical integration of Hart's equations
governing uniaxial deformation. The well known subroutines
due to Gear [25-27] have been included in the comparisons. A
stability criterion due to Cormeau [28], which prescribes an
upper limit on time-step size in order to guarantee stable inte-

gration, was also considered. This criterion has been previously

applied to power law creep [29] but is not useful for these stiff
equations. Simulations for creep and tensile tests as well as
for time-varying load and strain histories are considered. A
simple method of extending these strategies to multiaxial
boundary value problems is also presented.

Structure of Some Models of Inelastic Deformation

Many of the constitutive models [1-13] listed in the references
have the mathematical structure given below. These models
make use of some internal or state variables to describe inelastic
deformation.
The total strain rate e, according to these models, can be
separated into an elastic strain rate i", a nonelastic strain rate
en and a thermal strain rate eT, such that
e = e + e" + eT

The elastic strain is related to the stress a by Hooke's law and

the thermal strain tT aT where a is the coefficient of thermal
expansion, and T the temperature. The nonelastic strain t" is
history dependent and its rate at any time is defined as a function of the stress, temperature and certain well defined state
variables g;
e = K<r, q{, T)

Currently, Corporate Research and Development General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.

Contributed by the Materials Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY.

(3)

Hart's constitutive equations [5-6] fit into this general format.

The specific equations for uniaxial deformation are listed below.
Decomposition of strain rate and stress.

Manuscript received by the

Materials Division, August 1, 1078; revised manuscript received March 9, 1979.

(2)

These state variables completely characterize the present deformation state of the material and the history dependence of
the nonelastic strain rate up to time t is assumed to be completely specified by the values of these state variables at the
current time t. The evolution of these state variables along
the deformation path is governed by equations of the type
?> = gi((r, qi, T)

(1)

92/Vol. 102, JANUARY 1980

j a _|_ jp

(T = (7 + <T/

(4)

Transactions of the ASME

Copyright 1980 by ASME

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Relations among variables.

?/*+i = Vk + AtkFk + A&/2

<7 = 3T16"

(5)

f =

" ** (I)'

(7)

o-* = ir><T*T(a*, a")

i* = (a*/G)">fexp(-Q/RT)

e = \MkVWh\/\yh\
2

i* = *(Z(o-*/<r)) '

(8)

i,*(a*/(r.*)*

I V * , <r) = 03/<7*) (<r/(T*)i'*

(9)

where V ^ = Fk 2FA,_] +
difference of Fk-

2/4+1" = Vk + AtkFk

1 +

(11)

(18)

and a corrector as
2/4+ic = Vk + AthFhH

Atk/2 (Fk+i" -

Fh) (19)

where
Fk+i" = F(yk+l,

tk+i)

Finally
\Vh+i -

Vk+i'\

\Vk+ic\

^4-4 is the second backward

In this case a predictor is defined as

(17)

Predictor-Corrector Method.

(10)

In the above, the state variables are the anelastic strain e"
and the hardness <r*; e" is the permanent strain rate, and a"
and <r/ are auxiliary stress variables. The flow parameters are
311, M, m, X, and a*, R is the gas constant, Q the activation
energy for atomic self-diffusion, G the shear modulus at temperature T, and T is the work hardening function. Equation
(7) becomes nearly singular in the viscoplastic limit region
where a" a* and fra ir*, and, for computational purposes,
can be replaced by an alternative equation [17, 21].

(16)

and

(6)

-1 x

VFt

\AtkVFk+i"\

2\yk+i'\

(20)

where VFs+i" = Fk+.i" Fh and the accepted value

3TC

Vk+i = ( 4 / 5 ) ^ + 1 " +

(1/5) i/fc+i"

(21)

Higher Order Predictor-Corrector Method.

Time Integration Strategies and Step Size Selection

In this case
Vk+i" = yk + AtkFk + Atk/2 (Fk -

Several time integration strategies are first discussed in the

context of a single differential equation

l/4+i = Vk + AtkFk+i" -

Fk-i)

Att/2 (Fk+i' -

(22)
Ft)

(23)

and
dt

(12)

= F(y, 0

and generalizations for systems of equations are presented later.

