992

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, NOVEMBERIDECEMBER 1989

Techniques for Improved Predictive Maintenance

Testing of Industrial Power Systems

INTRODUCTION

necessary to compare these techniques to existing periodic

test methods. While collecting information to perform this
comparison, two things became evident. First, the limited application of periodic testing being conducted in the mining
industry is fraught with problems, primarily due to a misunderstanding of the test techniques. Second, there is a strong
need for a reliable technique that can be easily and inexpensively implemented. The objective of this paper is to address
both of these observations by reviewing the tests and then
presenting an alternative method, which was developed from
research findings of the ongoing incipient-failure prediction
research program.

N unexpected failure of a power-system component may

PERIODIC
TESTMETHODS

Absfmcf- Periodic testing of industrial power system components can

result in the early detection of problems, allowing corrective actions to
be taken before a failure occurs. The positive impact of this on system
availability and safety is beginning to be appreciated by both maintenance and production personnel in the mining industry. A variety of
procedures are available for periodic testing, although they have some
inherent limitations which must be recognized if a meaningful interpretation of the test data is to be achieved. These tests, and their inherent
limitations, are reviewed in this paper; appropriate applications for these
tests are suggested, and the use of negative-sequence monitoring, as an
inexpensive but powerful detector of incipient failure in industrial power
systems is proposed.

A,esult in a loss of production. Often the cost of lost pro-

Periodic test methods, i.e., manually acquired measureduction far exceeds the cost to replace the failed component.
ments taken from time to time rather than continuously, can be
Safety can be compromised as well. The failure may result in
divided into three groups based on the characteristic of the exan exposure hazard, or the pressure to restore power may recitation source used in the test. These are direct current, altersult in unsafe worker practices. In some cases the unexpected
nating current, and surge tests. Applicable techniques within
failure may result in damage that goes beyond the failed comeach of these groups will be discussed in this paper.
ponent itself. These problems are well-known, and a variety
of techniques have been developed to aid in detecting deteriDC TESTS
oration, which signals a future failure. When detected, a corDirect-current methods are widely used in motor insularective action can be scheduled, thereby avoiding production
tion testing, probably because of their convenience of use as
delays, safety problems associated with emergency maintemuch as anything else. The test apparatus is lightweight and
nance, and additional damage to the power system.
portable, the tests are relatively safe, and very large values of
It would seem that with the existence of these techniques and
resistance (megohms) can be measured. A megohmmeter is
the well-understood benefits of detecting incipient failures,
typically used for performing the tests although hypots (i.e.,
they would be widely used. In some industries they are used,
high-potential testers) may also be used.
but in mining they generally are not. There are three apparent
The dc test methods are based on measuring total current as
reasons for this: first, interpreting the results of such tests
a function of test voltage and specimen resistance. Actually,
is sometimes problematic, leading to a loss of confidence in
this total current is composed of three separate components.
the method; second, a knowledge of these techniques is not
The first component of the total current, commonly known
well-understood throughout the mining industry; and third,
as geometric capacitance current, is defined as
many of the existing test techniques are not easily performed
in mines, and particularly in underground mines.
i l = (V/R)e-'/RC
(1)
As part of an ongoing effort to develop continuous monitoring techniques for incipient-failure detection, it was recently where

C the geometric capacitance (sometimes referred to as the

Paper PID 89-42, approved by the Mining Industry Committee of the IEEE
Industry Applications Society for presentation at the 1987 Mining Industry
Committee Technical Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, June 9-1 1 .
J. Sottile is currently a Graduate Research Fellow at the Pennsylvania State
University Mine Electrical Laboratory, 421 Academic Utilities Building, University Park, PA 16802.
J. L. Kohler is Director of the Mine Electrical Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, 41 1 Academic Activities Building, University Park, PA
16802.
IEEE Log Number 8930229.

infinite frequency capacitance),

V the potential of the dc source, and
R the source's internal resistance.
It is generally believed that the geometric capacitance current
gives no indication of the condition of the insulation. However, erroneous results will occur if this current is not allowed
to decay to an insignificant value before readings are taken.

