CE 4030

Hydraulics Engineering Laboratory Manual

Environmental and Water Resources Engineering Division

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai 600036

List of Experiments

BERNOULLIS EQUATION
1.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Bernoullis Theorem
1.1.2 Bernoullis Equation
1.1.3 Continuity Equation
1.1.4 Measurements . . .
1.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Method . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Apparatus . . . . . .
1.2.4 Technical Data . . .
1.2.5 Procedure . . . . . .
1.2.6 Observing Results .
1.2.7 Observation Table .
1.2.8 Discussion . . . . .
1.2.9 Precautions . . . . .

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5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 5
. 6
. 7
. 7
. 7
. 7
. 8
. 8
. 9
. 10
. 10
. 10

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS CURVE

2.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Performance Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5 Pumps in series and parallel . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Observation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11
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15
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16

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17
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19
20

ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPES

3.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Introduction . . . .
3.1.2 Major Losses . . .
3.1.3 Minor Losses . . .
3.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . .

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3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.2.6
3.2.7
3.2.8
3.2.9
4

Aim . . . . . . . .
Apparatus . . . . .
Technical Details .
Procedure . . . . .
Observation Table
Model Calculation
Graph . . . . . . .
Discussion . . . .
Precautions . . . .

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20
20
20
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21
21
21
21

FLOW OVER WEIRS

4.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Rectangular Weir . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 Triangular Weir . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4 Depressed and Clinging Nappe .
4.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Experimental Setup . . . . . . .
4.2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5 Observations . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.6 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.7 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.9 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . .

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22
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27
28
28

GUELPH PERMEAMETER
5.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Introduction . . . .
5.1.2 Principle . . . . .
5.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . .
5.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Apparatus . . . . .
5.2.3 Experimental Setup
5.2.4 Procedure . . . . .
5.2.5 Observation Table
5.2.6 Calculations . . . .
5.2.7 Discussion . . . .
5.2.8 Applications . . .

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29
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30
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32
33
34
35
35
35

HYDRAULIC JUMP
6.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Analysis of hydraulic jump in horizontal rectangular channel
6.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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36
36
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38

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6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.2.8
7

Observations and Calculations

Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussions . . .
Applications . . . . . . . . .
Questions . . . . . . . . . . .

IMPACT OF JET
7.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . .
7.1.2 Effect of height . . . . .
7.1.3 Impact of Jets apparatus
7.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . .
7.2.3 Procedure . . . . . . . .
7.2.4 Observations . . . . . .
7.2.5 Calculations . . . . . . .
7.2.6 Results . . . . . . . . .
7.2.7 Discussion . . . . . . .
7.2.8 Conclusion . . . . . . .

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38
39
39
39
40

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41
41
41
42
43
44
44
44
45
46
47
47
47
47

PIPE SURGE AND WATER HAMMER

8.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Analysis of Water Hammer . . .
8.2 EXPERIMENT - ANALYSIS OF PIPE
ING SURGE TANK . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5 Results and Calculations . . . .
8.2.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . .

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SURGE
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48
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
CHARACTERISTICS US. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

List of Figures

1.1
1.2
1.3

F1-15 Bernoullis Theorem demonstration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F1-10 Basic Hydraulics Bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1

F1-27 Centrifugal Pump Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.1
3.2
3.3

Moodys Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Head loss vs Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
F1-18 Energy losses in pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

Different shapes of notches . . . . . . .

Rectangular Notch . . . . . . . . . . .
Triangular Notch . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nappe along the hydraulic structure . .
F113 Flow over Weirs-Vee notch weir
Q vs H 5/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1
5.2
5.3

The Guelph Permeameter Kit(2800KI) components in carrying case . . . . . . 30

Guelph Permeameter Support Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Guelph Components (detailed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6.1

Hydraulic Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

7.1
7.2
7.3

Different target vanes (flat, conical and semi-spherical from left to right) . . . . 42
Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
F116 Impact of a jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

8.1
8.2

Macro-cavitation occurring due to pump trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Effect of sudden valve closure on elasticity of water visualized as a spring, it
has to be noted that the regions indicated by red lines are compression zones
where the velocity of the spring/water is zero. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressure and velocity waves in a single-conduit, frictionless pipeline following
its sudden closure. The areas of steady-state pressure head are shaded medium
dark, those of increased pressure dark, and those of reduced pressure light. The
expansion and contraction of the pipeline as a result of rising and falling pressure levels, respectively, are shown. To give an idea of the relationship involved: With a 100 bar pressure rise, the volume of water will decrease by
about 0.5 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C7-MK Pipe Surge and Water Hammer apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.3

8.4
8.5

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23
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27

50

50

51
53
54

1
BERNOULLIS EQUATION

1.1

THEORY

1.1.1 Bernoullis Theorem

Bernoullis theorem is basically the law of conservation of energy as applied to a fluid flow system. It states that for an inviscid, incompressible, irrotational and steady flow along a streamline
the total energy remains the same.

1.1.2 Bernoullis Equation

In its most practical form the theorem can be represented by the following equation, according
to which the total energy per unit weight at any point in a fluid flow system remains a constant.
P
V2
+
+ z = constant
(1.1)

2g
where P = static pressure measured at a side hole, V = fluid velocity, z = vertical elevation of the
fluid. Each term of the above equation represents energy per unit weight and has the dimension
of length and hence is known as the energy head. Here P is called pressure head and represents
2

the pressure energy per unit weight, V2g is called velocity head and represents the kinetic energy
per unit weight, z is called potential head or datum head and represents the potential energy per
unit weight. Sum of all these components is known as the total energy head. When the equation
is applied to any two points, along a streamline in the flow we get:
P1 V12
P2 V22
+
+ z1 =
+
+ z2 = H = constant
(1.2)

2g

2g
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any two points (1) and (2) If the tube is horizontal, the difference
in height can be disregarded. So the above equation becomes:
P2 V22
P1 V12
+
=
+

2g

2g

(1.3)

since z1 = z2

1.1.3 Continuity Equation

For an incompressible fluid, conservation of mass requires that volume is also conserved.
A1 V1 = A2 V2
5

(1.4)

1.1.4 Measurements
Static Pressure Head
With the armfield F1-15 apparatus shown in the Figure 1.1, the static pressure head h in meters,
is measured using a manometer directly from a side hole pressure tapping. The static pressure
head is related to the pressure by the following relation (tube is horizontal):
h=

P
g

(1.5)

This allows Bernoullis equation to be written in a revised form:

h1 +

V12
V2
= h2 + 2
2g
2g

(1.6)

Figure 1.1: F1-15 Bernoullis Theorem demonstration

Total Pressure Head
The total pressure head, ho , can be measured can be measured from a probe with an end hole
2
facing into the flow such that it brings the flow to rest locally at the probe end. Thus ho = h+ V2g
and from Bernoullis equation it follows that ho1 = ho2 . The term

V2
2g

is called dynamic head.

Velocity
The velocity of the flow is measured by measuring the volume of the flow, V, over a time period.
Volumetric measurement is generally done using F1-10 hydraulics bench apparatus as shown
6

in Figure 1.2. This gives the rate of volume flow as: Qv =

of flow through a defined area A.
Qv
V =
A

V
t

which in turn gives the velocity

(1.7)

Figure 1.2: F1-10 Basic Hydraulics Bench

1.2

EXPERIMENT

1.2.1 Aim
To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow of water
in a tapered duct.

1.2.2 Method
To measure flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent/divergent
tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.

1.2.3 Apparatus
F1-10 Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.
F1-15 Bernoullis Apparatus Test Equipment
A stopwatch for timing the flow measurement

1.2.4 Technical Data

The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If required these values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with
your own measurements.

Figure 1.3: Equipment dimensions

1.2.5 Procedure
(i) Level the Apparatus
Set up the Bernoulli equation apparatus on the hydraulic bench such that its base is horizontal. This is necessary for accurate height measurement from the manometers.
(ii) Set the directions of test section
Ensure that the test-section has the 14o tapered sections converging in the direction of flow.
If you need to reverse the test-section, the total pressure head probe must be withdrawn
before releasing the mounting couplings.
(iii) Connect the water inlet and outlet
Ensure that the rig outflow tube is positioned above the volumetric tank in order to facilitate timed volume collections. Connect the rig inlet to the bench flow supply; close the
bench valve and the apparatus flow control valve and start the pump. Gradually open the
bench valve to fill the test rig with water.
(iv) Bleeding the manometers
In order to bleed air from pressure tapping points and manometers, close the bench valve,
the rig flow control valve and open the air bleed screw and remove the cap from the adjacent air valve. Connect a length of small bore tubing from the air valve to the volumetric
tank. Now, open the bench valve and allow flow through the manometersto purge all
air from them; then, tighten the air bleed screw and partly open the bench valve and test
rig flow control valve. Next, open the air bleed screw slightly to allow air to enter the
8

top of the manometers (you may need to adjust both valves in order to achieve this); retighten the screw when the manometer levels reach a convenient height. The maximum
volume flow rate will be determined by the need to have the maximum (h1) and minimum
(h5) manometer readings both on scale. If required, the manometer levels can be adjusted
further by using the air bleed screw and the hand pump supplied. The air bleed screw
controls the air flow through the air valve, so, when using the hand pump, the bleed screw
must be open. To retain the hand pump pressure in the system, the screw must be closed
after pumping.

