Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
NASA Glenn Research Center, 21000 Brookpark Road, MS 3-6 Cleveland, OH 44135, USA
b
NASA Kennedy Space Center, Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899, USA
Abstract
Air transportation in the new millennium will require revolutionary solutions to meet public demand for improving
safety, reliability, environmental compatibility, and affordability. NASAs vision for 21st century aircraft is to develop
propulsion systems that are intelligent, highly efcient, virtually inaudible (outside airport boundaries), and have near
zero harmful emissions (CO2 and NOx). This vision includes intelligent engines capable of adapting to changing internal
and external conditions to optimally accomplish missions with either minimal or no human intervention. Distributed
vectored propulsion will replace current two to four wing mounted and fuselage mounted engine congurations with a
large number of small, mini, or micro engines. Other innovative concepts, such as the pulse detonation engine (PDE),
which potentially can replace conventional gas turbine engines, also are reviewed. It is envisioned that a hydrogen
economy will drive the propulsion system revolution towards the ultimate goal of silent aircrafts with zero harmful
emissions. Finally, it is envisioned that electric drive propulsion based on fuel cell power will generate electric power,
which in turn will drive propulsors to produce the desired thrust. This paper reviews future propulsion and power
concepts that are under development at the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations (NASA) John H. Glenn
Research Center at Lewis Field, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Contents
1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.
3.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
203
203
205
205
206
208
210
210
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
200
Nomenclature
CMC
CO
CO2
c
cd
cl
cp
Delta H/U2
Fj
GH2
LH2
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
3.3.4.
M
Mj
MN
MMC
NOx
PMC
SFC
SOx
U
UN
a
y
Mach number
tail-jet Mach number at nozzle exit plane
free-stream Mach number
metal matrix composites
nitrogen oxide
polymer matrix composites
specic fuel consumption
sulfur oxide
axial velocity
free-stream axial velocity
angle of attack
jet ap angle
4.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
211
212
212
214
214
215
216
217
218
218
5.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
220
220
221
222
225
228
230
232
6.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
1. Introduction
The future world economy is envisioned to be truly
global, where national boundaries become diffused by
interdependent commerce. This future vision only can be
realized if there is a revolutionary change in transporta-
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
201
ARTICLE IN PRESS
202
Capacity:
The extended objective (beyond 25 years) for protecting the environment is to have virtually emission-less
and silent aircraft by achieving zero nitrogen oxide
(NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and ensuring
that aircrafts are inaudible outside of airport boundaries.
This paper presents details of NASAs propulsion
technology vision that was developed to meet the abovementioned objectives. It also provides details of various
propulsion and power system concepts, system studies,
and the areas of technology development efforts
currently underway at NASA Glenn to meet this
technology vision.
During the past ve years, NASA has developed a
research direction aimed at developing aeropropulsion
technologies that will allow the aviation industry to
achieve an air transportation system that meets the
above objectives. The ultimate goal of protecting the
environment is to develop an emission-less, silent
aircraft. NASA proposes a phased aeropropulsion
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
203
ARTICLE IN PRESS
204
Fig. 3. Numerical propulsion system simulation: Component integration, discipline integration and variable delity analysis
(zooming).
between zero-dimensional to one-, two-, and threedimensional analysis codes. The vision in developing the
NPSS is to create a numerical test cell that enables
overnight full engine simulations on cost-effective
computing platforms. Numerical zooming between
NPSS engine simulations and higher-delity representations of the engine components (fan, compressor,
combustor, turbines, etc.) already has been demonstrated. Future augmentations will address the abovementioned intelligent computing concepts.
In the area of sensors and controls, future research
will transform recent successes in physics-based multidisciplinary modeling into real-time propulsion health
monitoring and management for improved safety and
reduced maintenance costs. Further developments in
adaptive on-board engine models, advanced component
design techniques coupled with material-embedded
nanosensors and evolving information-technology capabilities (computational processing speed, data acquisition and dissemination, etc.) will allow for real-time
engine condition monitoring and performance optimization. Such progress will provide several benets including continuous real-time trending of engine health,
synthesized sensor values that can be used in sensor
validation logic and estimations of immeasurable engine
parameters such as thrust and component stability
margins that can be used in feedback control logic.