0093-9994/89/11OO-0992$01.OO 0 1989 IEEE

993

SOTTILE, JR. AND KOHLER: IMPROVED PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE TESTING

The second current component is the absorption current,

which is a consequence of the various polarizations taking
place in the dielectric under the influence of an impressed dc
voltage. Interfacial polarization, which occurs at the interface
of dissimilar materials, constitutes the major effect. Current
flow due to interfacial polarization is described as
i 2 = dVCkt-

(2)

where

d V the incremental applied voltage,

C
the specimen capacitance,
k
a proportionality factor, dependent on type of insulation, its condition, and temperature,
t
time, and
n
a constant, known as the storage coefficient.
The specifics concerning the parameters of this equation are
not of interest because they are rarely computed in an industrial application. Rather, it is the existence of this current and
its general behavior which is of interest. For example, the
dielectric absorption ratio test was designed to take advantage of changes in the parameters of (2), which can occur as
a dielectric ages [ 11.
The third component of the total current is the conduction
or leakage current, which remains once the geometric capacitance and absorption currents have decayed to zero. This component is defined by Ohms law:

i3 = VIR

(3)

where

V the applied voltage, and

R the resistance of the insulation.
It is typically the conduction current that is considered most
important during dc insulation tests. This current is free to
follow a path either along the surface of the insulation or
through the insulation.
Most field tests of machinery insulation do not attempt to
distinguish the various current components. Instead, different
test procedures are designed to reflect the effects of these
components on the measured resistance.
The time-resistance method is an example of one such test.
In this method, two or more readings are taken over the duration of the test time (i.e., 5 or 10 min). If the insulation is in
good condition, there should be a gradual increase in resistance. This effect is caused by the decrease in the absorption
component. If the insulation is contaminated, the resistance
will not increase during the test period.
The dielectric absorption ratio is a ratio of two timeresistance readings, for example 60 s/30 s. This ratio is utilized to show the effects of absorption current in good insulation. Reference [2] includes a table that gives insulation
condition for various dielectric absorption ratios. However,
these types of tables are only to be used as guidelines; maintenance personnel must develop their own guidelines based on
experience over years.
Some maintenance personnel establish a step-voltage test
for testing insulation well above the rated ac voltage of the

equipment. It is believed that such dc tests are capable of revealing incipient problems that could not otherwise be found.
The technique for performing this type of analysis consists of
applying two or more dc voltages and observing any reduction
in insulation values at the higher voltage levels. It is important to discharge the specimen between steps during this test.
Otherwise the absorption current at each voltage level will be
superimposed, resulting in a cumulative value that would not
be useful for field applications [l].

Factors Affecting DC Tests

Because dc methods measure such high values of resistance,
many factors involving both the condition of the insulation and
the test procedure affect the results. As will be seen, many of
these problems are associated with the absorption current.
The resistance of insulating materials decreases substantially with increasing temperature. In many cases, a rule of
thumb has been to halve the resistance for every 10C increase
in temperature. In addition, tables of correction factors have
been developed to correct resistance readings to a base temperature [2]. However, problems exist with these simple correction factors because the correction factor for leakage current is not necessarily the same as that for absorption current.
Thus, it is not always accurate to compare results obtained at
two different temperatures, particularly when the absorption
component is significant.
Another temperature-related problem is the uneven cooling
that occurs within a motor once it has been deenergized. It is
very difficult to estimate an average temperature for the motor
windings, unless the motor can be kept off-line long enough
to reach ambient temperature. This is often not practical, and
even if it were, condensation within the motor can lead to
erroneous results. It should be noted that step-voltage tests
are particularly susceptible to error in motors that are not
at thermal equilibrium, because the winding temperature will
continue to drop between tests.
The second major factor affecting the accuracy of dc tests
is moisture. Insulation resistance decreases dramatically with
increasing moisture, and in many cases, dc tests reflect the
moisture content of the insulation. This is not necessarily a
problem as long as the operator is aware of the presence of
moisture. If damp or wet windings are suspected, the motor
can be dried out and retested before it is energized.
Problems with the execution of test procedures are much
more difficult to identify. Probably the most common problems are associated with improper timing of the test, insufficient wait time between voltages during step-voltage tests,
and a fluctuating test voltage.