1.2.6 Observing Results

Readings should be taken at 3 flow rates. Finally, you may reverse the test section in order to
see the effects of a more rapid converging section.
(i) Setting the flow rate
Take the first set of readings at the maximum flow rate, and then reduce the volume flow
rate to give the h1-h5 head difference of about 50 mm. Finally repeat the whole process
for one further flow rate, set to give the h1h2 difference approximately half way between
that obtained in the above two tests.
(ii) Reading the flow rate
Take readings of the h1-h5 manometers when the levels have steadied. Ensure that the
total pressure probe is retracted from the test-section.
(iii) Timed Volume Collection
You should carry out a timed volume collection, using the volumetric tank, in order to
determine the volume flow rate. This is achieved by closing the ball valve and measuring
(with a stopwatch) the time taken to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank, which
is read from the sight glass. You should collect fluid for at least one minute to minimize
timing errors. Again the total pressure probe should be retracted from the test-section
during these measurements. If not using the F1-15-301 software, enter the test results into
the data entry form, and repeat this measurement twice to check for repeatability. If using
the software, perform the collection as described in the walkthrough presentation.
(iv) Reading the total pressure head distribution
Measure the total pressure head distribution by traversing the total pressure probe along
the length of the test section. The datum line is the side hole pressure tapping associated
with the manometer h1. A suitable starting point is 1 cm upstream of the beginning of
the 14 tapered section and measurements should be made at 1 cm intervals along the
test-section length until the end-of the divergent (210) section.
(v) Reversing the test section
Ensure that the total pressure probe is fully withdrawn from the test-section (but not pulled
out of its guide in the downstream coupling). Unscrew the two couplings, remove the testsection and reverse it; then re-assemble by tightening the coupling.

1.2.7 Observation Table

Volume Collected,V(m3 )

Time to collect,t(sec)

Flow rate,Qv (m3 /sec)

Area of duct,A(cm2 )

Static head,h(m)

Velocity,v(m/sec)

Dynamic head(m)

Total head(m)

6.16

4.34

2.69

1.54

2.69

4.34

6.16

Note: Total Head = Static head + Dynamic head

1.2.8 Discussion
(i) What are the conditions under which the Bernoullis equation is valid and are they being
fulfilled in the experiment?
(ii) Practical application of Bernoullis theorem in real life.
(iii) Is there any restriction to the cross-sectional area that you can have at the junction of the
converging and diverging portions?

1.2.9

Precautions

(i) It is to be ensured that there are no air bubbles in the manometer

(ii) Each reading be taken only when the steady state conditions are established
(iii) There should be no leakage between upstream and downstream end of the conduit

10

2
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
CURVE

2.1

THEORY

2.1.1 Introduction
In centrifugal pump, the fluid is drawn into the centre of a rotating impeller and is thrown
outwards by centrifugal action. As a result of the high speed of rotation, the liquid acquires a
high kinetic energy. The pressure difference between the suction and delivery sides arises from
the conversion of this kinetic energy into pressure energy. This conversion process of energy
into pressure is done by two main parts:
(i) Impeller: Rotating part that converts the driver energy into kinetic energy.
(ii) Volute (diffuser): The stationary part that converts the energy into pressure.
The impeller is a high speed rotary element with radial vanes integrally cast in it. Liquid flows
outward in the spaces between the vanes and leaves the impeller at a considerably greater velocity with respect to the ground than at the entrance to the impeller. The amount of energy
given to fluid is directly proportional to the velocity of the flow at the edge of the vanes of the
impeller; the faster the impeller is (v = r) or the larger it was the larger kinetic energy is
transformed to the fluid. This kinetic energy of the fluid coming out of an impeller is harnessed
by creating a resistance to the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casing)
that catches the liquid and slows it down. The liquid then leaves the pump through a tangential
discharge connection. In the volute the velocity head of the liquid from the impeller is converted into pressure head. In the discharge nozzle, the liquid further decelerates and its velocity
is converted to pressure according to Bernoullis principle. The power is applied to the fluid by
the impeller. The impeller is directly connected through a drive shaft to an electric motor. The
work performed in changing the energy stages of a unit mass of the fluid may be expressed as
the total dynamic head (H) of the pump.
H = (v22 v12 )/2g + (z2 z1 ) + (p2 p1 )/g

(2.1)

Since the pipe diameters are similar, the first term is negligible and the above equation reduces
to:
H = (z2 z1 ) + (p2 p1 )/g = (z2 z1 ) + (h2 h1 )
11

(2.2)

The relative vertical distance between the inlet and outlet may then be expressed as head difference:
Hd = (z2 z1 ) = hd (outlet) hd (inlet) = 0.15m

(2.3)

Substituting the above equation in Equation 2.2 gives head generated across the pump as
follows:
H = Hd + (h2 h1 )

(2.4)

In the laboratory, centrifugal pump characteristics are investigated using the armfield F1-27
apparatus as shown in the figure below:

Figure 2.1: F1-27 Centrifugal Pump Characteristics

2.1.2 Principle
The centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic machine, which increases the pressure energy of a liquid
with the help of centrifugal action. In this type of pump the liquid is imparted a whirling motion
due to the rotation of the impeller which creates a centrifugal head or dynamic pressure. This
pressure head enables the lifting of liquid from a lower level to a higher level.The fluid flows
from the inlet to the impeller centre and out along its blades. The centrifugal force hereby
increases the fluid velocity and consequently also the kinetic energy is transformed to pressure.
Centrifugal pumps are fluid- kinetic machines designed for power increase within a rotating
Impeller. Therefore it is also called the hydrodynamic pumping principle. According to this
principle, the fluid is accelerated through the impeller. In the outlet connection of the centrifugal
pump, the resulting increase in speed is converted into delivery head.

2.1.3 Performance Curve

Every pumps performance is represented by the pump performance curve which is a plot of
the developed head against the flow rate. The curve also shows the efficiency of the pump, the
speed of the impeller and its size. These curves are generated according to tests performed by
the manufacturer.

2.1.4 Efficiency
The efficiency is an important factor in selecting a pump and it represents the ratio between
energy inputs (from motor) to energy output (to the flow) of the pump.
12

2.1.5 Pumps in series and parallel

Sometimes the required head for a system cant match any single pump performance curve or
the suitable pump is not in stock. In such cases two or more pumps can be connected in series
to increase the head coming out of pumps. Pumps are connected in series by attaching one of
the pumps discharge to the other ones suction. When larger flow rate is required and no single
pump is available for use, then two or more pumps can be connected in parallel. Pumps are
connected in parallel when their discharge is connected to a common pipe. In the experiment
we deal with single pumps and pumps in parallel.

2.2

EXPERIMENT

2.2.1 Aim
To investigate the operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump used to transport water
Explore characteristic curve of varying head versus the volumetric flow rate
Obtain a head-flow curve for a centrifugal pump operating at inherent speed
To study the performance of centrifugal pumps by plotting the performance charts

2.2.2 Apparatus
Hydraulics bench which provides one of the two pumps used during this experiment, and
allows the volume flow rate to be measured by timed volume collection
Centrifugal Pump
Stopwatch
Pressure Gauges
Digital Tachometers which read the rotation speed in rpm

2.2.3 Procedure
Single Pump Operation
(i) Empty the tank and set the inverter to the value of 50 Hz and run the machine.
(ii) Note down the initial readings for inlet head, outlet head and also the pump power input
(watts)
(iii) Now open the valve a little and allow some water to flow into the tank.
(iv) Note down the time taken to fill the tank by 5 litres from the measuring tube on the side
of the equipment.
(v) At this point also note down the values from the for inlet head, outlet head and the pump
power input values.
(vi) Now increase the flow more by opening the valve further and repeat steps 4 to 6.
13

(vii) Repeat this procedure 5 times for Frequency of 50 Hz.