Automatic time step control, whenever applicable, is based
on comparison of a suitably defined error e with prescribed
error limits emi and e max . The time step at the kth step, Afe, is
defined on the basis of its estimate Ah, according as
max < e: replace Atk by Atk/2; recompute e
: Ath = Afc; compute yh+i
emin < e < e max : Afe+i = A&
6 < emin'- Atk+1 = 2Afc

The initial time step must be prescribed.

Some of the strategies described next are obtained from an
expansion of 2/4+1 in terms of 2/4 [24]
2/4+1 = Vh + Afe

( ^ + 22 W + - W + . . . ) (13)
- )

where \7Fh = Fk Fk-\ is the first backward difference of Fk.

One Step Euler's Method. This is
gration schemes but is useless for
automatic time-step control. Useful
however, by using the time-step
below.
The value of 2/4+1 in terms of yk is

the simplest of time-inteHart's equations without

results have been obtained,
control strategy described

\llk+ic - 2/4+1" | =
\yk+ic\
~

Gears Package. Gear's programs STIFF-0, STIFF-1, and

STIFF-2 described in references [25-27] have been used. STIFF-0
is a higher order predictor-corrector method, and STIFF-1 and
STIFF-2 are packages for stiff systems, the former using an
analytical and the latter a numerical representation of the
Jacobian matrix.
Generalizations for Systems of Equations. This method can be
easily extended for the case of systems of equations. T h e equations in this case can be written in the general form
dyM/dt

= i?W (?/, J)

and, proceeding as before, an error vector tW is obtained.

a suitable norm
e = L(W)

Two Step Adam's Method.

In this case

Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology

(25)
Now
(26)

is defined, and this norm compared with emi and

Three common norms that can be used are
1J* = max |e ( ''|
/,! = 2 |e>|
V2(eW)2

(14)

and the error at this step used for automatic time-step control is

e = \Atk VFk\ I M

(24)

T h e accepted value of 2/4+1 is obtained from equation (21).

/;*

Vk+i = Vh + Afa Fk

\Ath V 2 Fk+i\
2\yh+i'\

(15)

Extension to multiaxial problems where the dependent variables are functions of both space and time is also straightforward.
In this case each dependent variable is discretized at a finite
number of space points (or elements) and a much larger number
of ordinary differential equations result. This system of ordinary
differential equations is now treated as discussed above. Spatial

JANUARY 1980, Vol. 102/93

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Table 1 Comparison of various methods for constant stress creep

of annealed 304SS at 400C up to 100 hr. cr = 20 ksi (137.9 MPa) - = 17
ksi (117.2 MPa)

30
Stress
20
(ksi)
10

Method

20 4 0 60 80 100
Time (hours)

4r

<r" " 17 ksi

of ' 0
Non-elastic
Strain
2

Number of
Function
Evaluations

Number of
Time Steps

CPU Time (sec)

on IBM 370/168

1.

Predictor-Corrector

1555

741

0.654

2.

Higher Order
Predictor-Corrector

I486

684

0.573

3.

One-Step Euler

714

713

0.355

4.

Two-Step Adam

1052

1051

0.478

5.

2 and 1

1376

646

0.492

6.

4 and 3

501

500

0.233

7.

STIFF-0

6396

1644

8.

STIFF-1

621(65 INV)

216

1.21

9.

STIFF-2

546(29 INV)

186

0.59

3.73

Table 2 Comparison of various methods for stress change test of

annealed 304SS at 400C. a = 20 ksi (137.9 MPa for 0-10 hr. a = 30 ksi
(206.8 MPa) for 10-100 hr. <r0* = 17 ksi (117.2 MPa)

(%)

40
60
Time (hours)

80

CPU Time (sec)

on IBM 370/168

Predictor-Corrector

2692

1281

0.981

2626

1206

0.931

3.

One-Step Euler

1176

1175

0.530

4.

Two-Step Adam

1899

1898

0.845

100

Fig. 1 Results for an annealed 304SS bar at 400C. Prescribed stress

histories (1 ksi = 6.895MPa)

Number of
Time Steps

Higher Order
Predictor-Corrector

2.