Evaluation
The results of dc tests are relative, and therefore evaluation
is based on trends over time rather than on the specific value
of one reading. For this reason, it is best to observe the trend
of the readings by plotting the resistance over time for each
piece of equipment.
It is also important for the person making the evaluation to
be aware of any possible test problems or conditions that may
cause sudden changes in the insulation resistance. In many

994

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, NOVEMBERIDECEMBER 1989

cases, low values are caused by the effects of humidity; this

can be remedied if the windings can be dried out. In other
cases, anomolous readings may occur because of temperature
effects or problems with measurement methodology.
Often, results from properly performed tests are difficult to
evaluate, because it is not always clear when a motor should
be replaced. A quantitative means of assessing individual insulation resistance (IR) readings is offered in [3]. This reference
defines an acceptable minimum insulation resistance as

Rmin= kV

+ 1,

(4)

where

Rmin the recommended minimum insulation resistance in

MR at 40"C, and
kV
the machine terminal potential, kV.
This rule implicitly accounts for the fact that test intervals
are typically several months apart. Thus, it yields very conservative values that will almost always allow adequate lead time
to replace a failing motor. However, some maintenance personnel would argue that such an approach leads to unnecessary
equipment changeout. For example, this standard indicates that
a low voltage motor should have an IR value in excess of 1.5
MR, yet experience has shown that values of 25 kR do not
present operational or safety problems [4]. There are cases
of motors operating for years with IR values of 5000 R. It
is this problem with interpretation that has led many maintenance personnel to limit IR testing to high-voltage motors, for
the purpose of identifying arcing or tracking paths.
DC tests have several advantages, if properly performed.
The insulation can be evaluated in terms of a spot resistance,
resistance versus voltage, ratios of resistances, and so forth.
Each of these tests will yield specific information about the
machine insulation. In addition, the equipment is portable,
and the tests are relatively safe. These points make dc tests
very attractive for testing low voltage motors if the user can
establish a meaningful procedure to interpret the results.
The technical problems associated with dc tests mainly occur as a result of the application. Informative tests require
time and carefully executed test procedures. For example, the
proper testing and evaluation of step-voltage tests can become
quite involved [ 5 ] , [6]. Even the determination of insulation
resistance due to conduction current is quite time consuming
because the absorption current is present for such extended
times. Tests on small motors have indicated the presence of
detectable absorption current for extended times (2-45min).
Beyond this time, the absorption current may still be present
but may be masked by the leakage current.
For most small-motor applications, the informative and
time-consuming tests can rarely be justified, except on the
most critical machines. In fact, many mines do not have maintenance policies that include insulation tests on many of the
mine motors. Reasons for lack of testing are understandable.
In the course of a production shift, it is unlikely that a mining
machine will ever be disconnected from its power source for
testing individual motor insulation. Even during maintenance
shifts, crews are typically very busy with more immediate

6
Fig. 1. Circuit model of dielectric.

problems. In addition, the prospect of accessing the individual motor leads for testing is not attractive.
At longwall faces, motor maintenance is more easily justified, particularly with the longer faces and the introduction of
high voltage at the face. The ability to predict motor failure
so that changeouts could be made during moves or on a weekend would be very valuable. Also, by the nature of longwall
mining systems, there are opportunities for performing more
thorough tests at surface facilities as opposed to underground.
These tests could include ac tests or surge tests.

AC

TESTS

In principle, ac test methods are quite different than dc

methods. The basic differences can be illustrated by looking
at the model for a dielectric and reviewing the major losses
that occur in a dielectric.
Fig. 1 illustrates the circuit model for a dielectric. If this
dielectric were "ideal," R s = 0 and R p = 00, and the phase
angle 0 would be 90". Of course, insulating materials are not
ideal, and the phase angle between voltage and current is less
than 90". Probably the most common method of expressing
this phasor relationship is the dissipation factor or tan 6 (6 =
90 - 0).Tests that measure this phase angle can be used to
obtain information about the losses in the dielectric that relate
to the insulation's condition.

