Chapter three

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASUREMENT

3.1 Introduction
The measurement of geometrically defined dimensions with light touch of light is appealing,
as well as positively advantageous for many metrological applications. The optical measuring
instruments which provide either virtual or projected images of magnified portions of the test piece
are the engineering microscopes and the optical projectors.
Engineering microscopes are optically assisted instruments for measuring geometric
dimensions and forms of small and medium sized technical parts.
These instruments provide the means for carrying out the following basic functions:
a. Magnification, the primary function of microscopes in general, used for presenting the
enlarged view of the observed object area, either in its contours, or a surface image;
b. Referencing or aiming, accomplished by providing index lines on a transparent graticule
inside the microscope tube, observed concurrently with the magnified image. The index
lines guide in determining reference positions for specific surface elements or, when
representing nominal contours, the alignment and comparison with the observed part
section; and
c. Staging, this involves holding the object and displacing it along controlled tracks
translationally or, as an option, rotationally, over measured distances.
Iluminations, although indispensable for any optical process, is an auxiliary function. The
source, as well as the means of transmission for the light, are generally integral elements of the
engineering microscope, although ilumination can, and is occasionally provided by members attached
to the instrument, or even independently arranged.
The measurement of geometric conditions by a microscope is based on the observation of the
object, or of one of its parts, at an appropriate magnification. This observation is carried out in a plane
normal to the direction of viewing. It follows that, to be adaptable to dimensional measurements by
microscope, the critical parameters of the object feature must be associated with a common plane of
observation.

3.2 Basic Concepts in Optical Microscopy

Modern compound microscopes feature a two-stage magnifying design built around separate
lens systems, the objective and the eyepiece (commonly termed an ocular), mounted at opposite ends
of a tube, known as the body tube. The objective is composed of several lens elements that together
form a magnified real image (the intermediate image) of the specimen being examined.

The

intermediate image is further magnified by the eyepiece. The microscopist is able to observe a
greatly enlarged virtual image of the specimen by peering through the eyepieces.
The total magnification of a microscope is determined by multiplying the individual
magnifications of the objective and eyepiece. This section discusses the basic concepts associated with
optical microscopy, including objectives, eyepieces, condensers, stages, magnification, numerical
aperture, optical aberrations, and a variety of related topics.
3.3 Introduction to Microscopy
Microscopes are instruments designed to produce magnified visual or photographic images of
objects too small to be seen with the naked eye. The microscope must accomplish three tasks:
produce a magnified image of the specimen, separate the details in the image, and render the details
visible to the human eye or camera. This group of instruments includes not only multiple-lens
(compound microscopes) designs with objectives and condensers, but also very simple single lens
instruments that are often hand-held, such as a loupe or magnifying glass.
Modern compound microscopes are designed to provide a magnified two-dimensional image
that can be focused axially in successive focal planes, thus enabling a thorough examination of
specimen fine structural detail in both two and three dimensions.
Most microscopes provide a translation mechanism attached to the stage that allows the
microscopist to accurately position, orient, and focus the specimen to optimize visualization and
recording of images. The intensity of illumination and orientation of light pathways throughout the
microscope can be controlled with strategically placed diaphragms, mirrors, prisms, beam splitters,
and other optical elements to achieve the desired degree of brightness and contrast in the specimen.
Presented in Fig.3.1 is a typical microscope equipped with a trinocular head and 35-millimeter
camera system for recording photomicrographs. Illumination is provided by a tungsten-halogen lamp
positioned in the lamp house, which emits light that first passes through a collector lens and then into
an optical pathway in the microscope base.
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Fig.3.1 Microscope component configuration.

Also stationed in the microscope base is a series of filters that condition the light emitted by
the incandescent lamp before it is reflected by a mirror and passed through the field diaphragm and
into the substage condenser. The condenser forms a cone of illumination that bathes the specimen,
located on the microscope stage, and subsequently enters the objective.
Light leaving the objective is diverted by a beam splitter/prism combination either into the
eyepieces to form a virtual image, or straight through to the projection lens mounted in the trinocular
extension tube, where it can then form a latent image on film housed in the camera system.
The optical components contained within modern microscopes are mounted on a stable,
ergonomically designed base that allows rapid exchange, precision centering, and careful alignment
between those assemblies that are optically interdependent.
Together, the optical and mechanical components of the microscope, including the mounted
specimen on a glass micro slide and cover slip, form an optical train with a central axis that traverses
the microscope base and stand.