20

Number of
Function
Evaluations

5.

2 and 1

2468

1164

0.921

6.

4 and 3

1003

1002

0.440

12,233

3126

6.85

7.

STIFF ~ 0

Strain

8.

STIFF - 1

1386 (96 INV)

418

2.81

(%)

9.

STIFF - 2

939 (55 INV)

315

0.80

2.0 r

0
30
60
Time (seconds)

Table 3 Comparison of various methods for constant strain rate

tension test of annealed 304SS at 400C up to two percent strain.
= 0.02/min. c' = 17 ksi (117.2 MPa)
Number of
Function
Evaluations

Number of
Time Steps

Predictor-Corrector

1505

743

0.552

Higher Order

1624

700

0.669

CPU Time (sec)

on IBM 370/168

Predictor-Corrector
822

821

0.462

1253

1252

0.712

1442

647

0.538

623

622

0.319

One-Step Euler
Two-Step Adam

Stress
(ksi)

2 and 1
4 and 3

Table 4 Comparison of various methods for strain rate change

test of annealed 304SS at400C. i = 0.02/min for 0-30s. i = 0.002/min
for 30-60s. - = 1 7 ksi (117.2 MPa)
Number of
Time Steps

1155

567

0.469

1173

495

0.466

693

692

0.396

813

812

0.459

1096

474

0.422

527

526

0.283

Predictor-Corrector

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Strain (%)
Fig. 2 Results for an annealed 304SS bar at 400C. Prescribed strain
histories (1 ksi = 6.895 MPa)

CPU Time (sec)

on IBM 370/168

Humber of
Function
Evaluations

Higher Order
Predic tor-Correc tor
One-Step Euler
Two-Step Adam
2 and 1
4 and 3

integration must, of course, be performed by other methods

such as finite difference, finite elements or boundary-integral
(see [17, 23] for the use of the predictor-corrector scheme in
conjunction with the boundary-integral and finite element
methods).

are compared in terms of accuracy and computational efficiency.

The material parameters used for 304 stainless steel at 400C
are [17]
A = 0.15

M = 7.8

Comparison of Various StrategiesNumerical

Results

d* = 0.69 X 1025 s"

Hart's equations have been integrated using the various integration strategies discussed in the previous section. Several
input histories of stress or strain are considered and the results

a*

9 4 / V o l . 102, J A N U A R Y 1980

TO

= 5

3TI = 0.132 X 108psi(91GPa)

e* = 0.252 X lO- " (<r*M*) 5 s" 1

= 4.567 X 10* psi (0.3148 GPa)

iS = 0.179 X 106 psi(1.23 GPa)