(viii) Perform the above steps 1-7 for frequencies: 45, 40, 35, and 30 Hz.
Parallel Pump Operation
Change the setup by switching on the second pump in parallel.
Perform steps 1-7 for frequency 50 Hz for parallel pump operations.
Conversion of frequency into RPM: The frequency of the pump is multiplied by 56 to know
the RPM of the pump. The following table gives the speed of the pump for the corresponding
frequency:
Frequency (Hz)
50
45
40
35
30

14

Speed (rpm)
2800
2520
2240
1960
1680

2.2.4

S No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

Observation Table

Speed(rpm)

Volume of water(L)

Time to collect(s)

Inlet head(mm of Hg)

Outlet Head(m)

Power input(KW)

Inlet head(m)

Discharge(cms)

Total head(m)

Power(KW)

Efficiency(%)

2.2.5 Discussion
(i) Explain how the pump characteristics curves will help in choosing the pump?
(ii) By comparing the curves of head against flow rate and overall efficiency against flow rate
determine the optimum operating point for different speeds of the pump.
(iii) Discuss about the performance curves of single pump and parallel pumps for same speed.
Do we get double the flow rates for parallel pump? Give reasons for any differences
observed.
(iv) Discuss the nature of the characteristic curves obtained.

2.2.6 Precautions
(i) Prime the pump to remove the air completely before starting the pump.
(ii) After each change in the valve opening let the flow stabilize before taking readings.

16

3
ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPES

3.1

THEORY

3.1.1 Introduction
There is a pressure drop when a fluid flows in a pipe because energy is required to overcome
the viscous or frictional forces exerted by the walls of the pipe on the moving fluid. In addition
to the energy lost due to frictional forces, the flow also loses energy as it goes through fittings,
such as valves, elbows, contractions and expansions. This loss in pressure is often due to the
fact that flow separates locally as it moves through such fittings. The pressure loss in pipe flows
is commonly referred to as head loss. The frictional losses are referred to as major losses while
losses through fittings, etc, are called minor losses. Together they make up the total head losses
for pipe flows.

3.1.2 Major Losses

While the nature of flow depends upon Reynolds Number, the frictional resistance offered to
the flow of fluids depends essentially on the roughness of the surface of the conduit carrying
the flow. This frictional resistance causes the loss of head, hf , which is given by Darcy and
Weisbach equation:
( ) 2
L v
hf = f
(3.1)
D 2g
where L = length of the pipe, d = diameter of the pipe, v = average fluid velocity of the pipe, f
= friction factor.
In general, the friction
is a function of the Reynolds Number (Re ) and the non-dimensional
( factor
)
surface roughness Kds and is determined experimentally. v in terms of volume flow rate Qt is
given by:
v=

4Qt
d2

(3.2)

vd

(3.3)

Reynolds Number (Re ) is given by:

Re =
where is the kinematic viscosity of fluid.

17

The plot of f versus Re is usually referred to as Moody diagram and is shown below:

Figure 3.1: Moodys Diagram

Two types of flow may exist in pipe: Laminar and Turbulent. In laminar flow frcitional
resistance is mostly due to viscous resistance of fluid to flow and h u. In turbulent flow,
frictional resistance is due to resistance offered by viscosity of fluid and surface roughness of
the conduit and h un .

Figure 3.2: Head loss vs Velocity

where h = head loss and u = fluid velocity.
The theoretical formulation for laminar flow is:
f=

64
Re

18

(3.4)

For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a well-known curve fit to experimental data is given
by:

f = 0.316 Re0.25

(3.5)

3.1.3 Minor Losses

Minor losses in pipe flow occur due to pipe entrance or exit; sudden expansion or contraction;
bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings; valves, open or partially closed; gradual expansions or
contractions.
The most common equation used to determine these head losses is:
hL =

p
v2
= KL
g
2g

(3.6)

where KL is loss co-efficient. Although KL is dimensionless, it is not correlated with Reynolds

number and roughness ratio but is correlated with the size of the pipe only.
In laboratory, we determine head loss or friction factor using armfield F1-18 apparatus as
shown below:

Figure 3.3: F1-18 Energy losses in pipes

19

3.2

EXPERIMENT

3.2.1 Aim
To investigate the head loss due to friction when the water through a pipe and to determine the
associated friction factor. Both variables are to be determined over a range of flow rates and
their characteristics identified for both laminar and turbulent flows.

3.2.2 Apparatus
F1-10 Hydraulics Bench which allows to measure flow by timed volume collection.
F1-18 Pipe Friction Apparatus.
Stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water.
Thermometer
Measuring cylinder for measuring very low flow rates

3.2.3 Technical Details

The following dimensions of the equipment are to be used in the appropriate calculations. If
required these values may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with
your own measurements.
Length of test pipe L = 0.5 m
Diameter of test pipe d = 0.003 m

3.2.4 Procedure
(i) Check for a constant head in the reservoir tank.
(ii) Change head and try to make it constant by opening the valve.
(iii) Allow a minimum flow to occur when the head is constant by opening the tap.
(iv) Collect volume of water for t seconds and note down the readings for Head 1 and Head 2
(mercury levels)
(v) Repeat the step 4 for 12 different (increasing) flows through the valve.
(vi) Make sure that there are no fluctuations in the readings of the two: h1 and h2. If there is
fluctuation, take average of the top and bottom readings of the fluctuation.
(vii) Measure the temperature of the water in the tank using a thermometer by placing it in
water for 10 seconds.

3.2.5

Observation Table

Temperature of the water:

Kinematic Viscosity (Search for corresponding value from internet with respect to temperature):
20

Volume,V(*106 m3 )

Time to collect,t(sec)

h1(mm)

h2(mm)

Head loss(mm)

Flow rate,Q(*106 m3 /sec)

Velocity,v(m/sec)

Friction factor,f

Reynolds number,Re

3.2.6 Model Calculation

Do a single calculation of the above work.

3.2.7 Graph
(i) Plot graph between ln(Reynolds number) vs ln(friction factor)
(ii) Plot graph between ln(head loss) vs ln(velocity)

3.2.8 Discussion
(i) What is the reason behind the fluctuations in the readings of the heads?
(ii) What is the effect of temperature on head loss?
(iii) What are the practical applications of this experiment?
(iv) What is the dependence of head loss upon flow rate in the laminar and turbulent regions
of flow?
(v) Identify the laminar and turbulent flow regimes. What is the critical Reynolds number?
(vi) Assuming a relationship of the form f = KRen , calculate these values from graphs you
have plotted and compare these with the accepted values.
(vii) What is the cumulative effect of experimental errors on the values of K and n?
(viii) Why head in the tank is kept constant?

3.2.9 Precautions
(i) There should be no leakage from any of the pipe fittings.
(ii) Ensure that there is no air bubble in the manometer.

21

4
FLOW OVER WEIRS

4.1

THEORY

4.1.1 Introduction
A weir is a device used for measurement of flow in open channels and rivers. It is nothing but a
partial obstruction placed across the flow in the channel causing the liquid to backup, upstream
of the obstruction and then flow over it. Thus the discharge thorugh an open channel can be
obtained by the measurement of a single parameter i.e., the head of liquid above the crest of
the weir. In open channel hydraulics, weirs are commonly used to either regulate or to measure
the volumetric flow rate. They are of particular use in large scale situations such as irrigation
schemes, canals and rivers. For small scale applications, weirs are often referred to as notches
and invariably are sharp edged and manufactured from thin plate material. There are different
shapes of weirs that can be used to measure the volumetric flow rate. These shapes with their
dimension are shown below:

Figure 4.1: Different shapes of notches

4.1.2 Rectangular Weir

A rectangular notch is a thin square edged weir plate installed in a weir channel as shown in Fig
4.2. The head H on the weir is defined as the vertical distance between the weir crest and the
liquid surface taken far enough upstream of the weir to avoid local free-surface curvature.

22

Figure 4.2: Rectangular Notch

The discharge equation for the weir is derived using velocity of approach method i.e., by
integrating V dA = V Ldh. over the total head on the weir. Here, L is the length of the weir and
V is the velocity at any given distance h below the free surface. Neglecting streamline curvature
and assuming negligible velocity of approach upstream of the weir, one obtains an expression
for V by writing the Bernoulli equation between a point upstream of the weir and a point in the
plane of the weir. Assuming the pressure in the plane of the weir is atmospheric, this equation
is:
p1
V2
+ H = (H h) +

2g

(4.1)

Here the reference elevation is the elevation of the crest of the weir, and the reference pressure is atmospheric pressure. Therefore p1 = 0 and the above equation reduces to:
V =

2gh

dQ = 2ghLdh and the discharge equation becomes:

H
2
Q=
2ghLdh = L 2gH 3/2
3
0

(4.2)

(4.3)

In the case of actual flow over a weir, the streamlines converge downstream of the plane of the
weir, and viscous effects are not entirely absent. Consequently, a discharge coefficient, Cd must
be applied to the basic expression on the right-hand side of the equation to bring the theory in
line with the actual flow rate. Thus the rectangular weir equation is:

2
Q = Cd L 2gH 3/2
3

(4.4)

4.1.3 Triangular Weir

The discharge equation for the triangular weir is derived in the same manner as that for the
rectangular weir using velocity of approach method and Bernoullis equation.
( )
8

Q = Cd tan
2gH 5/2
(4.5)
15
2

23

Figure 4.3: Triangular Notch

The coefficient of contraction of a notch depends upon the length of the wetted perimeter.
In a triangular notch there is no base to contraction. The contraction is due to sides only. Consequently the coefficient of discharge is nearly constant in a triangular notch for all heads. A
triangular notch is very accurate for the measurement of low discharges.