The concept of model-based controls and diagnostics,
shown in Fig. 4, provides prognostic and diagnostic
capabilities and fault accommodation, preventing po-
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
205
ARTICLE IN PRESS
206
reduce the rotor tip speed for the same pressure ratio,
thereby reducing the noise generated by rotor blade
passage shock. Two recent research efforts led by
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have
shown that the airfoil aspiration can lead to increasing
the stage work level (DH=U 2 ) by a factor of two. Figs. 7
and 8 show the test hardware and performance map of a
MIT-designed fan stage with a tip speed of 1500 ft/s that
was tested at NASA Glenn Research Center [7]. This
stage achieved a pressure ratio in excess of 3.1:1 at a
design aspiration ow fraction of 1.8% of the inlet ow
rate. An earlier aspirated fan design tested by MIT [8]
demonstrated a pressure ratio of 1.6:1 at a tip speed of
750 ft/s. Typical state-of-the-art fan and compressor
stages with 750 and 1500 ft/s tip speeds produce pressure
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
207
ARTICLE IN PRESS
208
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
209
ARTICLE IN PRESS
210
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
211
ARTICLE IN PRESS
212
Table 1
Maximum thrust of various engine classes
Engine class
Micro
Mini
Small
Medium
Large
o10
10 to o100
100 to o1000
1000 to o10,000
10,000o
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
213
ARTICLE IN PRESS
214
strategic deployment of thrust on the aircraft. Distributed exhaust congurations suffer performance penalties
as a result of nozzle viscous losses and likely only will be
used for aircraft systems exhibiting extreme sensitivity to
low-speed lift and/or cruise drag. Therefore, distributed
exhaust systems will be better suited to supersonic cruise
applications in which noise-sizing for takeoff eld length
and sustained supersonic cruise drag are the most
dominant and least reconcilable constraints (Fig. 19).
High-aspect-ratio nozzles for commercial supersonic
cruise vehicles offer the potential for noise and nozzle
weight reduction. The projected sideline noise reduction
using a wing trailing edge 2-D mixer/ejector nozzle with
comparatively small exhaust height may be as much as
10 dB (due to increased ambient jet mixing, improved
ejector internal penetration and mixing, and increased
liner attenuability resulting from naturally higher
frequencies and surface areas). In addition, the highaspect-ratio geometrically produces a shorter nozzle for
an equal nozzle pressure ratio and provides the potential
for shared structural loading with the wing. This
conguration will culminate in as much as 50%
equivalent nozzle weight reduction and propulsion
related cruise drag. Increased low-speed lift via wing
trailing edge ap blowing and thrust vectoring will also
be achieved through this conguration, and reduce the
required take-off eld length and affording community
and approach noise reductions.
Hybrid systems incorporating distributed/thrust vectored exhaust and micro-engines for ow control and
actuator power also are attractive. To reduce the
performance losses resulting from increased nozzle
surface areas and increased internal ow turning,
micro-engines can be incorporated for boundary layer
control and cooling. Instead of active dedicated microfuel/combustors, this approach might employ passive
methods to utilize waste heat from the nozzle to power
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
215
Table 2
Conventional engine selection comparison for 800-passenger BWB with Embedded Wing Propulsion concept
Engines
Length (in)
Weight (Ib)
Thrust (Ib)
Diameter of fan (in)
Number of engines reqd
193
16700
90000
123
2
129
2400
12700
45.6
14
41
80
700
14.5
264
Fig. 20. Conguration A. A notional EWP conguration with engines all buried in the wing using a baseline 800 passenger BWB
conguration.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
216
Fig. 21. Conguration B. A notional EWP conguration with engines all integrated with wing trailing edge using a baseline 800passenger BWB conguration.
Fig. 22. NACA 0012 airfoil with thrust vectoring tail-jet or jet ap by truncating the last 15% chord and replacing it with jet ow.
Table 3
Flow conditions for NACA 0012 airfoil jet ap CFD study
Mach No.