Losses
Partial discharges can represent significant losses in large
high-voltage machinery. It is doubtful that partial discharges
represent a source of concern in most underground mining
machinery; therefore, it is only mentioned here for completeness. It is, however, possible that partial discharges could occur in some of the high-voltage equipment on longwall faces,
particularly if there are many voids in the insulation [7].
The effect of polarization from an alternating-voltage
source is quite different from that of a direct voltage. For dc
tests, the current component that resulted from the impressed
voltage was termed absorption current, and it decayed to zero
after a short time. Under the influence of an alternating voltage field, this polarization effect is continuously occurring
because of the effect of the changing field. This polarization
process now represents a loss in the dielectric. It is generally believed that the values of dissipation factor are largely
determined by the existence of polarization.
Two types of polarization are known to occur: dipole
and interfacial. Dipole polarization is produced by polar
molecules, i.e., the electrical centers of the positive and negative charges do not coincide. Under the influence of an alter-

995

SOTTILE, JR. AND KOHLER: IMPROVED PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE TESTING

nating voltage, the dipoles attempt to follow the direction of

the field. If the frequency of the alternating field is sufficiently
slow, dipole polarization can be carried to completion.
This rotation of the dipole represents a definite amount of
energy loss at each cycle and is in the form of heat. At zero
frequency and also at ultrahigh frequencies, this loss is negligible. The maximum loss occurs between these boundaries
and is somewhat dependent on the structure of the molecules
VI.
Interfacial polarization occurs at the interfaces of materials
that have different dielectric constants. These interfaces can
occur as very few large surfaces or as many small surfaces.
The free electrons move through the dielectric and bunch up
at the interfaces. The charge that accumulates at the interfaces
during each half-cycle contributes to a polarization similar to
that of dipole polarization.

Tests
Tests that detect partial discharges essentially measure the
charge transfer that takes place in the voids during discharges.
This charge transfer may be represented in loop traces using
bridge techniques or pulse-counting techniques, among others.
Details of these tests are not given because their applicability
for mining operations is questionable.
Power-factor tests may find application in some surface facilities or repair shops. The principle behind power-factor testing of equipment is straightforward. The insulation under test
is essentially the dielectric of a capacitor. With a perfect dielectric and infinite resistance, the in-phase leakage current
across the capacitor is zero, no real power is consumed, and
the power factor would be zero. This is of course for a theoretical case; most insulation systems have power factors in
the range of fractions of a percent to a few percent. This
power factor represents the power lost through the insulation
in phase with the applied voltage. As insulation systems deteriorate, power factor increases.
Dielectric loss is the property of insulation most closely
associated with power-factor testing (although dielectric loss is
not actually measured). This loss occurs because of the timevarying polarization of the molecules in the insulation when
an ac voltage is applied to the insulating material. Dielectric
loss is a function of applied frequency and temperature and
generally decreases with these two parameters [9].
A common test performed is the power-factor tip-up test.
Power-factor tip-up has been used as a test on individual coils
or groups of coils. Typically, measurements are made on each
coil to determine the power-factor increment between two designated voltages, with the data being analyzed on a statistical
basis. A change in the tip-up value over a period of time is an
indication of a change in the condition of the coil insulation.
A limiting value of tip-up may be selected on the basis of the
deviation from the statistically determined normal tip-up.
To determine power-factor tip-up, tests should be made at
predetermined voltages. The recommended voltages for determining tip-up are 25 percent and 100 percent of operating
line-to-ground voltage. The value of tip-up is then calculated
by subtracting the low-voltage power factor from the highvoltage power factor [lo].