4.1.4

Depressed and Clinging Nappe

When a weir discharges freely at a reasonably high flow rate the nappe springs clear of the
downstream face of the weir and the nappe is surrounded by air at atmospheric pressure. In
a suppressed weir discharging between the walls of a discharge channel of the same width,
the nappe will remain in contact with the discharge channel walls. If no provision is made to
ventilate the space under the nappe by supplying air, then a partial vacuum will be produced.
The discharge will then be increased due to the lower pressure under the nappe and the nappe
will also be depressed or drawn towards the weir. In extreme cases the whole of the volume of
air behind the nappe will be ejected and a turbulent recirculating volume of water will occupy
the space under the nappe. This condition is known as a drowned nappe or underwetted nappe.
With very low heads, particularly if the head is increasing from zero, the nappe will adhere
or cling to the downstream face of the weir with an increased discharge which may be 30 percent
higher than for the same head with the nappe discharging freely. The nappe will spring clear
of the weir when the head increases to an extent where the liquid surface tension and the local
pressure at the weir downstream face allows the admission of air or the release of vapour.

(a) Springing Clear

(b) Depressed Nappe

(c) Drowned Nappe (d) Clinging Nappe

Figure 4.4: Nappe along the hydraulic structure

24

4.2

EXPERIMENT

4.2.1 Aim
To determine the characteristics of open channel flow over triangular and rectangular
weirs.
To determine the coefficient of discharge for each type of weir.

4.2.2 Apparatus
(i) Hydraulic bench which is used to measure flow by timed volume collection
(ii) Triangular(Vee) notch with an angle of 90o
(iii) Vernier height gauge to measure the head difference
(iv) Stop watch for timed collection of water
(v) Spirit level to check the surface horizontality
(vi) Stilling baffle to reduce the turbulence of the flow

Figure 4.5: F113 Flow over Weirs-Vee notch weir

4.2.3 Experimental Setup

It consists of one hydraulic bench with a flow channel in it. Make sure that the hydraulic bench is
positioned so that its surface is horizontal. Mount the Vee notch plate into the flow channel at the
outlet and also position the stilling baffle at the inlet to reduce the turbulence of the flow. Then
mount the instrument carrier with vernier height gauge and it should be located approximately
half the way between stilling baffle and Vee notch plate, to avoid surface curvature and end
contractions near the Vee notch plate and turbulence near the inlet.

4.2.4 Procedure
(i) Measure the datum height of base of the Vee notch with the help of height gauge. Height
gauge is provided with one drop adjustment screw and one fine adjustment screw. First
lower the gauge using coarse adjustment screw until its tip is just above the datum height
and then use fine adjustment screw for accurate adjustment.

25

(ii) Start the pump and control the flow using bench regulating valve to get the required head
in the flow channel. Once the flow height is stabilized, measure the height of the flow
(water level) using height gauge.
(iii) While taking the readings of water level, adjust the height gauge till tip of the gauge
coincides with its reflection in the water.
(iv) Close the outlet valve of volumetric tank and measure timed volume of the flow.
(v) Repeat the steps (2) to (4) for different flows, which can be adjusted using bench regulating
valve.
(vi) Take care not to allow spillage over the plate top adjacent to the notch and also clinging
to the notch.

4.2.5 Observations
Angle of Vee Notch =
Flow number

Notch type

Datum height,ho (m)

Water level,h(m)

Volume collected,V(m3 )

1
2
3
4
5
6

4.2.6 Calculations
Volume flow rate (m3 /sec) = Volume collected / Time taken
Height above the notch = (h ho ), (m)
Q
()
Discharge Coefficient Cd = 8
tan 2
2gH 5/2
15
For flow number 1,
Volume flow rate =
Height above the notch =
Discharge Coefficient Cd =
Similarly, note the other observations as follows:

26

Time taken for collection,t(sec)

Flow number
1
2
3
4
5
6

Volume flow rate,Qt(m3 /sec)

Height above notch,H = h ho (mm)

Plot the graph (Q vs H 5/2 ) which looks like below:

Figure 4.6: Q vs H 5/2

From the graph plotted above,
The best fit line equation is, y =
Slope (theoretical value) =
Slope (experimental value) =
Cd (theoretical value) =
Cd (experimental value) =

4.2.7 Results
Theoretical Cd value =
Experimental Cd value =

27

H 5/2

Cd

4.2.8 Discussion
(i) Compare the experimental results to the theory.
(ii) What are the limitations of the theory?
(iii) Why would you expect wider variations of Cd values at lower flow rates?
(iv) In what situations, a rectangular notch is used and a V notch is used?

4.2.9

Precautions

(i) Each reading be taken only when the steady state conditions is established and the head
remaining constant
(ii) Preferably flow rate for each reading be recorded over the same time period which being
sufficiently large

28

5
GUELPH PERMEAMETER

5.1

THEORY

5.1.1 Introduction
The determination of the steady state infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity of soils in the
field is an important measurement in order to determine the hydraulic properties of the soil
and to track the fate of infiltrating rain and irrigation water. Borehole permeameters are used
to determine in-situ saturated hydraulic conductivity in soils, when steady state infiltration is
achieved i.e., the rate of infiltration is constant.
The Guelph permeameter provides a good estimation of the field saturated hydraulic conductivity, matrix flux potential and soil sorpitivity in the field. The Guelph Permeameter works
by creating constant head permeability test within the hole according to the Marriotte Principle.
At the start of a test, the hole is flooded with water to create a constant head inside the hole. The
outflow of water from the reservoir and into the hole creates a partial vacuum above the water
level in the reservoir. The sum of the pressures of the head height of the water reservoir and the
partial vacuum will equilibrate to the atmospheric pressure acting on the water in the hole.
When the user raises the upper air tube to the chosen height, the lower air tube will be also
be raised by that height. When the lower air tube is raised, water will fill the hole until it reaches
the air inlet tip. As water infiltrates through the soil, it will cause the water level in the hole to
fall. Once the water level has fallen below the Air inlet Tip then the now exposed Air Inlet Tip
will allow air to rush into the reservoir and relieve the partial vacuum. This in turn causes the
water in the reservoir to run out and back into the hole, where it will rise up to the level of the
Air Inlet Tip.

5.1.2 Principle
The Guelph Permeameter is an in-hole constant-head permeameter, employing the Marriote
principle. The method involves measuring the steady-state rate of water recharge into unsaturated soil from a cylindrical well hole, in which a constant depth (head) of water is maintained.

29

5.2

EXPERIMENT

5.2.1 Aim
To determine the field saturated hydraulic conductivity Kf s(cm/sec), matrix flux potential
(cm2 /sec) and macroscopic capillary length parameter ( ) of soil with the help of in-hole
constant head permeameter (Guelph Permeameter) set-up. The experiment is performed for
two different head levels.