Total pressure (psia)
Total temperature (1C)
Free stream
Tail-jet at nozzle
exit plane
0.2
14.7
520
0.95
22.15
520
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
217
Fig. 23. Effect on lift and drag coefcients by varying angle-of-attack (a) and jet angle (y) at M 1 0:2; Re(/ft)=1.388 106,
Mj 0:95:
vehicle concepts. Traditional supersonic aircraft typically incorporate podded engines designed for the
supersonic environment but conceptually similar to a
subsonic aircraft. Isolated propulsion system pods cause
vehicle penalties that the analyses being conducted at
Georgia Tech will help to quantify.
In a supersonic ight, added drag (wave drag) results
from the shock waves generated by the vehicle.
Depending on the vehicle conguration, this wave drag
may constitute from 10% to 50% of the overall vehicle
drag. In addition to wave drag, shock waves will
coalesce to varying degrees to cause a sonic boom at
the ground. A signicant contribution to the boom
signature is caused by propulsion system pods. By
carefully integrating propulsion pods into the wing
structure, a novel conguration that will reduce wave
drag and thus have greater overall mission efciency
might be possible. Such a notional vehicle concept is
shown in Fig. 24. For this concept, two conceptual
propulsion systems are being considered: traditional
gas turbine engines for the near term; and for longerterm horizons, a novel propulsion system, utilizing
distributed power and perhaps electric fuel cell power.
To produce the required lift, additional swept wing
panels outboard of the engine nacelle panels may be
required.
In terms of supersonic wing design, the delta platform
is a compromise between subsonic and supersonic
aerodynamics. The low lift curve slope causes low wing
loading and compromised supersonic cruise performance. Analysts in Georgia Techs Advanced System
Design Laboratory have developed and continually
update a system level approach to vehicle/mission
design. The tools that are being developed will be
coupled with propulsion system sizing, low- and highspeed aerodynamics, sonic boom prediction, and elements of structural design to create a fully integrated
aircraft concept. An optimal vehicle design will be
synthesized and evaluated, and nal comparisons will be
made to the evolved High Speed Civil Transport
ARTICLE IN PRESS
218
from detonation waves (mechanical shock and combustion waves) to accomplish pressure and temperature
increases. The PDE cycle uses constant volume combustion and potentially can be more efcient than the
constant pressure cycle used in gas turbine engines.
Conceptually, the basic PDE and its operation are
simple (Fig. 26). The engine itself can be as simple as a
combustion chamber with an air inlet and valving to
control incoming airow and a nozzle to control the
manner in which hot gases expand and generate thrust
more efciently. A PDEs main moving parts may be
high-speed valves that allow fuel and air to enter the
combustion chamber during each cycle, and combustion
products to be exhausted out of the combustion
chamber in a controlled manner. A detonation wave,
produced during combustion, is a high-speed (greater
than approximately Mach 5) pressure wave that puts
enough energy into the fuelair mixture to cause rapid
heat release within a very small region immediately
behind the pressure wave. As the detonation wave
moves through the combustion chamber, the temperature and pressure of the now reacted fuel and air are
increased. The combustion chambers increased average
internal pressure ultimately is responsible for the thrust
produced by the PDE. Like a ramjet, this basic concept
can be used directly in the Mach 24 range but with
higher efciency than the ramjet, and it has the potential
to generate sea-level-static thrust.
At NASA Glenn, studies are underway to utilize pulse
detonation combustion in a hybrid gas turbine engine
for subsonic commercial aircraft applications. These
studies consider the potential system-level benets of
using PDEs instead of current propulsion systems,
including improved efciency and SFC, as well as the
potential for conguration variations and airframe
integration benets. An advanced hybrid PDE concept,
in which the conventional combustor is replaced by a
pulse detonation combustor, is presented in Fig. 27.
Initial studies have indicated a potential for 10% or
more reduction in cruise SFC.
Some key technology issues that need to be resolved
prior to this technologys application include the
following:
Detonation
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
219
ARTICLE IN PRESS
220
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
221
ARTICLE IN PRESS
222
For
Table 4
Comparison of properties between hydrogen and common
hydrocarbon fuels
Nominal composition
Molecular weight
Heat of combustion (BTU/lb)
Liquid density (lb/ft3)
Specic heat (BTU/lb-F)
Boiling point at 1 atm (F)
Hydrogen
Methane
Jet A
H2
2.016
51,590
4.43
2.32
423
CH4
16.04
21,500
26.4
0.84
258
CH1.93
168
18,400
50.6
0.47
332
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
223
ARTICLE IN PRESS
224
sources. Aircraft start-up operations could be a challenge as the propellant feed system is pre-chilled.