The intermediate image plane is usually located about 10 millimeters below the top of the
microscope body tube at a specific location within the fixed internal diaphragm of the eyepiece
(Fig.3.2). The distance between the back focal plane of the objective and the intermediate image is
termed the optical tube length. Note that this value is different from the mechanical tube length of a
microscope, which is the distance between the nosepiece (where the objective is mounted) to the top
edge of the observation tubes where the eyepieces (oculars) are inserted.
The eyepiece or ocular, which fits into the
body tube at the upper end, is the farthest optical
component from the specimen. In modern
microscopes, the eyepiece is held into place by a
shoulder on the top of the microscope observation
tube, which keeps it from falling into the tube.
The placement of the eyepiece is such that its eye
(upper) lens further magnifies the real image
projected by the objective. The eye of the
observer sees this secondarily magnified image as
if it were at a distance of 25 centimeters from the
eye; hence this virtual image appears as if it
were near the base of the microscope. The
distance from the top of the microscope
observation tube to the shoulder of the objective
(where it fits into the nosepiece) is usually 160
mm in a finite tube length system.

Fig.3.2 The optical system of an engineering microscope.

This is known as the mechanical tube length as

discussed above.

The eyepiece has several major functions:

The eyepiece serves to further magnify the real image projected by the objective;

In visual observation, the eyepiece produces a secondarily enlarged virtual image;

In photomicrography, it produces a secondarily enlarged real image projected by the

objective. This augmented real image can be projected on the photographic film in a camera
or upon a screen held above the eyepiece;
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The eyepiece can be fitted with scales, markers or crosshairs (often referred to as graticules,
reticules or reticles) in such a way that the image of these inserts can be superimposed on the
image of the specimen.

The factor that determines the amount of image magnification is the objective magnifying
power, which is predetermined during construction of the objective optical elements. Objectives
typically have magnifying powers that range from 1:1 (1X) to 100:1 (100X), with the most common
powers being 4X (or 5X), 10X, 20X, 40X (or 50X), and 100X. An important feature of microscope
objectives is their very short focal lengths that allow increased magnification at a given distance when
compared to an ordinary hand lens. The primary reason that microscopes are so efficient at
magnification is the two-stage enlargement that is achieved over such a short optical path, due to the
short focal lengths of the optical components.
Eyepieces, like objectives, are classified in terms of their ability to magnify the intermediate
image. Their magnification factors vary between 5X and 30X with the most commonly used
eyepieces having a value of 10X-15X. Total visual magnification of the microscope is derived by
multiplying the magnification values of the objective and the eyepiece. For instance, using a 5X
objective with a 10X eyepiece yields a total visual magnification of 50X and likewise, at the top end
of the scale, using a 100X objective with a 30X eyepiece gives a visual magnification of 3000X.
Total magnification is also dependent upon the tube length of the microscope. Most standard
fixed tube length microscopes have a tube length of 160, 170, 200, or 210 millimeters. Many
industrial microscopes, designed for use in the semiconductor industry, have a tube length of 210
millimeters. The objectives and eyepieces of these microscopes have optical properties designed for a
specific tube length, and using an objective or eyepiece in a microscope of different tube length will
lead to changes in the magnification factor (and may also lead to an increase in optical aberration lens
errors). Infinity-corrected microscopes also have eyepieces and objectives that are optically-tuned to
the design of the microscope, and these should not be interchanged between microscopes with different
infinity tube lengths.
In Fig.3.3 is shown a Tool Maker Microscope. The Tool Makers Microscope (TMM) essentially
consists of the cast base, the main lighting unit, the upright with carrying arm and the sighting
microscope. The rigid cast base is resting on three foots screws by means of which the equipment
can be leveled with reference to the build-in box level.
The base carries the co-ordinate measuring table, consists of two measuring slides; one each
for directions X and Y and a rotary circular table provided with the glass plate. The slides are
running on precision balls in hardened guide ways warranting reliable travel.
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Two micrometer screws each of them measuring range of 0 to 25 mm permit the measuring
table to be displaced in the directions X and Y. The range of movements of the carriage can be
widened up to 150 mm in the X direction and up to 50 mm in the Y direction with the use of gage
blocks.
The rotary table has been provided with 360 degrees graduation and with a three minute
vernier. The rotary motion is initiated by activation of knurled knob and locked with star handle screw.

Fig.3.3 Tool Maker Microscope.

Slots in the rotary table serve for fastening different accessories and completing elements.
The sighting microscope has been fastened with a carrier arm to column. The carrier arm can be
adjusted in height by means of a rack and locked with star handle screw.
Thread measuring according to the shadow image permits the column to be tilted in X
direction to either side about an axis on centre plane level. The corresponding swivel can be adjusted
with a knurled knob with a graduation cellar.