5.2.2 Apparatus
(i) Toothed and flat bottomed augers for hole preparation
(ii) Guelph Permeameter setup
(iii) Small water tank
(iv) Measuring scale

Figure 5.1: The Guelph Permeameter Kit(2800KI) components in carrying case

30

Figure 5.2: Guelph Permeameter Support Kit

Figure 5.3: Guelph Components (detailed)

31

5.2.3 Experimental Setup

It is advisable to do all the setup away from the test hole because spilled water could affect the
test results.
Base
To construct the base of the Permeameter, take the three tripod legs and stick them into the
rubber tripod base. As the base is rubber rather than rigid, it is advisable to use the chain to
create more stability and prevent the legs from splaying out.
Support Tube
The Support tube fits into the bottom of the reservoir tube. However, before that step,
you must add in the Lower Air Tube and the Tripod Bushing. The Lower Air Tube connects
to the Middle Air Tube by one of the black rubber tubes found with the kit. According to
the documentation, this connection should be made with a different connector that has fins to
provide stability within the support tube, but that piece appears to be missing. The Tripod
bushing should be added to the exterior of the support tube with the smaller end pointing down
before connecting the support tube to the reservoir. The support tube can then be joined to the
reservoir.
Top
First, add the Well Head Marker to the top of the middle air tube. This is used to mark the
height of the water in the hole. Next, connect the Upper Air Tube to the Middle Air Tube via
one of the black rubber tubes. Like the other connector, in the documentation this piece appears
to have fins for stability, but the piece described in the documentation appears to be missing.
Finally, add the Well Height Scale to the top. The Well Head Marker should be adjusted so that
it sits at 0 when the Air Tube Assembly is pushed all the way down such that the Air Inlet Tip
is at the bottom of the Support Tube.
Test Preparation
Set up the Guelph Permeameter by threading the support tube through the hole in the tripod
base. The Tripod Bushing should sit on the tripod base, and the end of the support tube should
be in the air or on the ground. Next, remove the cork from the top of the Reservoir tank and
fill the reservoir to the desired height. (It is unclear if the height of the water in the reservoir
affects the test in any way) It is useful to bring both a large water carrying container for water
storage and a smaller container such as a 500 mL graduated cylinder for pouring the water into
the reservoir. If the notch on the knob at the bottom of the reservoir is pointing upwards, then
both reservoirs will fill. If it is pointing down, only the inner reservoir will fill. According to
the documentation, using only the inner reservoir is preferable for soils with a lower hydraulic
conductivity, although only the Combination Reservoir method has been tested. It is extremely
important that the cork be replaced once the reservoir has been filled or else the test will not
work and the hole will flood.
Hole Preparation
Once a site has been selected, dig down to roughly 15 cm (6 inches) above the desired
depth of the hole. The Auger head provided in the Guelph Permeameter kit appeared badly
damaged with the teeth flattened. It was not useful for digging, so a different auger was
used for the initial hole. It may be useful to save the soil from the freshly dug hole for later lab
analysis. Once the initial depth has been reached, switch auger heads to the flat-bottomed auger.
This Auger head creates a smooth and flat bottomed hole that is more uniform than the other
auger. Dig down approximately 15 cm (6 inches) with this head. Once the hole is finished,
take the brush and brush up and down several times in the hole. This is designed to eliminate
smearing on the side of the hole that may have occurred during digging.

32

Testing
At this point, the Guelph Permeameter is placed into the hole. The bottom of the outlet
tip should be in contact with the bottom of the hole. Once the Permeameter is situated, the
Tripod bushing should be pushed down to fit into the Tripod Base for stability. The legs on the
Tripod can also be splayed out if the hole is especially deep, or, if the hole is extremely deep, the
documentation says that the Tripod bushing can be used as the base and the tripod legs can be
done away with entirely. Once the Permeameter is situated properly, pull up the upper air tube
so that the Well Head Marker is at the appropriate height. The water should fill the hole up to the
bottom of the Air Inlet Tip. (If the water fills higher than that, this could be a sign of a seal issue
within the Guelph Permeameter. More info on this and other problems is in the Troubleshooting
page.) Take height measurements of the water level at the proper intervals (generally 2 minutes,
but adjustable depending on the soil) and record the data. The test is complete when the drop
in the reservoir is maintained at a steady rate for three straight intervals. This indicates that the
soil has reached saturation and you are observing the saturated conductivity.

5.2.4 Procedure
(i) Set up the Guelph Permeameter by threading the support tube through the hole in the tripod
base.
(ii) Next, remove the cork from the top of the reservoir tank and fill the reservoir to the desired
height.
(iii) If the notch on the knob at the bottom of the reservoir is pointing upwards, then both reservoirs will fill. If it is pointing down, only the inner reservoir will fill. In this experiment
we perform Combination Reservoir method.
(iv) Pull the air tube up to 5 cm mark to create a constant head of 5 cm in the hole.
(v) Start the stop watch and record the water level in the reservoir at regular intervals.
(vi) Calculate rate of change of head at each interval and continue the experiment till a constant
rate of change in head is obtained.
(vii) Now pull up the air tube to 10 cm mark and perform the similar experiment for 10 cm
constant head.

33

5.2.5 Observation Table

Depth of hole:
Radius:
Time,t(min)

t(min)

Water level in well = 5cm

Water level in reservoir,h(cm) h(cm) Rate of change, R1 = h/t(cm/min)

Steady state for 3 consecutive readings (R1 ):

Time,t(min)

t(min)

Water level in well = 10cm

Water level in reservoir,h(cm) h(cm) Rate of change, R2 = h/t(cm/min)

Steady state for 3 consecutive readings (R2 ):

34

5.2.6 Calculations
(i) Field Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Kf s (cm/sec) = A105 (6.8R2 9R1 )(cm/sec)
(ii) Matrix flux potential (cm2 /sec) = A 104 (9.5R2 3.9R1 )(cm2 /sec)
(iii) Macroscopic Capillary length parameter =

Kf s
(cm1 )

where A is the cross-sectional area of the outer reservoir tube and is equal to 28.274 cm2

5.2.7 Discussion
Soil texture-structure categories for site-estimation of :
Soil Texture - Structure Category

(cm1 )

Compacted, structureless, clayey or silty materials such as landfill caps and liners, lacustrine or marine sediments, etc.

1.01

Soils which are both fine textured (clayey or silty) and unstructured; may also include some fine sands.

0.04

Most structured soils from clays through loams; also includes unstructured medium and fine sands. The category most frequently applicable for agricultural soils.

0.12

Coarse and gravelly sands; may also include some highly structured soils with large and/or numerous cracks, macro pores, etc.

0.36

Macroscopic capillary length parameter represents the ratio of gravity to capillary forces
during infiltration or drainage. Large values indicates dominance of gravity over capillarity,
which occurs primarily in coarse textured and/or highly structured porous media. Small
values indicate dominance of capillarity over gravity which occurs primarily in fine textured
and/or unstructured porous media. Although , Kf s and can individually range over many
orders in magnitude in a porous medium, generally varies from about 0.01 cm1 to 0.5
cm1 .

5.2.8 Applications
The Guelph Permeameter can be used wherever a hole can be augured in soil. The above
instructions present a generalized method for determining field-saturated hydraulic conductivity, matric flux potential, and parameter.
Guelph Permeameter is ideally suited for involving analysis and design of irrigation systems, drainage systems, canals, reservoirs, sanitary landfills, land treatment facilities,
tailings areas, hazardous waste storage areas, septic tank systems, soil and hydrologic
studies and surveys
The Guelph Permeameter can be used to investigate changes in the hydraulic properties
of soils with depth.
A soil profile description and soil survey report will greatly enhance the value and understanding of data obtained with the Guelph Permeameter.
Because of the ease and simplicity of the Guelph Permeameter and its depth profiling
capability, it is a very useful method for understanding the three-dimensional distributions
of the water transmission properties of soils.

35

6
HYDRAULIC JUMP

6.1

THEORY

6.1.1 Introduction
The sudden, turbulent passage of water from a super-critical state to a sub-critical state causes
the formation of hydraulic jump. Hydraulic jump frequently occurs in a canal below a sluice,
at the foot of a spillway or when a steep channel slope meets a flat slope. Hydraulic jump is a
very useful means of dissipation of energy which otherwise, would cause damages downstream.
Hydraulic jump analysis can be carried out by making the following assumptions:
The flow is uniform and hence the pressure distribution is hydrostatic, before and after
the formation of jump.
The length of jump is small so that frictional losses can be neglected.
The weight component of the water mass in the direction of flow is negligible.
Channel bed is horizontal.

6.1.2 Analysis of hydraulic jump in horizontal rectangular channel

Consider the flow situation, shown in Figure 7.2 below, in which section 1 is in supercritical
zone and section 2 is in sub-critical zone. Two equations can be used to describe the hydraulic
jump with the above assumptions. One is conservation of mass and other is conservation of
linear momentum.
Conservation of mass
Since the flow rate is constant in sections 1 and 2, we have:
Q1 = Q2

(6.1)

V1 A1 = V2 A2

(6.2)

V1 h1 = V2 h2

(6.3)

For constant width:

36

Figure 6.1: Hydraulic Jump

Conservation of linear momentum
Newtons second law states that the net force acting on a body in any fixed direction is equal
to the rate of increase of momentum of the body in that direction. Using relation obtained from
conservation of mass:
h21
h2
g 2 = q(v2 v1 )
2
2

2
h2
1
8v
= 1 + 1 1
h1
2
gh1

Fx = F1 F2 = g

(6.4)

(6.5)

where q is flow rate per unit width. The above equation is known as Belorngers equation. Here,
1
we define F r1 = vgh
and F r1 is called Froude number at section 1.
1
Energy Loss
Applying Bernoullis equation between section 1 and section 2 and taking bed of channel as
datum equation for energy loss in hydraulic jump can be derived. The equation for energy loss
is:
hL =

6.2

(h2 h1 )3
4h1 h2

(6.6)

EXPERIMENT

6.2.1 Aim
To study charateristics of hydraulic jump

6.2.2 Experimental Setup

(i) Hydraulic jump setup (glass-walled rectangular flume), with ogee and step spill ways on
either side, of 5m long, 0.4m wide and 0.8m deep. This setup also consists of sluice gate
at inlet end and tail gate at the downstream end.
37

(ii) Calibrated meter scale, mounted on the top with a roller and with a sharp end, to measure
the heights of the flow just before and after the jump.
(iii) Another meter scale, to measure length of jump i.e. distance between the points the height
is measured.
(iv) A piece of chalk, to mark the points at which the height is measured.