5 =

1.33

T r a n s a c t i o n s o f t h e ASSWE

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19 Kumar, V., and Mukherjee, S., "Time-Dependent Inelastic Analysis of Metallic Media Using Constitutive Relations with
State Variables," Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 41, Mar.
1977, pp. 27-43.
M A T E R I A L S AND TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 98, No. 2, Apr. 1976, pp.
20 Kumar, V., and Mukherjee, S., "Creep Analysis of Metal106-113.
11 Ponter, A. R. S., and Leckie, F . A., "Constitutive Rela- lic Structures in the Presence of Thermal Gradients using Newer
tionships for t h e Time-dependent Deformation of Metals," Constitutive Relations," ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 99, No. 2, May 1977, pp. 272-280.
A S M E JOURNAL OF E N G I N E E R I N G MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY,
Vol. 98, No. I, Jan. 1976, pp. 47-51.
21 Mukherjee, S., Kumar, V., and Chang, Kuang-Jain, "Ele12 Robinson, D . N., "A Candidate Creep-Recovery Model
vated Temperature Inelastic Analysis of Metallic Media under
for 2-1/4 Cr-1 M o Steel and Its Experimental Implementation,"
Time-Varying Loads using State Variable Theories," InternaOak Ridge National Laboratory Report No. ORNL-TM-5110,
tional Journal of Solids and Structures, Vol. 14, No. 8, Aug. 1978,
1975.
pp. 663-679.
13 Valanis, K. C , "On the Foundations of the Endochronic
22 Chang, K-J, Lance, R. H., and Mukherjee, S., "Inelastic
Theory of Viscoplasticity," Archives of Mechanics, Vol. 27, Nos.
Bending of Beams under Time-Varying Moments A State
5-6, 1975, pp. 857-868.
Variable Approach," ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Tech14 Krieg, R. D., "Numerical Integration of Some New Uninology, (in press).
fied Plasticity-Creep Formulations," paper M 6/4, Proceedings
23 Mukherjee, S., and Kumar, V., "Numerical Analysis of
of the 4th International Conference on Structural Mechanics in
Time-Dependent Inelastic Deformation in Metallic Media using
Reactor Technology, 1977.
the Boundary Integral Equation Method," ASME Journal of
15 Miller, A. K., and Shih, C. P., "An Improved Method for
Applied Mechanics, Vol. 45, No. 4, Dec. 1978, pp. 785-790.
Numerical Integration of Constitutive Equations of t h e Work
24 Hilderbrand, F . B., Finite-Difference Equations and SimuHardening Recovery T y p e , " ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING lations, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey, 1968.
MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 99, No. 3, July 1977, pp.
25 Gear, C. W., "The Automatic Integration of Stiff Ordinary
275-277.
Differential Equations," Information Processing 68, A. J. H .
16 Shih, C. F., de Lorenzi, H. G., and Miller, A. K., "A Morrell, ed. North Holland, Amsterdam, 1969, pp. 187-193.
Stable Computational Scheme for Stiff Time-Dependent Consti26 Gear, C. W., "The Automatic Integration of Ordinary
tutive Relations," paper L 2/2, Proceedings of the Ifli Interna- Differential Equations," Communications of the ACM, Vol. 14,
tional Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology, No. 3, Mar. 1971, pp. 176-179.
1977.
27 Gear, C. W., "Algorithm 407 D I F S U B for Solution of
17 Kumar, V., Huang, F . , Mukherjee, S., and Li, C-Y., Ordinary Differential Equations [D2]," Communications of the
"Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Stresses in Reactor ACM, Vol. 14, No. 3, Mar. 1971, pp. 185-190.
Components: Deformation in Type 304 Stainless Steel," E P R I
28 Cormeau, I., "Numerical Stability in Quasi-Static Elastic/
final report for Contract No. RP697-1, Department of Materials Visco-Plasticity," International Journal of Numerical Methods in
Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, N . Y., 1979. Engineering, Vol. 9, 1975, pp. 109-127.
18 Kumar, V., and Mukherjee, S., "Creep Analysis of Struc29 Lee, D., Shih, C. F., Zaverl, Jr., F., German, M. D.,
tures using a New Equation of State Type Constitutive Rela- "Plasticity Theories and Structural Analysis of Anisotropic
tion," Journal of Computers and Structures, Vol. 6, Nos. 4 - 5 , Metals- Zircaloys," Electric Power Research Institute Report
Aug.-Oct. 1976, pp. 429-437.
No: EPRINP-500, May 1977.
10 Miller, A., "An Inelastic Constitutive Model for Monotonic, Cyclic and Creep Deformation: Part IIApplication to
type 304 Stainless Steel," ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING

98/ Vol. 102, JANUARY 1980

Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded From: http://materialstechnology.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/ on 07/10/2014 Terms of Use: http://asme.org/terms

