Chapter 21 Electronics

CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL
PHYSICS
ELECTRONICS
L E A R N I N G O U TC O M E S
No.
LEARNING OUTCOME
Understand what are sensors.
ii
What are electronic sensors?
iii
Understand the use of thermistors, light

dependent resistors (LDRs), piezo electric
transducers and metal wire strain gauges as
sensors.
iv
What are potential dividers?
Use thermistors, LDRs and strain gauges in

potential dividers as electronic sensors
L E A R N I N G O U TC O M E S
No.
LEARNING OUTCOME
vi
What are op amps?
vii
Use op amps as comparators.
viii
Understand what is meant by feedback.
ix
inverting and non inverting amplifiers.
Output devices attached to the output of the op

- amp
SE NSORS
Sensors are devices that can
detect and measure a change in a
certain physical property and
respond to the change.
Examples:
thermometers,
pressure
sensors,
motion
sensors/detectors.
E L EC T R O N I C S E N S O R S
Electronic sensors are sensors
that have a sensing device, a
processing device and an output
device.
Figure 25.2, page 387, Chapter 25: Electronics; Cambridge International AS and A
Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
E L EC T R O N I C S E N S O R S
The sensing device detects any
change in the physical property
measured and responds to it.
The response is send to the
processor, which produces an
output voltage that drives the
output device.
T HE R MISTORS
Thermistors are resistive
elements whose resistivity is
effected by its temperature.
Thermistors are represented
by the symbol
T HE R MISTORS
We will only look at negative
temperature
coefficient
thermistors; i.e. thermistors that
the values of resistivity decrease
when the temperature increases.
T HE R MISTORS
Since the resistance of a resistor
that has fixed length and cross
sectional
area
is
linearly
proportional to its resistivity, the
resistance of a thermistor will
also decrease with increase in
temperature.
T HE R MISTORS
For thermistors, the resistance is
higher at lower temperatures,
and the resistance decreases
exponentially with increase in its
temperature as seen in the graph
on the next slide.
T HE R MISTORS
The curve on
the left shows
the resistance
vs.
temperature
curve of a
negative
temperature
coefficient
thermistor.
Figure 11.10, page 172, Chapter 11: Resistance and Resistivity; Cambridge
International AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside,
2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
LIGHT - DEPENDENT RESISTORS

(LDRs)
LDRs are resistive elements that

have a resistance that depends
on the illumination (amount of
light) on it.
The LDR is represented in a circuit
diagram by the symbol
LIGHT - DEPENDENT RESISTORS

(LDRs)
The resistance of an LDR will

decrease
with
higher
illumination, while its resistance
will
increase
with
lower
illumination.
EXAMPLES
Question 18, page 479, Chapter 30: Quantum Physics; Cambridge International AS
and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
PIEZO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCERS
Transducers are devices capable
of converting energy from one
from into another.
Piezo electric transducers are
capable of converting acoustic
energy into electric energy, and
electric energy into acoustic
energy.
PIEZO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCERS
We have discussed how piezo

electric transducers work in
the chapter titled Waves.
The piezo electric transducer
is also used in microphones.
PIEZO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCERS
The symbol for a microphone

is shown below:
PIEZO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCERS
In a microphone, the piezo electric
transducer (e.g. a quartz crystal) is
rolled into a thin sheet, with metal
connections on both sides of the
sheet.
When unstressed, the centres of the
positive and negative ions that make
up the crystal coincide.
PIEZO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCERS
When pressure is applied to one
side, the charge centres of the
positive and negative ions no
longer coincide.
This produces a small voltage
across the connections.
This effect is known as the piezo
electric effect.
PIEZO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCERS
Sound waves are made up of a
series of compressions and
rarefactions.
When a sound wave is incident
on one side of the crystal, a
varying voltage across the ends of
the crystal is produced.
This voltage can be amplified.
PIEZO ELECTRIC
TRANSDUCERS
The magnitude of the voltage
depends on the magnitude of the
acoustic pressure.
The polarity of the voltage
depends on whether the crystal
undergoes
compression
or
expansion.
M E TA L W I R E S T R A I N
GAUGES
Strain gauges are sensors that
undergo a change in resistance
when it undergoes a change in
length due to the strain it
experiences.
A strain gauge is shown in the
next slide.
GAUGES
Figure 25.7, page 389, Chapter
25: Electronics; Cambridge
International AS and A Level
Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones,
Chadha and Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
GAUGES
A thin metal wire is made to
zig zag up and down as
shown in the diagram, and
placed between two thin
sheets of plastic.
The length of the wire is much
longer than the strain gauge.
GAUGES
As the plastic is stretched, the
wire will stretch (elongate) and
the cross sectional area will
decrease slightly.
This will cause the resistance
of the gauge to increase.
GAUGES
As the plastic is compressed,
the wire will shorten and the
cross sectional area will
increase slightly.
This will cause the resistance
of the gauge to decrease.
GAUGES
By performing some derivation
using the definition of
resistance, we can obtain
, where:

change in resistance, and

change in length
POT E NT IA L DIV IDE RS

The term potential divider is for a
series connection of 2 or more
elements that divide the e.m.f of a
source.
We may use Kirchoffs 2nd law to
obtain the relationship between the
p.d.s across each element and the
e.m.f of the source.
POT E NT IA L DIV IDE RS

