The Reproductive Process

Reproduction

Reproduction is one of the ubiquitous

properties of life.
Evolution is inextricably linked to reproduction.
Two modes of reproduction are recognized:

Asexual
Sexual

Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction the production

of offspring whose genes all come from
one parent without the fusion of egg and
sperm.

Usually diploid eggs are produced by

mitosis which then develop directly.

Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction
the production of
offspring by the fusion of
haploid gametes (eggs
& sperm) from two
parents to form a diploid
zygote (fertilized egg).

Dioecious
Gametes arise by
meiosis.
Genetic variability is
increased by the random
combinations of genes
from the parents.

Asexual Reproduction

Bacteria and
many protozoa
can reproduce by
binary fission
separating into
two or more
individuals
approximately the
same size.

Asexual Reproduction

Budding is a form of
asexual reproduction
where new
individuals form as
offshoots of a parent.
The offspring may
separate or remain
attached to form
colonies.

Asexual Reproduction

Fragmentation results when an

organisms body is broken into several
pieces and each piece grows into a new
organism.

Regeneration the regrowth of lost body

parts.

Asexual Reproduction

Fragmentation
occurs in some
sponges, cnidarians,
polychaete annelids,
tunicates.

Sea stars can

regenerate lost limbs,
but only species in
the genus Linckia can
form new individuals
from broken arms.

Asexual Reproduction - Advantages

Animals living far from

members of their own species
can reproduce without having
to search for a mate.
Numerous offspring quickly
ideal for colonizing a new
area.
Advantageous in a stable,
favorable environment
because it reproduces a
successful genotype
precisely.

Sexual Reproduction

Generally involves two parents.

Special germ cells unite to form a zygote.
Sexual reproduction recombines parental
characters.

A richer, more diversified population results.

In haploid asexual organisms mutations are

expressed and selected quickly.
In sexual reproduction a normal gene on the
homologous chromosome may mask a gene
mutation.

Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis involves the

development of an embryo from an
unfertilized egg or one where sperm &
egg nuclei did not fuse.
Ameiotic parthenogenesis no meiosis,
egg is formed by mitosis (diploid)
Meiotic parthenogenesis haploid ovum
formed by meiosis, it may be activated by a
male (or not).

Parthenogenesis

In some animals (aphids, rotifers,

Daphnia) the females can produce two
types of eggs.
One must be fertilized.
One type will develop directly into haploid
adults parthenogenesis.

Haploid females produce eggs by mitosis.

Sequential Hermaphroditism

In sequential
hermaphroditism, an
individual reverses its
sex during its lifetime.

In wrasses, sex reversal

is associated with age,
size and social
conditions.
Fish are female first.
The largest female
becomes male if the
previous male dies.

Sequential Hermaphroditism
There are also sequential
hermaphrodites that are male first, later
changing to female.
This occurs in species that produce more
eggs at a bigger size so it is
advantageous to have larger females.

Oysters

Fertilization

Fertilization fusion
of egg and sperm
into a single diploid
cell, the zygote.

External
Internal

External Fertilization

External
fertilization
fertilization takes
place outside the
females body.

A wet environment
is required so
gametes dont dry
out and so sperm
may swim to the
eggs.

Internal Fertilization

Internal fertilization allows terrestrial

animals to reproduce away from water.

Cooperative behavior leading to copulation

is required.

Ensuring Survival of Offspring

Species with internal

fertilization produce
fewer zygotes, but
protect them more from
predation.

Tough eggshells
Embryo may develop in
reproductive tract of
female
Parental care of eggs &
offspring

Gamete Production & Delivery

Gametes (eggs & sperm) are required
for sexual reproduction.
Usually, gametes are produced in
gonads (ovaries & testes).
Germ cells are set aside early in
development. They will produce only
gametes.

Migration of Germ Cells

Germ cells arise in

the yolk-sac
endoderm of
vertebrates not in
the gonads.
They migrate to the
gonads using
amoeboid
movement.

Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis the production of

gametes.
Spermatogenesis each primary
spermatocyte divides to form 4 sperm.
Oogenesis each primary oocyte divides
to form 1 ovum and 2-3 polar bodies.

In oogenesis, cytokinesis is unequal, most of the

cytoplasm goes to one daughter cell which
becomes the ovum. The other cells, polar
bodies, degenerate.

Spermatogenesis
Outermost layer of the seminiferous
tubules contain spermatogonia, diploid
cells that grow to become primary
spermatocytes.
After the first meiotic division, they are
called secondary spermatocytes.
When meiosis is complete the haploid
cells are spermatids.

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis

Spermatids mature
into motile sperm
with a tail for
locomotion, and a
head containing an
acrosome as well as
the nucleus.

Oogenesis

In the ovary, early germ cells called oogonia

are diploid.
Oogonia grow to become primary oocytes.
After the first meiotic division, the cytoplasm
divides unequally and only one secondary
oocyte and one polar body result.
Following the second meiotic division, one
ootid and another polar body result.
The ootid develops into a functional ovum.

Oogenesis

Oogenesis

Meiosis is usually arrested at the

beginning of meiosis and is not
completed until ovulation or fertilization.