The main lighting unit has been arranged in the rear of the cast base and equipped with
projection lamp where rays are directed via stationary mounted mirror through table glass plate into
the sighting microscope.
Measuring principle: The work piece to be checked is arranged in the path of the rays of the
lighting equipment. It produces a shadow image, which is viewed with the microscope eyepiece
having either a suitable mark for aiming at the next points of the objects or in case of often occurring
profiles. e.g. Threads or rounding standard line pattern for comparison with the shadow image of
the text object is projected to a ground glass screen. The text object is shifted or turned on the
measuring in addition to the comparison of shapes.
The addition to this method (shadow image method), measuring operations are also possible by
use of the axial reaction method, which can be recommended especially for thread measuring. This
involves approached measuring knife edges and measurement in axial section of thread according to
definition. This method permits higher precision than shadow image method for special measuring
operations.
Applications: The large tool makers microscope is suitable for the following fields of
applications:
- Length measurement in cartesian and polar co-ordinates;
- Angle measurements of tools; threading tools punches and gauges, templates etc.
- Thread measurements i.e., profile major and minor diameters, height of lead, thread angle,
profile position with respect to the thread axis and the shape of thread. (rounding, flattering,
straightness of flanks)
- Single point lathe tool angle measurements.
Procedure of measurement with TMM. Place the tool bit on the glass stage so as to obtain a
clear image on which angular measurements are done (Fig.3.4). Focus the microscope to get a real
image super imposed on the graticule pattern of the eyepiece. Tilt the graticule pattern so as to align
the shank edge with the reference hair line. Read microscope angle scale. Tilt the angle so as to
bring the cutting edge of the tool to align with the reference hairline. If necessary X, Y movements
may be made to retain the edge in the field of view. A typical field of vision before and after adjustment
is shown in Fig. 3.5

Fig.3.4 Orientation of face and flank surfaces with respect to machine reference system.

(a) before adjustement;

(b) after adjustement.

Fig.3.5 Field of vision of sighting microscope of TMM.

3.4 Optical Projectors

Observation and measurement of objects with the aid of optical magnification is not limited
to viewing through an ocular, such as used in the microscope. The magnified image of the object can
also be projected on a glass screen where it may be observed from a convenient distance. By the
projection of the magnified image, the visual impression becomes a physical reality insofar as the
dimensions and geometric forms, as they appear on the screen, can be directly compared to physical
masters graduated rulers, templates, etc. made to the scale of the magnified specimen image.
Optical projectors, in their applications as inspection instruments, present many favorable
properties, several of which are listed below:
a) The projected image can be observed by several people simultaneously; thus this method of
inspection lends itself to analyses by group;
b) Several dimensions and form characteristics of a specimen can be observed, compared and
evaluated in a single setting;
c) The number of dimensions to be inspected on the part, whether individually, or in their
interrelations with other dimensions of the same part, can be increased without needing additional
instruments or tooling, as long as these dimensions are contained in a common observational plane;
d) Standard comparator charts, particularly for such repetitive forms as circular arcs with different
radii, angles, thread forms, gear contours etc., can be used on optical projector screens. Such
standard charts are made of plate glass, precisely fitting the chart ring of the screen, and permit the
rapid, yet precise comparison of the projected image with the basic design form.

3.4.1 Operating principles of optical projectors

To produce an undistorted and magnified shadow or reflected image of an object on a
screen, where it can be conveniently observed, is the primary purpose of an optical projector. To
accomplish this objective, the following basic elements are needed:
1. Light source, usually of great intensity, to produce a clearly defined projection even at a
high rate of magnification;
2. Collimating lens, whose role is to refract the light into a beam with parallel rays of
practically uniform intensity on the entire area of object illumination. Sometimes this
element is also called the light condenser;
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3. Projection lens system which magnifies and transmits the object contour or image
resulting from the collimated parallel light rays; and
4. Viewing screen, on which the projected contour or image of the object appears and is
displayed for inspection.
The main elements schematic arrangement is
shown in Fig.3.6, where the light travel path is
indicated by arrows. Light rays originating in the
light source hit the object, whose physical body
creates a shadow bounded by the actual contour
of the object when viewed in the direction of the
light rays. This shadow is then magnified by the
lens system and projected on the viewing screen.
Fig.3.6 Schematic view of the optical system in typical

In the particular system, an auxiliary element, a

projector, designed to produce a magnified shadow of the

relay lens is used to transfer the shadow on the

object on the screen.

projecting lenses.