We may use thermistors, LDRs
and strain gauges in potential
dividers to produce a voltage
output that varies with the
resistance of these devices.
A simple connection of one of
these devices (depending on the
objective) and another fixed
resistor in series will suffice.
EXAMPLES
Worked Example 2 and
Figure 25.8, page 390,
Chapter 25: Electronics;
Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Question 7 and Figure
25.12, page 392, Chapter
25: Electronics;
Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Question 8, page 392,
Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
International AS and
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Question 9 and Figure
25.13, page 392,
Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Question 10, page
392, Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
Operational amplifiers, or op
amps for short, are a two
terminal input electronic device.
The op amp has the symbol:
+Vs
-Vs
Figure 25.15, page 393, Chapter 25: Electronics;

Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
The op amp has:
two input terminals, the inverting
input: V- and the non inverting
input: V+,
two power supply terminals: +Vs
and Vs, and
the output terminal, Vout
OP - AMPS
An op amp takes an input,
amplifies the input and produces an
output.
Since, the output has more power
than the input, there must be
electric energy supplied to the op
amp.
This energy is provided by the
supply voltages, -Vs and +Vs.
OP - AMPS
The diagram below shows how an op
amp can be connected in a circuit in an
open loop configuration.
Fig. 1.8, page 6, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

Cambridge International Examinations, Cambridge, England, 2006.
OP - AMPS
In the circuit in the previous slide,
there is no connection between
the output of the op amp back
to either of the input terminals;
i.e. no feedback.
When there is no feedback, the
op amp is in an open loop
configuration.
OP - AMPS
Ideal op amps:
We will only deal with ideal op
amps for ease of analysis and
calculation.
Ideal op amps have five
properties that we will discuss.
OP - AMPS
Properties of ideal op amps:
I. Infinite input impedance:
This means that no current
may flow in or out of either of
the two input terminals.
OP - AMPS
II. Zero output impedance:
This means that the whole of
the output voltage will be
provided across the output
load.
OP - AMPS
III. Infinite open loop gain:
This means that when the op
amp is connected in an open
loop configuration, the gain is
infinite (typically between 105
6
- 10 ).
OP - AMPS
IV. Infinite bandwidth:
This means that the op amp
response will not change if the
frequency of the input signal
changes; all frequencies will be
amplified by the same factor.
OP - AMPS
V. Infinite slew - rate:
This means that there will be
no time delay between any
change in input and the
change in the output.
OP - AMPS
Op amp Applications:
The op amp has three uses that
we will discuss.
The three applications are:
I. as a comparator,
II. as an inverting amplifier, and
III. as a non inverting amplifier.
OP - AMPS
I.Comparator:
An op amp can be used as a
comparator.
A comparator compares the
two inputs (V+ and V-), and
produces an output to indicate
which is larger.
OP - AMPS
I.Comparator(contd):
Fig. 1.8, page 6, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

OP - AMPS
The circuit diagram for a
comparator is shown in the
previous slide.
As can be seen, the comparator
is nothing but an op amp in
an open loop configuration.
OP - AMPS
I. Comparator(contd):
The equation for the comparator is:

,
where:
I. Vout = output voltgae,
II. A = open loop gain,
III. V+ = the input to the non
inverting input terminal,
IV. V- = the input to the inverting input
terminal
OP - AMPS
The gain of an amplifier, , is
the ratio of to .
Hence, the gain of an open
loop op amp,

OP - AMPS
The value of is capped
by the values of +Vs and Vs.
This means that the largest
value of = +Vs and the
smallest value of = -Vs.
OP - AMPS
The amplifier is saturated when
its output reaches either of this
two values.
Due to conservation of energy,
the output power cannot
exceed the supply power.
OP - AMPS
The amplifier is saturated when
its output reaches either of this
two values.
Due to conservation of energy,
the output power cannot
exceed the supply power.
EXAMPLE
Example 1, page 6, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

EXAMPLE
Example 2, page 6, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

EXAMPLE
Figure 25.17, page
395, Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
EXAMPLE
Questions 11, 12, 13
and 14, page 395,
Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
Feedback:
The process of taking part, or all
of the output and adding it to
the input is known as feedback.
A simplified representation of
the process is shown in the next
slide.
OP - AMPS
Feedback (contd):
Figure 1.10, page 7, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

OP - AMPS
Feedback (contd):
The value of the feedback
fraction, can be anywhere
between -1 and 1.
is between -1 and 0 when we

have feedback to the inverting
input, and
is between 0 and 1
when we have feedback to the non
inverting input.
OP - AMPS
Feedback (contd):
The value of the output voltage,

where
,
open loop gain.