6.2.3 Procedure
(i) By adjusting the supply valve, sluice gate, and the tail gate, we need to form a stable
hydraulic jump in the flume.
(ii) Take the pointer gauge readings for the bed levels and water surface elevations at pre-jump
section (1) and post-jump section (2) to get heights (h1, h2) of jump.
(iii) Measure the discharge using head measured at top of notch.
(iv) Repeat steps (1) to (3) for other positions of valve, sluice gate, and tail gate.

6.2.4 Observations and Calculations

S.No.
Ogee Spillway
1
2
3
4
Step Spillway
1
2
3
4

Height above notch, H (cm)

Bottom value of notch = a

Bottom value of channel bed = b
Width of flume =

38

Length of Jump, L(cm)

H1 (cm)

H2 (cm)

S.No

Length of Jump,L

Height over Weir,H = H a

(cm)

(cm)

H1 = H1 b

H2 = H2 b

Flow Rate,Q

V1

V2

(cm)

(m/s)

(m/s)

(cm)

(m /s)

F r1

E1

E2

hL

hj

(m)

(m)

(m)

(m)

hj /E1

hL /E1

Ogee Spillway
1
2
3
4
Step Spillway
1
2
3
4

6.2.5

Graphs

(i) Plot h2 /h1 v/sF rl on a simple graph paper. On the same plot also draw the line.
(ii) Plot hL /E1 and hj /E1 for various values of F r1 .

6.2.6

Results and Discussions

Observe graphs and discuss your observations.

6.2.7

Applications

(i) Usually hydraulic jump reverses the flow of water. This phenomenon can be used to mix chemicals for water
purification.
(ii) Hydraulic jump usually maintains the high water level on the downstream side. This high water level can be used
for irrigation purposes.
(iii) Hydraulic jump can be used to remove air from water supply and sewage lines to prevent the air locking
(iv) It prevents the scouring action on the downstreamside of the dam structure
(v) It is most commonly used choice of design engineers for energy dissipation below spillways and outlets.

39

6.2.8 Questions
(i) Identify different types of jumps that were occurred while doing experiments?
(ii) If channel is not rectangular, then what is your observation on this experiments?
(iii) What are all practical applications of hydraulic jump?
(iv) What are all your observations on jumps occurred in both types of spillways?
(v) What are all different types of conditions for hydraulic jump to occur?
(vi) How hydraulic jump can be classified based on Froude number?
(vii) Explain briefly phenomenon of hydraulic jump?
(viii) What is the other way of deriving Belongers equation?
(ix) The equation given for energy loss in above theory, can it applicable for jump occurred in
compound channel?
(x) What is approximate time to be waited to get proper jump after adjusting sluice gate?

40

7
IMPACT OF JET

7.1

THEORY

7.1.1 Introduction
Water turbines are widely used throughout the world to generate power. In the type of water
turbine referred to as a Pelton wheel, one or more water jets are directed tangentially on to vanes
or buckets that are fastened to the rim of the turbine disc. The impact of the water on the vanes
generates a torque on the wheel, causing it to rotate and to develop power. Although the concept
is essentially simple, such turbines can generate considerable output at high efficiency. Powers in excess of 100 MW, and hydraulic efficiencies greater than 95 percent, are not uncommon.
To predict the output of a Pelton wheel, and to determine its optimum rotational speed, we
need to understand how the deflection of the jet generates a force on the buckets, and how the
force is related to the rate of momentum flow in the jet. In this experiment, we measure the
force generated by a jet of water striking a flat plate or a hemispherical cup, and compare the
results with the computed momentum flow rate in the jet. A jet of water striking a solid surface
will exert a force on the surface and continue to flow along the surface. For a jet of steady
velocity which is not highly turbulent the rebound of water from the surface will be negligent.
If we neglect the frictional forces by assuming water as an inviscid fluid and neglect the energy
losses due to shocks and turbulence, we can see that the velocity of the fluid stream does not
change in magnitude after striking the solid surface. Hence the change in momentum at surface
is not from the change in magnitude of the jet but from change in direction.
Considering typical target vanes as shown in Fig 7.1 (flat, conical and semi-spherical), the
water deflects at a different angle from each of them along its surface. For the flat target vane
the water deflects at an angle of 90o . For the conical target vane the water deflects by an angle
of 45o . For the semi-spherical target vane the water is deflected by an angle of 135o . To find the
force exerted by the water jet we have to find the change in momentum of the water jet upon
incidence on the target vane. We have already established that the change in momentum occurs
only in direction and not in magnitude.
Applying Newtons Second Law of Motion along the direction of the water jet,
Force = Rate of change of momentum

41

Figure 7.1: Different target vanes (flat, conical and semi-spherical from left to right)
As velocity is constant in magnitude and time independent,
Force = MassChange in Velocity
Force,F = MV
where M is mass of waternd and V is the impact velocity of the jet.
Relation between the total Mass of water with density and volumetric flow rate Q is given
by:
M = Q
(7.1)
The change in velocity of a water jet with impact velocity Vi when deflected by an angle
is given by:
V = Vi Vi cos = Vi (1 cos )
(7.2)
Hence force on impact is given by:
F = QVi (1 cos )

(7.3)

F
= (1 cos )
QVi

(7.4)

In all cases of vanes it is assumed that there is no splashing or rebound of the water from the
surface so that the exit angle is parallel to the exit angle of the target.

7.1.2 Effect of height

The jet velocity can be calculated from the measured flow rate and the nozzle exit area.
Q
(7.5)
A
However, as the nozzle is below the target, the impact velocity will be less than the nozzle velocity due to interchanges between potential energy and kinetic energy. Applying the
Bernoulli equation between nozzle and plate:
Vn =

42

P
V2
Pi Vi2
+ n + Zn =
+
+ Zi

2g

2g

(7.6)

Since the jet is open to the atmosphere, we have:

Pi
P

=0

(7.7)

Zn Zi = 0

(7.8)

Vi2 = Vn2 2gh

(7.9)

Therefore,
where h is the height of target above the nozzle exit.
Impact on normal plane target
For the normal plane target is 90 degrees. Therefore cos = 0
F
= (1 cos ) = 1
QVi

(7.10)

Impact on conical and 30 degree plate

The cone semi-angle is 120 degrees. Therefore cos = 0.5
F
= (1 cos ) = 0.5
QVi

(7.11)

Impact on semi-spherical target

The target exit angle is 180 degrees. Therefore cos = 1
F
= (1 cos ) = 2
QVi

(7.12)

By using the above equation, we can compare the theoretical and experimental force value of
target with different angles.
Theoretically,
F = mg
Experimentally,
F = QVi (1 cos )

(7.13)

7.1.3 Impact of Jets apparatus

Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets apparatus (as shown in Fig 7.2) enables experiments to be carried
out on the reaction of a jet of water on vanes of various forms. The apparatus is supported on
a PVC base into which a vertical water supply pipe is fitted. Surrounding the supply pipe is a
transparent plastic shield fitted with a top PVC flanged cover assembly. The force of the jet is
balanced by the addition of masses. A vertical shaft, which passes through a plain bearing in
the top flange assembly, has provision for attaching the target vane at its lower end.

43

Figure 7.2: Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets apparatus

The reaction vane is held within the transparent shield approximately 20 mm above the
vertical water supply pipe nozzle by a rod which passes through the top cover and supports a
flat tray, onto which masses may be placed. In operation, water from the Hydraulics Bench is
fed into the unit and a vertical jet is produced through the supply pipe and its interchangeable
nozzle. The water from the jet is deflected by the reaction vane under test, and drains away
through the large aperture in the base of the chamber. The force produced by the jet impinging
on the target is transmitted by the rod, to the flat tray where weights are placed in order to
balance this transmitted force. Three different types of reaction vane are supplied with the
apparatus and the types are flat, hemispherical cup and 45 cone form. Each vane can be secured
to the pivot arm by a set screw and when not in use is stored on pegs on the unit base plate.
Two interchangeable nozzles for the supply pipe are supplied, one of 8 mm and one of 5 mm
diameter.

7.2
7.2.1

EXPERIMENT
Aim

To investigate the reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to various target
vanes.