As with dc tests, several parameters can affect power-factor

tests. The two major parameters are temperature and humidity.
The dielectric loss of most insulations increases with temperature; therefore, to make accurate analyses of power-factor
tests, corrections for temperature must be made. As with dc
tests, these factors correct to 20C.
The presence of moisture is another condition which affects power-factor tests. Recall that dielectric absorption is
the charge placed on the insulation when a dc voltage is applied. In the case of an alternating voltage, the charge is never
fully established before the current direction is reversed. This
dielectric-absorption loss increases greatly with the amount of
moisture present in the insulation. Power-factor tests are so
sensitive to moisture that they may be used to test insulation
moisture content [9].
In summary, ac tests provide an extension to dc tests in
the evaluation of insulation integrity. Typically, they are more
difficult to employ and require larger, more expensive equipment than their dc counterparts. They do, however, provide
more complete information about the insulation system of the
machine.
SURGE
TESTS
Surge comparison testing is used to test a motors major as
well as its minor (or turn and coil) insulation. The surge comparison tester uses the principle of impedance balance to test
motor windings. By discharging a capacitor, the instrument
applies a very brief surge to the windings being tested. The
resulting voltage decay pattern of each of the windings under
test is then displayed on an oscilloscope screen. If the windings
have equal impedances, the two patterns will be identical and
appear as one waveform on the screen. If one of the windings
has an insulation defect or fault, the pattern displayed will be
a double line. In addition, each winding has a characteristic
trace or signature that can be used for future comparison [ 111.
In small three-phase machines, surge comparison tests have
been documented as being able to detect a one-turn short circuit in as many as 600-series turndphase with test connections
at the winding terminals. However, in windings with many
parallel circuits, the detection of short-circuited coils by this
method is unsatisfactory [ 121.
To test motor windings composed of many parallel circuits,
it is most convenient to induce the voltage in each individual
coil to be tested. This is best accomplished when the individual
coils are available but may still be accomplished when only
the phase terminals are available [ 131.
Test voltages should be high enough to stress the insulation
adequately, but not too steep-fronted or high in amplitude to
cause damage to the windings. In most cases, the time to crest
of the impulse varies from 0.5 to 1.5 ps [14]. Table I [14]
illustrates voltage levels for various voltage and power ratings
of machines.
Although the applicability and utility of surge comparison
tests depend on the theory of the distribution of the impulse
through the motor windings, this type of analysis is beyond
the scope of this paper and also beyond most practical applications. (For an analysis of this phenomenon, see [15].)
Therefore, the manufacturer should be consulted for recom-

996

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, NOVEMBERIDECEMBER 1989

TABLE I

COMMON SURGE IMPULSE TESTERS FOR ROTATING MACHINERY

'a

Maximum
Impulse

ZMYP
ZMYN

Machine
Rating

100 hp
440 v
500 hp

2.5 kV

6.0 kV

'Ik

2300 V
12 kV

1500 hp
4160 V

24 kV

8000 hp

Fig. 2. Three-phase model for line-line fault in cable

13.2 kV

mended voltage levels for maintenance testing of equipment

utilizing the surge test [16]. For form-wound stator coils, [16]
lists the following recommendations:

V , = kVL

(5)
Fig. 3.

Sequence networks for line-line cable fault.

where

tions when applied to industrial operations. Because of these

limitations, many researchers have attempted to develop new
techniques that would overcome the inherent disadvantages of
the aforementioned tests. The most promising efforts are those
which relate to actual motor performance and monitor the machine continuously.
Recent research has led to the development of an on-line
continuous monitoring technique, which is particularly well
This standard also recommends approval from the manufac- suited to the process industries. This technique will provide an
economical and reliable means of predicting incipient failures
turer of the coils on any test program.
In summary, surge tests provide a very good means of lo- [17]. This work is still ongoing in the laboratory and not
cating insulation weaknesses in motor windings. These tests ready for field implementation. However, one recent research
are best employed on series-wound motors or on individual finding from this project suggests that a negative-sequence
coils of larger motors with parallel circuits. Some maintenance monitor could have immediate utility in the field.
people have expressed a desire to use surge tests to help locate turn-to-turn or phase-to-phase faults, which dc methods Negative-Sequence Monitoring
generally cannot detect. However, these applications would be
The utility of the negative-sequence current in protective
limited to surface facilities and employed when new or rebuilt relaying applications has been known and practiced for years.
equipment is being tested.
Its use in a condition monitoring system to detect deterioraA general concern about the application of surge tests is tion in electrical cables was suggested over ten years ago [ 181.
the effect of the surge on the motor windings. Although the The recent finding, based on data presented in [ 191, is that the
energy in the surge is small (a few joules), many people feel negative-sequence current can be used to assess the condition
that the voltage spike will damage motor windings. This is of a motor, and that it could be used to detect electrical deteespecially true in random-wound stators where the turn-to- rioration within the motor.
turn voltages cannot be predicted as with form-wound stators.
The motivation for negative-sequence monitoring can be
Because of this concern, surge testing has not been readily exemplified by studying the sequence networks for a line-toaccepted by maintenance personnel.
line fault in a cable-connected motor circuit. Fig. 2 shows the
momentary peak test voltage across the coil (not to
exceed peak value of voltage applied as ground test,
nor to be less than 350 times the number of turns in
the coil),
V L rated rms line-to-line voltage,
k an emperical factor (1.0 suggested for trial use), and
V f recommended voltage for tests made in the field.