OP - AMPS
Feedback (contd):
By rearranging, we get

.
On simplification, we get:

gain,

OP - AMPS
Feedback (contd):
When is negative (
),
we have negative feedback.
Negative feedback will cause the
gain of the amplifier to be lower
than the open loop gain.
However, there are advantages.
OP - AMPS
Feedback (contd):
When is negative (
),
we have negative feedback.
Negative feedback will cause the
gain of the amplifier to be lower
than the open loop gain.
However, there are advantages.
OP - AMPS
Feedback (contd):
Advantages of negative feedback:
I. less distortion,
II. greater operating stability, and
III. gain would be more constant over a
wide
range
of
frequencies
(increased bandwidth)
OP - AMPS
II. Inverting amplifier:
The op amp can be used as an
inverting amplifier.
For it to function as an inverting
amplifier, it must be in negative
feedback configuration.
OP - AMPS
II.
Inverting amplifier (contd):
When the op amp functions as an

inverting amplifier:
I.
the
non inverting
input
is
connected to ground ( 0),
II. the input voltage is supplied to the
inverting input.
III. part of the output is fed back to the
inverting input,
OP - AMPS
II. Inverting amplifier (contd):
The diagram below shows an inverting
amplifier:
Figure 25.20, page
397, Chapter 25:
Electronics; Cambridge
International AS and A
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
The point P is known as the virtual
earth.
Recall that the op amp amplifies
the difference between and .
Since the open loop gain is infinite,

, or
.
OP - AMPS

For the inverting

amplifier,

.Hence,
.
This is known as the virtual earth
approximation.
We
use
the
virtual
earth
approximation to derive the
equation for the gain of the inverting
amplifier.
OP - AMPS
Since no current flows into the

inverting input terminal,

by using Kirchoffs 1st law.

Note that the potential at P,

since P is a virtual earth.
OP - AMPS
On rearranging we obtain

G = gain
amplifier.

of
, where:
the
inverting
OP - AMPS
We can see the minus sign tells
use that the sign of the output
voltage is opposite to the sign
of the input.
There is a phase difference of
180 between the input and
output.
OP - AMPS
We can see the minus sign tells
use that the sign of the output
voltage is opposite to the sign
of the input.
There is a phase difference of
180 between the input and
output.
EXAMPLE
Questions 15 and
16, page 397,
Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
III. Non - inverting amplifier:
We can use an op amp as a
non inverting amplifier when:
I.
II.
the input voltage is supplied to the

non - inverting input.
part of the output is fed back to the
inverting input (negative feedback),
OP - AMPS
III.
Non - inverting amplifier (contd):
The diagram below shows an non inverting amplifier:

Figure 25.21, page
398, Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
III. Non - inverting amplifier (contd):

Using the fact that
, we will
derive the gain equation for the non
inverting amplifier.
The current through
and ! are
equal and can be written as

.

OP - AMPS
III. Non - inverting amplifier (contd):
The gain of the non inverting

"# "$
amplifier,

.

"#
The input and output voltages will be

in phase, and there is no sign
reversal.
EXAMPLE
III.

Questions 17, 18
and 19, page 398,
Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
EXAMPLE
III.

Figure 25.19, page
396, Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
Output devices:
How do we monitor the op amps
output with response to the
changing inputs?
We use output devices for this
purpose.
We will discuss three output
devices: the relay, the LED and the
calibrated meter.
OP - AMPS
Output devices:
I. The relay:
The output current from an op
amp is typically about 25 mA and
is typically 15 V.
We use a relay as a switch to
switch on larger currents and
voltages.
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

The relay is an electromagnetic
switch operated by a small
current in the coil.
The diagram and symbol of the
relay is given in the next slide.
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

movable arm
Diagram of a relay
Circuit symbol of a relay
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

There are two circuits, one
with the coil, and the second
that switches on when contacts
A1 and A2 are closed.
The second circuit will have
larger currents and voltages.
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