7.2.2

Apparatus

(i) Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.

44

(ii) Impact of Jets Apparatus with interchangeable target vanes such as flat, conical, semi
spherical and nozzles.

Figure 7.3: F116 Impact of a jet

(iii) Stopwatch for timing the flow measurement
(iv) Scale for measuring the height differences
(v) Weights

7.2.3 Procedure
(i) Screw on the 5mm nozzle and the Flat Target Vane
(ii) In free condition adjust the pointer to align with the base of the weight platform
(iii) Measure the height difference between the tip of the nozzle and the target vane
(iv) Add a known weight to the weight platform. The platform will move downwards
(v) Start the pump in the hydraulic bench and adjust the flow rate so that the water jet velocity
from the nozzle changes and it raises the weight platform back to its original position
(vi) Measure the volumetric flow rate used timed collection using a stopwatch from the hydraulic bench
(vii) Further add a known weight to the platform
(viii) Adjust the flow rate again so that the platform moves back to its original position
(ix) Measure the volumetric flow rate
(x) Switch off the pump
45

Repeat this procedure for all combinations of nozzles and target vanes, namely, 5mm and 8mm
nozzles and flat, conical and semi-spherical target vanes.

7.2.4 Observations
Observations for first nozzle:
Nozzle Diameter =

Flat Target

Conical
Target

SemiSpherical
Target

Flat Target

Conical
Target

SemiSpherical
Target

Total Weight (kg)

Quantity of Water Collected (m3 )
Time to Collect Water (s)
Volumetric Flow Rate, Q (m3 /s)
Nozzle Velocity, Vn (m/s)
Height of Target above Nozzle (m)
Impact Velocity, Vi (m/s)
Impact Force, F (N)
Incident Momentum, QVi (kgm/s)
F/ QVi
% Error

Observations for second nozzle:

Nozzle Diameter =

Total Weight (kg)

Quantity of Water Collected (m3 )
Time to Collect Water (s)
Volumetric Flow Rate, Q (m3 /s)
Nozzle Velocity, Vn (m/s)
Height of Target above Nozzle (m)
Impact Velocity, Vi (m/s)
Impact Force, F (N)
Incident Momentum, QVi (kgm/s)
F/ QVi
% Error

46

7.2.5 Calculations
Calculations procedure used to complete the above tables:
V olumetric f low rate = (Quantity of water collected)/(T ime taken f or collection)
N ozzle velocity = (V olumetric f low rate)/(Area of crosssection of nozzle)
Impact velocity =

(N ozzle V elocity)2 2 (Acceleration due to gravity) (Height of target)

Impact f orce = T otal W eight Acceleration due to gravity

7.2.6 Results
(i) The theoretical value of vanes such as flat, semi spherical and conical target are
respectively.
(ii) The experimental value of vanes such as flat, semi spherical and conical target are
(iii) The percentage of error involved in theoretical an experimental value of vanes (flat, conical and semi spherical) are respectively.

7.2.7

Discussion

(i) Is there any deviation between theoretical and experimental value? If yes, why it occur?
(ii) How to minimize the error involved between theoretical and experimental value?
(iii) If you want to implement the vane to the turbine, then which kind of vane you would
prefer? And why?
(iv) Why the energy of the water jet is used differently by each body?
(v) Why the efficiency of semispherical is best to use energy of water jet?

7.2.8 Conclusion
Conclude whether the theoretical and experimental forces do or do not have significant percentage of error.

47

8
PIPE SURGE AND WATER HAMMER

8.1

THEORY

8.1.1 Introduction
Fluid distribution systems (hydropower plants, pumping facilities, jet fueling systems, and
wastewater collection systems) and hydropower plants can be severely damaged by pipe surge
and water hammer. The first thing to understand is that surge is very different from pulsation
or water hammer. Water hammer can destroy turbo machines and cause pipes and penstocks to
rupture. Water hammer can be solved by designing and/or operating these systems such that unfavorable changes in water velocity are minimized. The damage caused by water hammer by far
exceeds the cost of preventive analysis and control measures (surge tank, air vessel, fly wheel,
air valve). But surge is less predictable and can also cause severe damage to pipes, valves,
fittings and pumps. Water systems never operate at a constant pressure. Pumps going on and
off line, changes in temperature, demand and tank levels, alter system flow rate and pressure at
any given time. A mild change called a surge, results from water pressure oscillations within
the system and can damage pipes, valves and fittings. A gradual closing of valve in a pipeline
creates pipe surge while quick closing sets in water hammer.
More severe water hammer, on the other hand, comes about when there is a sudden change
at either the inlet or outlet of a system. Pumps suddenly going on or off line or valves rapidly
closing are the most common causes. In other words, it is the forceful slam, bang, or shudder
that occurs in pipes when there is a sudden change in fluid velocity creating a significant change
in fluid pressure. When an outlet valve suddenly closes, the energy contained in the water
flow compresses the water nearest the valve. Like a spring, this energy then reverses flow,
sending a shockwave at the speed of sound back upstream until it hits an obstruction: a joint,
another closed valve or the impeller in the pump. Most of the energy from that shockwave then
bounces off that obstruction and returns to hammer the valve. The wave travels back and forth
between the obstruction and valve until friction finally dissipates the energy. Under unfavorable
circumstances, damage due to water hammer may occur in pipelines measuring more than one
hundred meters and conveying only several tenths of a litre per second. But even very short,
unsupported pipelines in pumping stations can be damaged by resonant vibrations if they are
not properly anchored. By contrast, the phenomenon is not very common in building services
systems, e.g. in heating and drinking water supply pipelines, which typically are short in length
and have a small cross-section.

48

8.1.2 Analysis of Water Hammer

The mass inertia of fluid, elasticity of pipe wall and fluid, frictional resistance of the pipe wall
have to be analyzed to understand the water hammer phenomenon.
Inertia
The sudden closure of a valve in a pipeline causes the mass inertia of the liquid column to
exert a force on the valves shut-off element. This causes the pressure on the upstream side
of the valve to increase; on the downstream side of the valve the pressure decreases. Let us
consider an example: for a 200mm diameter pipe, L = 900 m, v = 3 m/s, the volume of water
in the pipeline is calculated by,
mwater =

0.22
900 1000 = 28274kg
4

(8.1)

This is more or less the same as the weight of a truck; v = 3 m/s corresponds to 11 km/h. In
other words, if the flow is suddenly stopped, our truck to put it in less abstract terms runs
into a wall (closed valve) at 11 km/h (water mass inside the pipe). In terms of our pipeline, this
means that the sequence of events taking place inside the pipe will result in high pressures and
in high forces acting on the shut-off valve. As a further example of inertia, Figure 8.1 shows a
pump discharge pipe. At a very small moment of inertia of pump and motor, the failing pump
comes to a sudden standstill, which has the same effect as a suddenly closing gate valve. If
mass inertia causes the fluid flow on the downstream side of the pump to collapse into separate
columns, a cavity containing a mixture of water vapour and air coming out of solution will be
formed. As the separate liquid columns subsequently move backward and recombine with a
hammer like impact, high pressures develop. The phenomenon is referred to as liquid column
separation or macro-cavitation.
Macro-cavitation in pipelines is not to be confused with microscopic cavitation causing pitting corrosion on pump and turbine blades. The latter always strikes in the same place and is
characterised by local high pressures of up to 1000 bar or more that develop when the microscopically small vapour bubbles collapse. With macro-cavitation, repetitive strain of this kind,
or the bombarding of a sharply contoured area of the material surface, does not occur since the
pressure rises are considerably lower.
Elasticity of fluid and pipe wall
In the previous section the water hammer was visualized as resulting from the mass inertia
which is only partly correct, because no allowance was made for the elasticity of fluid and
pipewall. However, water and pipe walls are elastic. The elastic property of water inside the
pipeline is described using the following example of a heavy steel spring sliding through a pipe.
This spring suffers elastic deformation when it is suddenly stopped (Figure 8.2):The front end
deformation travels in the opposite direction to the original direction of movement at the speed
typical for the steel spring, i.e. wave propagation velocity (a) in m/s. In the compression zone,
the velocity of the steel spring is v = 0 everywhere. The original steady-state kinetic energy of
the fluid, following the sudden closure of the gate valve, is first converted into elastic energy of
the fluid, then changes into kinetic energy again as a result of reflection, then becomes elastic
energy again, and so forth.