3.4.2 The optical system magnifications

When choosing the most favorable magnification for the viewing of the object, two opposing
aspects must be brought into proper balance:
a. The higher the magnification, the better definition may be obtained of the intricate details
of the object;
b. The lower the magnification, the larger will be the field diameter, that is, that area of the
object which can be projected onto the screen.
This relationship may be expressed by the following simple formula:

Field diameter

10

Screen diameter
Lens magnification

3.4.3 Applications of optical projectors

Microscopes are instruments primarily intended for tool room and gage-room applications
and require a certain degree of skill and experience for their efficient operation.
Optical projectors are basically production-oriented instruments and are, in fact, often used
on the shop floor by machine tool operators or trained inspectors. Optical projectors are generally
sturdy instruments, less sensitive than microscopes, easier to operate and even unskilled personnel
can quickly be trained to carry out simple inspection processes on these instruments.
On the other hand, optical projectors provide application advantages in many other respects,
in comparison to the capabilities of engineering microscopes. Examples of such characteristics and
operating conditions are listed below, also with the purpose of pointing out the preferential areas of
optical projector usage.
Volume and weight of the test piece - Optical projectors are available in sizes which can
accept for staging and inspection heavy parts of considerable outside dimensions.
Field view on the object - Even for medium size optical projectors this exceeds the comparable
capacity of microscopes in general. A larger object field permits the synoptic viewing of extended
areas on the work surface, reduces the need for object displacement or indexing, and offers wider
applications for inspection by contour comparison without actual measurements.
The open screen - commonly at eye level, permits group viewing and the observation of the
image in unrestricted position under more natural conditions than the viewing through a microscope
eyepiece.
Machine tool applications used for the continued observation of the work progress, guided
by screen charts, without impeding the movement of machine tool members or the handling of the
controls by the operator.
Individual screen charts - for purely visual inspection of toleranced part features can be
prepared and mounted on the screen according to the requirements of the scheduled inspection
operation. On such charts the tolerance ranges appear as graphically laid out zones which must contain
the pertinent contour of the part being inspected.
Reproduction by photography - requires only the exchange of the screen against a plate
frame, for preparing a silhouette photo exactly in the size in which the image appeared on the screen.
The silhouette image of the part can also be reproduced superimposed on the pertinent screen chart,
resulting in photos of value for subsequent analysis or for reference purposes.

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The most common application of the optical projector is based on projecting the shadow
image of the object on the viewing screen. The shadow, or silhouette, represents the contour of the
object in that plane which is brought to coincide with the focal plane of the optical system. For round
objects, this should be identical with the diametral plane, where the projection of the silhouette
faithfully represents the cross sectional contour of the part. For flat pieces of essentially uniform
thickness the projected image is, for most practical purposes, also a true replica of the object contour.
This claim is particularly valid for relatively thin objects; however, in the case of flat parts with greater
thickness the projected shadow could suffer in sharpness of the contour. Regular bodies of revolution,
or substantially round objects whose surface contour is either continuous or repetitive, e.g., the teeth of
thread cutting taps, gears, milling cutters etc., are primarily suited for the inspection of the
geometric characteristics by means of a projected shadow.

a)

b)
Fig.3.7 a) Digital Profile Projector; b) Digital comparator.

This Digital Profile Projector (Fig.3.7a) can effectively test several of work-pieces with
complex shapes, such as templates punching pieces, cams, gears, threads by profile comparative and
coordinates measuring ways.

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It is widely used in different measuring departments and inspection stations of following

industries: machinery, watch-making, electron, instrument & meter, science & research institute, etc,
including space-flight & aviation industry.
Characteristics:
Size of worktable (mm): 400 x 150

Screen diameter (mm): 350

X axis travel (mm): 0 ~ 200

Rotary range: 0-360

Resolution: 0.001mm

Rotary angle resolution: 1'

Y axis travel (mm): 0~80 (focusing)

Rotary angle accuracy: 4'

Z axis travel (mm): 0~150

Accuracy of X.Y axis: (3+L/75) m

Digital comparator (Fig.3.7b) can test effectively profile, section and surface shapes of
various complicated work-pieces, such as templates, punching pieces, cams, gears, forming cutters,
mercerizes etc. it is widely used in workshops and measuring stations of those industries: machinery,
instrument & meter, watch-making, mould and electron etc.
Characteristics:

Size of worktable (mm): 400 x 150

Screen diameter (mm): 350

X axis travel (mm): 0 ~ 200

Rotary range: 0-360

Resolution: 0.001mm

Rotary angle resolution: 1'

Y axis travel (mm): 0~80 (focusing)

Rotary angle accuracy: 4'

Z axis travel (mm): 0~150

Accuracy of X.Y axis: (3+L/75) m

Magnification

10X (Standard)

20X (Optional)

30X (Optional)

100X (Optional)

View-field on object

35mm

17.5mm

7mm

3.5mm

Working distance

88.376mm

81.375mm

54mm

44.9mm

Magnification error

0.08%

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