When current flows through
the coil, the iron core is
magnetised,
pulling
the
movable arm towards it, and
thus closing contacts A1 and A2.
This switches on the second
circuit.
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

Figure 25.23, page
399, Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

The diagram on the previous slide
shows how the relay can be
connected to the output of the
op amp.
The second circuit (with contacts
A1 and A2) will switch on only
when the output of the op amp
is positive.
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

This is because diode D2 will
only allow current to flow from
the output if
.
What is the function of diode
D1?
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

D1 will prevent any current
flowing back to the op amp
when the coil is switched off.
When the coil is switched off, it
experiences a large decrease in
magnetic flux through it.
OP - AMPS
I.
The relay (contd):

The lower part of the coil will
become more positive than the
upper part, hence any induced
current will flow from the
lower part though D1 and back
through the coil.
OP - AMPS
II. The light emitting diode (LED):
The LED is another useful

output device.
LEDs can be used to indicate
whether the values of is
positive, negative or zero.
OP - AMPS
II.
The light emitting diode (contd):
LEDs cannot be directly

connected between the output
of the op amp and the
ground.
If exceeds 2 V, the current
flowing through the LED will be
too large and could damage
the LED.
OP - AMPS
II. The light emitting diode (contd):
An example of how LEDs

connected is shown below.
are
Figure 25.24, page

399, Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
In the diagram, the green

LED will light up when >
0, while the red LED will light
up when < 0.
Neither LED will light up
= 0.
OP - AMPS
The resistors are used to

protect the LEDs.
When connected in series
with the LEDs, the total
resistance increases, thus
reducing the current that
flows through each LED.
OP - AMPS
III. The calibrated meter:
The op amp may be
measuring
a
physical
quantity such as light
intensity or temperature.
The value of cannot be
used directly to measure
these physical quantities.
OP - AMPS
III. The calibrated meter (contd):
We can connect the output

terminal of the op amp to
a digital voltmeter that has
been calibrated to measure
temperature.
OP - AMPS
Figure 25.25, page
400, Chapter 25:
Electronics;
Cambridge
A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
OP - AMPS
A calibration graph is shown on

the previous slide.
We can obtain these sort of
curves by placing a temperature
sensor connected across a
voltmeter into a water bath and
measuring the voltage readings at
different
temperatures.
A
thermometer is used to verify the
temperature readings.
OP - AMPS
Analog meters can be used

to obtain measurements of
physical quantities, e.g.
temperature, light intensity.
Calibration has to be done,
the same as for digital
meters.
OP - AMPS
However, the readings on the

scales can be used to directly
obtain the physical properties
being measured.
This is provided if the scales
have been marked with the
values
of
the
physical
quantities being measured.
HOMEWORK
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Question 9, Paper 4, Summer 2008.

Question 10, Paper 4, Winter 2008.
HOMEWORK
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

HOMEWORK
17.
18.
19.
20.


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CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL

Understand what are sensors.

What are electronic sensors?

Understand the use of thermistors, light

What are potential dividers?

Use thermistors, LDRs and strain gauges in

What are op amps?

Use op amps as comparators.

Understand what is meant by feedback.

inverting and non inverting amplifiers.

Output devices attached to the output of the op

LIGHT - DEPENDENT RESISTORS

LDRs are resistive elements that

LIGHT - DEPENDENT RESISTORS

The resistance of an LDR will

We have discussed how piezo

The symbol for a microphone

change in resistance, and

POT E NT IA L DIV IDE RS

POT E NT IA L DIV IDE RS

Figure 25.15, page 393, Chapter 25: Electronics;

Fig. 1.8, page 6, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

Fig. 1.8, page 6, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

Example 1, page 6, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

Example 2, page 6, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

Figure 1.10, page 7, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

is between -1 and 0 when we

Inverting amplifier (contd):

When the op amp functions as an

For the inverting

inverting input terminal,

Note that the potential at P,

the input voltage is supplied to the

Non - inverting amplifier (contd):

The diagram below shows an non inverting amplifier:

The input and output voltages will be

Non - inverting amplifier (contd):

Non - inverting amplifier (contd):

The relay (contd):

The relay (contd):

Circuit symbol of a relay

The relay (contd):

The relay (contd):

The relay (contd):

The relay (contd):

The relay (contd):

The relay (contd):

The relay (contd):

The LED is another useful

The light emitting diode (contd):

LEDs cannot be directly

An example of how LEDs

Figure 25.24, page

In the diagram, the green

The resistors are used to

We can connect the output

A calibration graph is shown on

Analog meters can be used

However, the readings on the

Question 9, Paper 4, Summer 2008.

Question 9, Paper 42, Winter 2010.

Question 10, Paper 41, Summer 2012.

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