49

(a) Steady-state condition prior to pump trip

(b) Formation of a vapor pocket following

pump trip

(c) High-impact reunion of separate liquid

columns accompanied by surge pressures

Figure 8.1: Macro-cavitation occurring due to pump trip

Figure 8.2: Effect of sudden valve closure on elasticity of water visualized as a spring, it has to
be noted that the regions indicated by red lines are compression zones where the velocity of the
spring/water is zero.
50

Figure 8.3: Pressure and velocity waves in a single-conduit, frictionless pipeline following its
sudden closure. The areas of steady-state pressure head are shaded medium dark, those of
increased pressure dark, and those of reduced pressure light. The expansion and contraction of
the pipeline as a result of rising and falling pressure levels, respectively, are shown. To give
an idea of the relationship involved: With a 100 bar pressure rise, the volume of water will
decrease by about 0.5 percent

51

For t = 0, the pressure profile is steady, which is shown by the pressure head curve running
horizontally because of the assumed lack of friction. Under steady-state conditions, the flow
velocity is vo (Figure 8.3[1]). The sudden closure of the gate valve at the downstream end of the
pipeline causes a pulse of high pressure h; and the pipe wall is stretched. The pressure wave
generated runs in the opposite direction to the steady-state direction of the flow at the speed
of sound and is accompanied by a reduction of the flow velocity to v = 0 in the high pressure
zone. The process takes place in a period of time 0 < t < 1/2 Tr , where Tr is the amount of time
needed by the pressure wave to travel up and down the entire length of the pipeline. The important parameter Tr is the reflection time of the pipe. It has a value of 2L/a (Figure 8.3[2]). Up
to the point where t = 1/2Tr , the conversion of original steady-state kinetic energy of the fluid
into elastic energy takes place. Immediately before the reflection of the wave at the reservoir,
the velocity of the liquid column is v = 0 everywhere and it is totally devoid of kinetic energy.
Thus the kinetic energy has been changed into elastic energy, comparable to the situation of a
compressed steel spring.
At t = 1/2 Tr the pressure wave has arrived at the reservoir. As the reservoir pressure p =
constant, there is an unbalanced condition at this point. With a change of sign, the pressure wave
is reflected in the opposite direction. The flow velocity changes sign and is now headed in the
direction of the reservoir(Figure 8.3[3]). A relief wave with a head of h travels downstream
towards the gate valve and reaches it at a time t = Tr . It is accompanied by a change of velocity
to the value vo (Figure 8.3[4]). Upon arrival at the closed gate valve, the velocity changes from
vo to v = 0. This causes a sudden negative change in pressure of h(Figure 8.3[5]). The
low pressure wave h travels upstream to the reservoir in a time Tr < t < 3/2 Tr , and
at the same time, v adopts the value v = 0(Figure 8.3[6]). The reservoir is reached in a time
t = 3/2 Tr , and the pressure resumes the reservoirs pressure head(Figure 8.3[7]). In a period
of time 3/2 Tr < t < 2 Tr , the wave of increased pressure originating from the reservoir
runs back to the gate valve and v once again adopts the value vo (Figure 8.3[8]). At t = 2Tr ,
conditions are exactly the same as at the instant of closure t = 0, and the whole process starts
over again(Figure 8.3[9]).
Friction
Without friction, the pressure fluctuations would not diminish. In actual fact, no system
is ever entirely without friction, but the reduction in pressure fluctuation is relatively small in
reality, because the energy conversion into frictional heat as a result of the fluid rubbing against
the pipe walls, the inherent fluid friction and, finally, the deformation of pipe walls and fixtures
is relatively small.
Analysis of pipe surge through surge tank
Let the area of the surge tank be AT and the area of the main pipe be AP . The length of the
pipe is L. Let the volume flow rate during normal operation of the turbines be Q. In the simplest
analysis we will consider that there is no friction anywhere and that when an emergency stop is
made, all the water is diverted into the surge tank.
= AQT ; Q = AT dz
Mean Velocity in surge tank uT = dz
dt
dt
Mean Velocity in the pipe uP =
Substitute for Q, uP =

Q
A

AT dz
AP dt

The diversion of the flow into the surge tank raises the level by z. This produces an increased
pressure at the junction point of p = gz
52

The pressure force produced F = AP p = AP gz

The inertia force required to decelerate the water in the pipe is:
F = mass acceleration = AP L du
dt
d2 z
gAP
=
z = 2 z
2
dt
LAT

(8.2)

where is the angular frequency ( = 2f )

By definition this is simple harmonic motion since the displacement z is directly proportional to
the acceleration and opposite in sense. Time period
of oscillation (T) is the inverse

of frequency

gAP
T
(f). Therefore from the above equation = LA
and hence T = 2
= 2 LA

gAP
T
zo is the maximum amplitude, that is, the maximum amount by which the height in the tank will
move up and down from the mean level. The following is a direct way of finding the amplitude:

The mean change in height =

zo
2

The weight of water entering the surge tank = gAT zo

2

The potential energy stored in the tank = gAT zo z2o = gAT z2o
2

The kinetic energy lost = Mass u2 = LAP z2o

2

Equating the energies, LAP z2o = gAT z2o

P
zo = LA
gAT

Equation for full harminic motion is , zo =

LAP
gAT

sin(t)

The peak of the surge occurs at T/4 seconds from the disturbance. (Figure 8.4)

Figure 8.4: Simple Harmonic Motion

53

In order to roughly account for the fricitional loss:

LAP
zo =
sin(t) zf
gAT

8.2

(8.3)

EXPERIMENT - ANALYSIS OF PIPE SURGE CHARACTERISTICS USING SURGE TANK

8.2.1 Aim
To demonstrate pipe surge, frictional head loss between reservoir and surge tank
To determine the oscillatory characteristics of pipe surge.

8.2.2 Apparatus
Hydraulics bench
Head tank
Stainless steel test pipes

Figure 8.5: C7-MK Pipe Surge and Water Hammer apparatus

8.2.3 Formulation
Actual head loss between reservoir and surge tank due to friction in the pipeline zf = zs zv
where zs = static head (height in surge tank with no flow in pipe), zv = velocity head (height in
surge tank with flow in pipe)

54

Time period of oscillation, T =

= 2

LAT
gAP

where AT = cross-sectional area of surge tank, AP = cross-sectional area of pipeline

Maximum amplitude of the pipe surge oscillation is given by:

zo = u

LAP
0.6zf
gAT

(8.4)

where u = flow velocity in the pipe before valve closure

8.2.4 Procedure
(i) Close the flow valve on the water hammer circuit
(ii) Close the supply valve, level operated gate valve and flow control valve in pipe surge
circuit.
(iii) Switch on pump starter and open supply control valve
(iv) Allow constant head tank to fill
(v) Open lever operated gate valve and flow control valve, adjust supply control valve until a
steady trickle of water continues to return to the sump tank via return feed pipe
(vi) Close the lever operated control valve completely and allow the oscillations to stop. Note
down the level in surge tank
(vii) Open the lever operated valve completely once again and allow the oscillations to stop.
Note down the new level in surge tank.
(viii) Record the flow rate using the volumetric tank and Close the lever operated gate valve
quickly.
(ix) Record the maximum height reached in the surge tank.
(x) Record the minimum height reached and the time taken for it.
(xi) Repeat the same for all the oscillations till the datum level is confirmed.

8.2.5 Results and Calculations

Constant Values in system
Cross sectional area of the surge tank, AT = 0.00196 m2
Cross sectional area of the pipeline, AP = 0.00039 m2
Length of the pipeline, L = 2.8 m

55

Finding velocity of flow

Volume of water collected, Q =
Time taken for it, t =
Velocity of flow in the pipeline, u = Q/t =
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Height(mm)

t(Time Difference in s)

Average time between successive readings, Ts =

Observed time period for oscillation, T = 2 Ts =
zs = static head (height in surge tank with no flow in the pipe) =
zv = velocity head (height in surge tank with flow in the pipe) =
Frictional head loss = zf = zs zv
From theory:

2
LAT
T =
= 2

gAP

LAP
0.6zf
zo = u
gAT

(8.5)

(8.6)

Verify theoretical values of time period and amplitude with that of the observed values.

56

8.2.6 Discussion
(i) Explain the difference between pipe surge and water hammer.
(ii) In this experimental set up, we are able to generate pipe surge but not water hammer, why?
(iii) Explain the various causes for the occurrence of pipe surge and water hammer.
(iv) Describe how the excessive pressure generated in pipe surge and water hammer is dampened using air chamber, surge tank and fly wheel?
(v) Plot the heights and time between successive oscillations. Does the graph represents
SHM? Justify your answer with reason behind it.
(vi) Explain the damages that can occur during unfavourable situations of sudden change in the
flow when surge protection devices/measures are not installed in a waste water treatment
facility and a hydro-power plant.
(vii) Can surge analysis performed for installation of surge tank on a pipeline that is laid almost
flat be generalized to another pipeline system which has one or more high elevations? Both
have same diameter, thickness, length and made are out of same material. Justify.

57