In-ight operations also will benet from years of
spaceight experience. Operation in high acceleration
environments and g-loads should be well understood to
prevent issues such as propellant sloshing. However,
aircraft ight can impose some unique challenges for
multiple tank operations. Federal regulations will
require that aircraft be able to operate engines from
multiple fuel tanks and have the ability to transfer fuel
in-ight from tank-to-tank for safety. Impacts of
emergency procedures such as in-ight fuel jettison will
need further examination.
5.1.2.5. Environmental and safety issues. The use of
hydrogen as an aircraft fuel has tremendous environmental benets with the reduction of CO, CO2, SOx,
UHC, and smoke. The remaining emissions are trace
amounts of unburned hydrogen, water and NOx, each of
which has some environmental impacts. The impact of
NOx as a greenhouse gas is well known and as shown
earlier, steps can be taken to minimize these emissions.
Lesser known, but growing in potential signicance is
the effect of water vapor in the form of contrails and ice
crystals [37]. Water vapor also is classied as a greenhouse gas due to the formation of contrails, which act
like cirrus clouds. The effect is expected to intensify if
hydrogen aircraft become a reality because the amount
of water expelled is expected to be three times that of
todays engines. While that appears to be a major
increase, it should be pointed out that total emissions
from a hydrogen engine are still 2540% lower than an
engine running on hydrocarbon fuels, with water
replacing CO2. Additionally, the more harmful effect
of water in the atmosphere is generally thought to be
limited to stratospheric ight.
A more recent concern is the effect of hydrogen on the
atmosphere. It has been discussed in a recent paper [38]
that the additional hydrogen released into the atmosphere from a hydrogen economy also can act as a
greenhouse gas. The amount released from aircraft is
relatively small compared to ground power and transportation, as with todays emissions, the impact is still
important due to the location. The switch from
hydrocarbon-based fuels to hydrogen will not be with
out environmental impacts; the issues raised with both
water and hydrogen still require study.
Unfortunately, one of the rst things people think of
when they hear hydrogen is the Hindenburg. Common
misconception is the disaster was caused by hydrogen
when, in reality, the real culprit was re created by the
airships skin. As with any propellant, hydrogen is
dangerous when mishandled. However, after many years
of experience, the ability to operate safely has been
demonstrated, but more work will need to be done for
general public use. It should be pointed out that when
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
LH2 7 s
Propane 4 min
Gasoline 5 min
JP-4 7 min.
A more recent study [40] demonstrated the difference
between a hydrogen leak and a gasoline leak in identical
cars. The hydrogen leak developed a torch-like ame
that was extinguished when the fuel ran out, whereas
gasoline caused the re to spread and eventually engulf
the car.
Due to the vast array of experience Agency-wide,
NASA can play an important role in demonstrating the
safe and efcient use of hydrogen for transportation
systems. As the hydrogen economy reappears on the
horizon, the introduction of hydrogen fuel into the
aviation sector should be addressed. The elimination of
emissions from all aspects of the transportation system
225
Fig. 33. Potential fuel cell evolution towards meeting future aircraft transportation needs.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
226
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
227
Fig. 35. Roadmap for fuel cell powered All Electric Aircraft.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
228
generator-based power systems used today have efciencies of 15% on the ground and 3540% in ight
[43]. Fuel-cell systems would provide in-ight electric
power and replace the generator entirely, thus reducing
main engine power requirements. Overall system fuel
savings, particularly on long-range ights, enables a
lighter airframe that compounds into further fuel
savings.
Since turbine-based auxiliary power systems account
for 20% of an aircrafts NOx emissions at the airport,
emissions reduction in this area would contribute
signicantly to improving local air quality near airports. Fuel cells also are inherently quiet, eliminating
noise on the ground when aircraft engines are not
running.
5.2.1.1. Fuel reformer types. There are three types of
processes available for hydrocarbon fuel reforming:
partial oxidation (and catalytic partial oxidation),
autothermal reforming, and steam reforming. NASA is
evaluating the jet fuel reformation process that would
provide the most compact, lightweight, and efcient
aircraft design. The illustration shows the working
process of each reformer. Steam reforming may yield
the highest efciency but requires a relatively heavy and
large reactor. Conversely, partial oxidation reforming is
the most compact but has the lowest conversion
efciency.