Sperm plasma
membrane
Sperm
nucleus

Fertilization
envelope

Acrosomal
process
Basal body
(centriole)
Sperm
head

Acrosome
Jelly coat
Sperm-binding
receptors

Actin
filament
Cortical
Fused
granule
plasma
membranes
Perivitelline
Hydrolytic enzymes
space
Vitelline layer
Egg plasma
membrane

EGG CYTOPLASM

The Cortical Reaction

Fusion of egg and sperm also initiates the

cortical reaction
This reaction induces a rise in Ca2+ that
stimulates cortical granules to release their
contents outside the egg
These changes cause formation of a
fertilization envelope that functions as a slow
block to polyspermy

EXPERIMENT

10 sec after
fertilization

25 sec

35 sec

1 min

10 sec after
fertilization

20 sec

30 sec

500 m

RESULTS

1 sec before
fertilization

500 m

CONCLUSION
Point of
sperm
nucleus
entry

Spreading
wave of Ca2+

Fertilization
envelope

Activation of the Egg

The sharp rise in Ca2+ in the eggs cytosol

increases the rates of cellular respiration and
protein synthesis by the egg cell
With these rapid changes in metabolism, the
egg is said to be activated
The sperm nucleus merges with the egg
nucleus and cell division begins

0.25 mm

Animal pole

Zygote

2-cell
stage
forming

4-cell
stage
forming

0.25 mm

Blastocoel

Vegetal
8-cell pole
Blastula
stage
(cross
section)

Stage 1 of fertilization:

The acrosome reaction must be completed before

the sperm can fuse with the secondary oocyte

Passage of sperm through the corona radiata

depends on enzyme action:

Occurs when sperms come into contact with the corona

radiata of the oocyte
Perforations develop in the acrosome
Point fusions of the sperm plasma membrane and the
external acrosomal membrane occur
The acrosome reaction is associated with the release of
acrosome enzymes that facilitate fertilization

hyaluronidase released from sperm acrosome

Tubal mucosal enzymes

Flagella action also aids corona radiata penetration

Corona radiata are follicular cells

surrounding zona pellucida

Ovum and sperms:

(In vitro)

From this photograph, it should be

clear that the heads of human
sperm are less than 1/20 the
diameter of human eggs.

Arrows point to sperm heads

Advanced Fertility Center of Chicago

http://www.advancedfertility.com/
The surfaces of unfertilized eggs are usually smooth in appearance. The mottled look
of this egg is not normally seen, but apparently all the ova from this woman had this
appearance.

Stage 2 of fertilization:

Penetration of the zona pellucida around the

oocyte:

Acrosomal enzymes: esterases, acrosin, and

neuraminidase cause lysis of the zona pellucida

Once sperm penetrates zona pellucida, the

zona reaction occurs:
This reaction makes the zona pellucida
impermeable to other sperms.
When more than one sperm manages to enter
the ovum (dispermy = 2; triploidy = 3), the fetus
nearly always aborts.

Stages 3 & 4 of fertilization:

Fusion of plasma membranes of oocyte and

sperm

Head and tail of a sperm enter the cytoplasm of

the oocyte, but the sperm plasma membrane
remains behind.

2nd meiotic division of oocyte is completed

The secondary oocyte was previously arrested

in metaphase of the 2nd meiotic division, and
now forms the mature ovum and another polar
body.

Stages 3 & 4 of fertilization:

Fusion of plasma membranes of oocyte and

sperm

Head and tail of a sperm enter the cytoplasm of

the oocyte, but the sperm plasma membrane
remains behind.

2nd meiotic division of oocyte is completed

The secondary oocyte was previously arrested

in metaphase of the 2nd meiotic division, and
now forms the mature ovum and another polar
body.

Stage 5 of fertilization:

Formation of male and female pronuclei:

Chromosomal material of the sperm
decondensates and enlarges
Chromosomal material of the ovum
decondensates following the completion of
meiosis

At this stage, the male and female

pronuclei are indistinguishable.
As they grow, the pronuclei replicate their
DNA still 1N (haploid)- 23
chromosomes, each in chromatid pairs

Fusion of the pronuclei:

(in vitro)

The male and female

pronuclei are
indistinguishable from one
another.
The second polar body can
be seen (arrow).
The plasma membranes of
the two pronuclei are
dissolving and one diploid
nucleus will remain.
Advanced Fertility Center of Chicago
http://www.advancedfertility.com/

Stage 6 of fertilization:

Membranes of the pronuclei break down,

chromosomes condense and arrange
themselves for mitotic cell division
On membrane dissolution, there is 1 cell with
46 chromosomes = diploid (2N)
The first cleavage follows shortly, leaving 2
cells, each with 46 chromosomes.

Mitosis in the new zygote uses centrioles derived

from the sperm. The oocyte has no centrioles.

Triploidy
There are 3
pronuclei within this
one zygote. In the
laboratory, such
embryos are
discarded. In vivo,
such embryos almost
always abort
spontaneously.

(in vitro)

Morula forms (solid ball of cells)

Blastula forms (hollow ball of cells)
Cells begin to grow before dividing

Placental Circulation

The placenta contains closely entwined

embryonic & maternal blood vessels for the
exchange of nutrients and wastes.

First Trimester

Organogenesis is occurring during the

first trimester.
The heart starts beating about the fourth
week.
At 8 weeks, all major organs are present in
rudimentary form.

Now called a fetus.

Second Trimester

The fetus grows to about 30 cm and is very

active.
Hormone levels stabilize, hCG declines, the
corpus luteum disintegrates and the placenta
takes over production of progesterone.

Third Trimester

Fetal activity may decrease as space

becomes limited.

Fetus grows to about 50 cm and 3-4 kg.

Development of organs is completed.

Neural development continues even after
birth.

Labor & Delivery

Birth, parturition,
occurs through
strong rhythmic
contractions of the
uterus.

Dilation
Expulsion
Delivery of placenta

Multiple Births

Humans are usually

uniparous one
offspring at a time.

Multiparous animals
have several.

Fraternal twins result

from ovulation &
fertilization of two eggs.
Identical twins result
from the splitting of one
zygote.