V,

CONTINUOUS
MONITOFUNG
General
The test methods mentioned thus far are the most common
techniques used for machine insulation testing. Most of these
methods are best applied to large rotating machinery or on
motors at critical locations. Although each method has many
strengths in detecting incipient failures, they all have limita-

three-phase diagram, and the sequence networks are shown in

Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 illustrates that the current flowing to the negativesequence network is largely determined by the equivalent
impedance of the negative-sequence network and ' l k , the
fault impedance. Of this current, Z,2 represents the negativesequence current flowing between the source and the fault;
Zom2 is the negative-sequence current flowing between the

997

SOTTILE, JR. AND KOHLER: IMPROVED PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE TESTIN1G

fault and the load. For this model,

I02 = - V x 1 - 1 o m 2 ) .

(7)

If the negative-sequence impedance of the motor is significantly larger than the impedance of the cable from the source
to the fault, which is usually the case in cable-connected motors, i.e.,

. ,

l z

L,

ru,
W

OO

LEAKAGE CURRENT, A

(a)

't

then

and
LEAKAGE CURRENT, A

where I, is the fault current, A. In other words, the negativesequence current will equal one-half of the measured fault
current. This result has also been tested experimentally on
cable-connected motors.
With circuit models such as those shown in Figs. 2 and
3, many relationships between negative-sequence current and
fault current, fault impedance, etc., can be derived; however,
these relatively simple models do not exist for motors with
internal winding faults. Nonetheless, the basis for negativesequence monitoring has been developed from this foundation,
and relationships between fault current and negative-sequence
current have been discovered on internal motor faults. The
ideas have been developed mostly through experimentation on
a motor which allows access to the stator coils. This machine
allows various stator coil connections, and it also allows the
insertion of fault paths within the windings.
Tests performed on this motor have indicated that negativesequence current is a good indicator of winding fault severity.
In addition, for points of known fault potential, the negativesequence current can be used as an estimate of the internal
fault current, just as it could for the cable-connected model.
A summary of results is shown in Fig. 4. This figure illustrates the relationship between negative-sequence current and
fault current at three different fault potentials for several fault
impedances. It is noted here that many different types and locations of the faults were simulated. In addition, both wyeand delta-connected windings were used. Despite these differences, there is a direct relationship between the measured
negative-sequence current and the fault current at a constant
fault potential.
Of course, internal fault potentials cannot be measured;
therefore, the relationships illustrated in Fig. 4 cannot be
used directly. However, if fault severity is determined by the
fault potential and current (because these values represent the
power consumed by the fault) then the negative-sequence current should reflect the increasing fault severity with potential. This effect is clearly represented in Fig. 4. The level of
negative-sequence current increases with potential for constant
values of leakage current.
The motivation behind this work is to find a single parameter that can be used to help evaluate motor-winding integrity.

(b)
W

'Z

00

LEAKAGE CURRENT, A
(C)

Fig. 4. (a) Fault potential 30 V. Faults: delta-connection: phase A-phase

C; wye connection: phase c-ground, phase c , turn-turn; all at no load. (b)
Fault potential 56-59 V. Faults: wye-connection: phase c ground, deltaconnection: phase B-phase C, phase C, turn-turn, motor terminal a-phase
C; all at no load. (c) Fault potential 90 V. Faults: wye connection: phase
c-ground, at no load, 75 percent full load, 125 percent full load, phase c ,
turn-turn, no load.

With almost an infinite number of fault locations, paths, and

severities possible within a motor, specifically determining
the mode of failure is an extremely difficult task, regardless
of the test method used. However, if one parameter can be
used which will flag all types of failures, additional testing can
be performed, or repairs can be scheduled, thus minimizing
downtime. The detection of negative-sequence current is seen
as such a test. Presently, guidelines are being developed to
relate the level of negative-sequence current to deterioration
severity.
IMPLEMENTATION
The implementation of negative-sequence monitoring into a
preventive, or predictive maintenance program requires only
that the negative-sequence current be monitored at various
points throughout the power system. The specific monitoring
points will depend on the design of each power system. In
general, each branch that contains vital equipment should be
monitored. For example, in a coal mining application, the
monitoring of longwall shearers, continuous miners, and belt
conveyors is justified.
The value of the negative sequence current can be determined by calculation if the current phasors can be measured.