The overall system must take advantage of steam and
air for reformation. The reformer could operate on
hydrocarbon fuel and air (as a partial oxidation reactor),
on hydrocarbon fuel and steam (as a steam reformer), or
on hydrocarbon fuel, air, and steam (as an autothermal
reformer). In a simple reformer, jet fuel is injected and
mixed with air to achieve a uniform mixture and at
temperature prole before admission to the reactor
where a catalyst enables production of reformate
containing hydrogen, CO, and methane (CH4).
Fig. 36. Solid oxide fuel cell-based hybrid auxiliary power unit for More Electric Aircraft.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
5.2.1.2. Requirements and definition. Preliminary system assessment indicates that a commercial 305-passenger size aircraft would require 440 kW power and
0.5 kW/kg specic power density for the fuel cell system,
including balance of plant for the power generation
system. The state of the art is ve kW stacks in
development at a specic power target of 0.1 kW/kg.
The 0.1 kW/kg specic power density is sufcient for
ground-based applications, but a ve-fold increase is
needed to meet large commercial transport power
system requirements. It also is assumed that the fuel
cell system is a planar SOFC/gas turbine hybrid,
operated at 9501000 1C on Jet-A fuel to produce
440 kW. Fuel cell/gas turbine hybrid efciency is
6575% at cruise. Designs include an expansion turbine,
which produces power by expanding the hot fuel cell
exhaust, and contributes close to 20% of the total
electric power. A simplied balance of plant diagram
indicates that the overall fuel cell system includes the
hybrid fuel cell, fuel reformer and desulfurizer, power
conditioning system and recuperator/heat exchanger.
Acquisition cost needs to be considered. SOFC power
systems are expected to become cost-competitive with
turbine-based systems. The DoEs Solid State Energy
Conversion Alliance has a goal to reduce SOFC stack
costs to $400/kW at 310 kW for heavy stacks aimed at
distributed power applications. The balance of plant
costs may double this gure. The commercial aviation
approach is to develop for higher specic power through
higher temperature operation and higher overall efciency. This is in contrast to the ground and stationary
power approach to reduce cost through lower temperature. The aviation industry is formulating cost estimates
and business cases for aircraft fuel cell power system
feasibility, which would include a comprehensive treatment of all the cost elements.
Mass and volume are as important as cost and
efciency. Early system studies indicate that some parts
of a fuel cell power system may involve weight penalties.
These weight gains, however, are offset by weight
savings elsewhere in the system. Combined system
weight, including fuel and possibly water savings, for
example, will show a net weight benet. The fuel saving
is attributed to higher power generation efciency. The
fuel cell system also may have volume penalties but still
t well within the tail of the aircraft.
5.2.1.3. Enabling technology for solid oxide fuel cells on
JET-A fuel. NASA has focused on planar SOFC for
aviation applications due to power density and scale-up
considerations. SOFCs can be tubular or planar.
Tubular designs, developed by SiemensWestinghouse
for ground power generation at megawatt levels, are
more mature and in commercial service at 100 kW levels
but are heavy and have low efciency due to inherently
long conduction paths.
229
ARTICLE IN PRESS
230
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
231
Table 5
Technology levels used in electric drive propulsion assessment
Off-the-shelf technology
Intermediate technology
Advanced technology
Automotive-derivative compressor,
heat exchangers, humidiers,
separator
Electric motor
Automotive-derivative permanent
magnet electric motor
Power
electronics
Automotive-derivative power
management and distribution
H2 storage
Fig. 38. Mass breakdown for the MCR01 with Rotox 912,
range 800 NM, 160 knots max speed, and take-off gross weight
of 990 pounds.
Fig. 37. Range-payload capability for Rotax 912 and electric
drive propulsion system 81 hp 130 kts.
Fig. 39. Mass breakdown for the MCR01 with electric drive
propulsion, range 150 NM, 160 knots maximum speed, and
take-off gross weight of 990 pounds.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
232
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
233
6. Concluding remarks
Propulsion system advances have been the fundamental drivers toward the progress made in air
transportation and will continue into the 21st Century.