19 Kumar, V., and Mukherjee, S., "Time-Dependent Inelastic Analysis of Metallic Media Using Constitutive Relations with
State Variables," Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 41, Mar.
1977, pp. 27-43.
M A T E R I A L S AND TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 98, No. 2, Apr. 1976, pp.
20 Kumar, V., and Mukherjee, S., "Creep Analysis of Metal106-113.
11 Ponter, A. R. S., and Leckie, F . A., "Constitutive Rela- lic Structures in the Presence of Thermal Gradients using Newer
tionships for t h e Time-dependent Deformation of Metals," Constitutive Relations," ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 99, No. 2, May 1977, pp. 272-280.
A S M E JOURNAL OF E N G I N E E R I N G MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY,
Vol. 98, No. I, Jan. 1976, pp. 47-51.
21 Mukherjee, S., Kumar, V., and Chang, Kuang-Jain, "Ele12 Robinson, D . N., "A Candidate Creep-Recovery Model
vated Temperature Inelastic Analysis of Metallic Media under
for 2-1/4 Cr-1 M o Steel and Its Experimental Implementation,"
Time-Varying Loads using State Variable Theories," InternaOak Ridge National Laboratory Report No. ORNL-TM-5110,
tional Journal of Solids and Structures, Vol. 14, No. 8, Aug. 1978,
1975.
pp. 663-679.
13 Valanis, K. C , "On the Foundations of the Endochronic
22 Chang, K-J, Lance, R. H., and Mukherjee, S., "Inelastic
Theory of Viscoplasticity," Archives of Mechanics, Vol. 27, Nos.
Bending of Beams under Time-Varying Moments A State
5-6, 1975, pp. 857-868.
Variable Approach," ASME Journal of Pressure Vessel Tech14 Krieg, R. D., "Numerical Integration of Some New Uninology, (in press).
fied Plasticity-Creep Formulations," paper M 6/4, Proceedings
23 Mukherjee, S., and Kumar, V., "Numerical Analysis of
of the 4th International Conference on Structural Mechanics in
Time-Dependent Inelastic Deformation in Metallic Media using
Reactor Technology, 1977.
the Boundary Integral Equation Method," ASME Journal of
15 Miller, A. K., and Shih, C. P., "An Improved Method for
Applied Mechanics, Vol. 45, No. 4, Dec. 1978, pp. 785-790.
Numerical Integration of Constitutive Equations of t h e Work
24 Hilderbrand, F . B., Finite-Difference Equations and SimuHardening Recovery T y p e , " ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING lations, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey, 1968.
MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 99, No. 3, July 1977, pp.
25 Gear, C. W., "The Automatic Integration of Stiff Ordinary
275-277.
Differential Equations," Information Processing 68, A. J. H .
16 Shih, C. F., de Lorenzi, H. G., and Miller, A. K., "A Morrell, ed. North Holland, Amsterdam, 1969, pp. 187-193.
Stable Computational Scheme for Stiff Time-Dependent Consti26 Gear, C. W., "The Automatic Integration of Ordinary
tutive Relations," paper L 2/2, Proceedings of the Ifli Interna- Differential Equations," Communications of the ACM, Vol. 14,
tional Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology, No. 3, Mar. 1971, pp. 176-179.
1977.
27 Gear, C. W., "Algorithm 407 D I F S U B for Solution of
17 Kumar, V., Huang, F . , Mukherjee, S., and Li, C-Y., Ordinary Differential Equations [D2]," Communications of the
"Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Stresses in Reactor ACM, Vol. 14, No. 3, Mar. 1971, pp. 185-190.
Components: Deformation in Type 304 Stainless Steel," E P R I
28 Cormeau, I., "Numerical Stability in Quasi-Static Elastic/
final report for Contract No. RP697-1, Department of Materials Visco-Plasticity," International Journal of Numerical Methods in
Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, N . Y., 1979. Engineering, Vol. 9, 1975, pp. 109-127.
18 Kumar, V., and Mukherjee, S., "Creep Analysis of Struc29 Lee, D., Shih, C. F., Zaverl, Jr., F., German, M. D.,
tures using a New Equation of State Type Constitutive Rela- "Plasticity Theories and Structural Analysis of Anisotropic
tion," Journal of Computers and Structures, Vol. 6, Nos. 4 - 5 , Metals- Zircaloys," Electric Power Research Institute Report
Aug.-Oct. 1976, pp. 429-437.
No: EPRINP-500, May 1977.
10 Miller, A., "An Inelastic Constitutive Model for Monotonic, Cyclic and Creep Deformation: Part IIApplication to
type 304 Stainless Steel," ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING

98/ Vol. 102, JANUARY 1980

Transactions of the ASME

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