998

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, NOVEMBERIDECEMBER 1989

This has been done in the lab using a waveform analyzer, and
in the field using an oscilloscope; clamp-on CTs and resistive voltage dividers were used in both cases. The use of a
scope requires great care to accurately determine the phase
angles for the current and is probably not practical for use in
an extensive test program, although it would be fine for evaluating a few motors. The use of a commercial instrument that
directly measures the negative-sequence component would be
far more desirable for everyday application.
The efficacy of the negative-sequence current as an early
predictor of motor deterioration was discovered during the
development of a continuous monitoring system for predicting incipient failure. This system measures the voltages and
current phasors, and as such, determination of the negativesequence component is trivial. The negative-sequencecomponent will be an important predictor in the continuous monitoring system, but equally important, it can and should be used
in a periodic test program as well. Admittedly, the user will
have to locate or construct a device that is convenient to use,
since that aspect was not investigated by the authors.
It is well-known that voltage unbalances can induce the
flow of negative-sequence current because induction motors
have low negative-sequence impedance. In many installations,
unbalanced supplies may not be present. However, in some
cases, voltage unbalances will exist. This is problematic because the measured negative-sequence current may be a result
of the voltage unbalance and not a sign of deterioration in the
motor. Both experimental and mathematical evidence suggest
that a voltage unbalance factor of 0.1 percent could obscure
significant levels of deterioration within a motor.
The effect of the source unbalance on the magnitude of the
negative-sequence current must be separated from the contribution, which is due to deterioration, if sensitivity to low
levels of deterioration is not to be lost. A method of doing this
has been developed and uses linear superposition to identify
the portion of the measured negative-sequencecomponent that
is due only to deterioration within the motor [20]. Unfortunately, this method requires an in-depth knowledge of motor
parameters; these parameters may be difficult to obtain from
the motor manufacturer. However, there is reason to believe
that it will be possible to simplify the method with an acceptable loss of sensitivity such that the user will not require
detailed motor design parameters.
The implementation of negative-sequence monitoring into a
maintenance program should not preclude the use of other test
procedures. For example, megohmmeter tests, if properly run
and interpreted, can be very useful for detecting weaknesses in
a motors major insulation system. However, they are not very
useful for detecting phase-phase or turn-turn problems, which
usually occur before the major insulation fails. Surge testing,
which could detect these problems, is difficult to employ in
some locations such as in an underground mine and should be
reserved for surface facilities. Negative-sequence monitoring
could be very useful for detecting problems in advance of
failure so that more complete tests could be run or repairs
could be scheduled. In addition, negative-sequencemonitoring
will not interfere with the normal operation of the motor.

CONCLUSION
The mining industry, like many of the process industries,
places severe demands on electric motors. The ability to detect failures in advance would make scheduled repairs possible; however, traditional motor insulation tests are not practical in many cases and have severe limitations in most cases.
Negative-sequence monitoring is seen as a viable approach to
monitoring motor performance. This method does not interfere with normal operations and is continuous. In laboratory
experiments, it has proven to be a sufficient indicator for detecting electrical deterioration within a squirrel-cage induction
motor. Despite the effects of an unbalanced voltage supply on
the measurement and the present uncertainty over how to compensate for these effects, negative-sequencemonitoring can be
a significant and powerful addition to a plants motor testing
program.
REFERENCES
E. B. Curdts, Insulation testing by dc methods, Technical Fublication 22Tlb, Biddle Ins, 1984.
A Stitch in Time.. ., Biddle Instruments, 1984.