Enormous advances in propulsion performance, emissions and efciency have made it possible for aircraft to
travel at higher speeds safely over longer ranges. Over
the last ten years NASA, working with other federal
agencies and industry partners, have developed aero-
ARTICLE IN PRESS
234
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the following
individuals at NASA Glenn for their contributions to
various sections of this paper: Jon Seidel for assessment
of several advanced concepts; Tim Smith for hydrogen
powered gas turbine engine; Anita Liang for fuel cell
based power and propulsion; Hyun Dae Kim for
embedded wing propulsion; Rich Deloof for pulse
detonation engine; Christos Chamis for exoskeletal
engine; Tim Wickenheiser for electric drive propulsion
for light aircraft; and Emery Adanich, Barbara Kakiris,
Eric Mindek for overall editorial support.
References
[1] Lytle JK, et al. Numerical Propulsion System Simulation
Industry Review. NASA/TR 209795, September 6, 2000,
1999.
[2] Garg S. Propulsion Controls and Health Management
Research at NASA Glenn Research Center. NASA/TM
2002-211590, 2002.
[3] Guo T-H. A Roadmap for Aircraft Engine Life Extending
Control. 2001 American Control Conference, 2001.
[4] Kobayashi T, Simon DL. A Hybrid Neural NetworkGenetic Algorithm Technique for Aircraft Engine Performance Diagnostics. AIAA-2001-3763, 2001.
[5] Kobayashi T, Simon DL. Application of a Bank of
Kalman lters for Aircraft Engine Fault diagnostics.
GT2003-38550, 2003.
[6] Sutliff DL, Tweedt DL, Fite EB, Envia E. Low-Speed Fan
Noise Reduction With Trailing Edge Blowing. NASA/
TM2002-211559, 2002.
[7] Merchant A, Kerrebrock JL, Adamczyk JJ, Braunchidel E.
Experimental Investigation of a High Pressure Ratio
Aspirated Fan Stage. To be presented as the ASME
Turbo Expo 2004, June 1417, Vienna, Austria, 2002.
[8] Schuler BJ. Experimental Investigation of Aspirated Fan
Stage. Ph.D. Thesis. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, June 2001.
[9] Lefebvre AH. Gas turbine combustion, 2nd edition.
London: Taylor & Francis; 1999.
[10] DeLaat JC, Breisacher KJ, Saus JR, Paxson DE. Active
Combustion Control for Aircraft Gas Turbines. AIAA2000-3500, 2000.
[11] Tacina RR, Wey C, Choi KJ. Flame Tube NOx Emissions
Using a Lean-Direct-Wall-Injection Combustor Concept.
AIAA-2001-3271, 2001.
[12] Tacina R, Wey C, Liang P, Mansour A. A Low NOx LeanDirect Injection, Multipoint Integrated Module Combustor Concept for Advanced Aircraft Gas Turbines. NASA/
TM2002-211347, 2002.
[13] Tacina R, Wey C, Liang P, Mansour A. Sector Tests of a
Lowx, Lean-Direct Injection, Multipoint Integrated Module Combustor Concept. GT-2002-30089, 2002.
[14] Tacina R, Mao C-P, Wey C. Experimental Investigation of
a Multiplex Fuel Injector Module for Low Emissions
Combustors. AIAA-2003-0827, 2003.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.K. Sehra, W. Whitlow Jr. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 40 (2004) 199235
[37] Penner JE, Lister DH, Griggs DJ, Dokken DJ, McFarland
M, editors. Aviation and the global atmosphere. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1999.
[38] Tromp TK, Shia R-L, Allen M, Eiler JM, Yung YL.
Potential Environmental Impact of a Hydrogen Economy
on the Stratosphere. Science. www.sciencemag.org, Vol.
300, June 13, 2003.
[39] Little, AD. Interim report on an investigation of hazards
associated with liquid hydrogen storage and use, 1959.
[40] Swain M. Fuel leak simulation. University of Miami,
Miami.
[41] Daggett DL, Eelman S, Kristiansson G. Fuel Cell APU for
Commercial Aircraft, AIAA-2003-2660.
[42] Daggett D, Freeh J, Balan C, Birmingham D. Fuel
Cell APU for Commercial Aircraft. Proceedings of the
235