MALVINO & BATES

Electronic
PRINCIPLES
SEVENTH EDITION

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Introduction
Topics Covered in Chapter 1

Voltage sources
Current sources
Thevenins Theorem
Nortons Theorem
Troubleshooting

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Ideal voltage source

Maintains a constant output voltage, regardless of
the value of RL.
The ideal model can be called
the first approximation.

An ideal source has no internal resistance

10 V

RL

VR = 10 Volts
L

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Real Voltage Source

Has an internal resistance in series with the source
This model is called the
the second approximation.

RS
10 V

RL

VR < 10 Volts
L

When RL is equal to or greater than 100 times RS, a real

voltage source is stiff and the first approximation can be used.
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Ideal current source

Maintains a constant output current,
regardless of the value of RL.

1A

RL

IR = 1 Ampere
L

The ideal model can be called

the first approximation.

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Real current source

Has a large internal resistance in parallel with the source
This model is called the
the second approximation.

1A

RS

RL

IR < 1 Ampere
L

When RS is equal to or greater than 100 times RL, a real

current source is stiff and the first approximation can be used.
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Thevenins Theorem
Used to replace any linear circuit with an
equivalent voltage source called VTH and an
equivalent resistance called RTH

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Thevenins Theorem
Used to replace any linear circuit with an
equivalent voltage source called VTH and an
equivalent resistance called RTH
Example Original Circuit :

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Thevenins theorem can be used to replace any

linear circuit with an equivalent voltage source
called VTH and an equivalent resistance called RTH.

6 k
72 V

4 k
3 k

RR
LV

THTH

Remove
the
load.the open terminals.
Remove
Calculate
the
or
source.
measure
Calculate or measure
VTH
across
Thevenins resistance (RTH)
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Thevenins Voltage

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Voltmeter Tip
The input impedance of
a voltmeter should be at least 100 times
greater than the Thevenin resistance to
avoid meter loading.
Meter loading errors cause
inaccurate measurements.
DMMs are usually not a problem since they
typically have an input impedance
of 10 M.
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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

6 k

Original
circuit

72 V

4 k
3 k

RL

6 k (RTH)

Thevenin
equivalent circuit

24 V (VTH)

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RL

Nortons Theorem
Used to replace any linear circuit with an equivalent
current source called IN and an equivalent resistance
called RN

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Nortons Resistance
Example Original Circuit :

6 k
72 V

4 k
3 k

RL IR
NN

Short the load to find IN.

RN is the same as RTH.
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Nortons Current

IN = 4 mA
RN = 6 K

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Norton Equivalent Circuit

6 k

The original
circuit

The Norton
equivalent circuit

72 V

4 mA (IN)

4 k
3 k

RL

6 k (RN)

RL

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6 k (RTH)

A Thevenin
equivalent circuit

Circuit Conversion

The Norton
dual

RL

24 V (VTH)

RN = RTH

4 mA (IN)

IN =

VTH
RTH

6 k (RN)

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RL

Solder and Connector Problems

A solder bridge between two lines
effectively shorts them together.
A cold solder joint is effectively an open
circuit.
An intermittent trouble is one that
appears and disappears (could be a cold
solder joint or a loose connection).

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Troubleshooting
Finding out why a circuit is not doing what it is
supposed to do
Common problems are opens and shorts
An open device:
The current through it is zero.
The voltage across it is unknown.
V = zero x infinity {indeterminate}
A shorted device:
The voltage across it is zero.
The current through it is unknown.
I = 0/infinity {indeterminate}

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A troubleshooting example:
Do the two 10 resistors form
a stiff voltage divider?
10
12 V

100 k
10

100 k

Why?
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A troubleshooting example:

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A troubleshooting example:
What are the expected
voltages in this circuit?

10
12 V

100 k
10

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100 k

A troubleshooting example:
What are some causes for
this voltage (V) being too high?
10
12 V

100 k
10

100 k

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A troubleshooting example:
What are some causes for
this voltage (V) being too low?
10
12 V

100 k
10

100 k

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