Recommended Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of Rotating Machinery, IEEE Standard 43-1973, IEEE, 1974.
J. L. Kohler, F. C. Trutt, and J. Sottile, Performance and Condition Monitoring of Electrical Machines, Internal Report on Bureau
of Mines Contract No. J0338028, The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Mar. 1987.
C. W. Ross and E. B. Curdts, The recognition of possible measurement errors in dc dielectric testing in the field, AZEE Tmns., paper
no. 55456, 1955.
E. B. Curdts, The Field Testing of Electrical insulation by dc methods, reprint included in Technical Publication 2 I-PSa, Biddle Ins,
1984.
J. L. Kohler, Corona: mechanisms and applications for underground
coal mines, in Conf. Rec., IEEE-ZAS I975 Ann. Meeting, Oct.
1975, pp. 77-80.
R. F. Field, The basis for nondestructive testing of insulation, AIEE
Trans., vol. 60, Sept. 1941, pp. 890-895.
A. T. Nestor, Determining insulation quality by power factor testing, Plant Eng., vol. 38, no. 20, Aug. 1984, pp. 46-48.
Anon., Recommended Practice for Maasuring Tip-Up of Rotating
Machinery Stator Coil Insulation, IEEE Standard 286-1975, IEEE,
1975, p. 1 1 .
D. E. Shump, Applications of surge comparison testing, presented
at the 48th Annual Convention, Elec. Appar. Ser. Assoc., Toroto,
ON, Canada, June 23, 1981, p. 2 .
G. L. Moses and E. F. Harter, Winding-Fault Detection and Location
by Surge-Comparison Testing, AIEE Trans., vol. 64, July 1945, pp.
499-503.
I . A. Oliver, H. H. Woodson, and J. S. Johnson, A Turn Insulation
Test for Stator Coils, ZEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst., vol. 87,
Mar. 1968, pp. 669-678.
R. L e k v r e , Vice President Sales, Baker Instrument Company, personal
communication, Nov. 1986
M. T. Wright, S. J. Yang, and K. McLeay, General Theory of FastFronted Interturn Voltage Distribution in Electrical Machine Windings, IEE Proc., vol. 130, pt. B, no. 4, July 1983, pp. 245-256.
Guide for Testing Turn-to-TurnInsulation on Form- Wound Stator

Coils for Alternating-Current Rotating Electric Machines-for Trial

Use, IEEE standard 522-1977, IEEE 1977, p. 12.
J. L. Kohler, F. C. T ~ t t and
, L. A. Morley, Decision Functions for
Electric Power System Signals, Electric Power Systems Research,
vol. 1 1 , 1986, pp. 167-169.
J. L. Kohler, A tentative method for the prediction of mine power
system component failures by pattern recognition techniques, M.S.
thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Mar. 1977,
p. 227.
J . Sottile, An experimental analysis of electrical deterioration in threephase induction motors, M.S. Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Dec. 1986, p. 199.

SOTTILE. JR. AND KOHLER: IMPROVED PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE TESTING

[20] J. Sottile, Minimizing the effects of voltage unbalances in the feature

extraction process, Internal Report No. MEL 87-13, Mine Electrical

Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, 1987,
p. 14.

Joseph Sottile, Jr., (M86) received the B.S. degree in mining engineering, with highest distinction, and the M.S. degree in mining engineering,
both from The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, in 1984 and 1986, respectively.
He has worked in both production and engineering for the Barnes and Tucker Company from 1977
to 1983, and he also worked for Consolidation Coal
Company in 1987. He is currently a Graduate Research Fellow at the Penn State Mine Electrical Laboratory, where he is pursuing the Ph.D. degree in
mining engineering.

999
Mr. Sottile is a member of Tau Beta Pi and the Society of Mining Engineers.

Jeffrey L. Kohler (S74-M76-SM88) received

the B.S. degree in engineering science in 1974 and
the M.S and Ph.D degrees in mining engineering
in 1977 and 1983, respectively, all from The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
He worked as an Electronics Technician and then
as an Electrical Engineering Assistant while an undergraduate. While studying for the advanced degrees, he served as an Instructor of Mining Engineer at Penn State. From 1979 to 1982 he was
Senior Research Engineer and Senior Associate At
KETRON, Inc., Wayne, PA. In 19833 he became a Faculty Member at Penn
State, where he is presently Associate Professor and Director of the Mine
Electrical Laboratory. His teaching and research interests of electrical engineering applications in the mineral industries include power system design
and analysis
Dr. Kohler is a Certified Mine Electrician by the Mine Health and Safety
Administration, and is also a member of the Society of Mining Engineers