10 Principles of dimensioning

10.1

A dimensioning example
In general the problem with dimensioning is given on the following form:
R>S

where R = capacity, and S = load-action

Figure 10.1 shows a free suspended beam with a concentrated load P

Here, the largest action-effect in the form of moment is:

The capacity is now defined as the largest moment the cross-section can have
without moving i.e.
o = F

Where F is given as the yield-stress. To F there is a corresponding moment

MF

F =

MF
W

Thus the capacity is:

R = M F = FW

The requirement of the dimensioning R>S gives

FW >
W>

PL
4

PL
(4 F )

Let us now assume we have a linear-elastic ideal plastic material given by the
stress-strain curve in figure 10.3.

Maximum stress in the cross-section is F . As long as the maximum stress in the

cross-section is less than F , the cross-section has linear-elastic behaviour as
shown in figure 10.2.
If the moment exceeds M F we will have situation as shown in figure 10.4.
Naviers hypothesis is still in effect and the strain will vary linearly. The stress in
a distance y from the neutral axis will increase proportionally with the strain
until F is reached. An increased moment above this will generate yield zones
which spread from the outer-edges and inwards towards the neutral axis.

The moment which causes the entire cross-section to yield is called the moment
of plasticity M P
2
bh h bh
M P = F = F
= FWP
4
2 2

With fully developed yield we get a plastic link and the beam will break. The
capacity against break is therefore:
R = M p = FWP

Deflection is another action-effect we will consider. For the example in figure

10.5 the deflection is given by:

Axial loaded beams must be checked for buckling

In figure 10.6 the capacity equals the Euler load.

10.2

Limit states

The function

g = RS

(10.1)

is called a limit state function. Depending on the value of this function we have
the following states:
g = 0 The limit state
g > 0 Allowed state
g < 0 Not allowed state

In the example of chapter 10.1 we have already looked at three limit states:
Yield
Collapse
Deflection

The Oil Directorate defines the following limit states in which a construction
shall be controlled:
Serviceability Limit State (SLS) is given by criteria of functional ability, i.e.
non-acceptable displacements, deflections and vibrations.
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) is given by the risk of fraction, large inelastic
displacements or strains which can be compared to a fraction.
Fatigue Limit State (FLS) is the defined life length given by the risk of fraction
due to the effect of a repeated load (fatigue)
Progressive collapse Limit State (PLS) is give by the risk of a severe collapse
after an abnormal or freak event such as explosion, fire, collision, earthquake
or other accident which leads to fracture of an element.
In Norwegian standard NS 3479 the last limit state, PLS, is called Accidental
Limit State (ALS)
Examples:

The control of the PLS is performed in two stages

1. It must be proven that the construction only suffers local damage when
exposed to an abnormal action.
2. The construction shall, in its damaged condition, still be able to withstand
the defined loads
10.3

Safety
That which is given in the previous chapters is fine if R and S are given
constants. However, they are not given constants. If we perform tests with steel
of a specified quality we will see that the yield-stress F has a certain statistical
spread round a mean-value. Variations in the production will equivalently give
statistical variations in the cross-sectional dimensions of a steel-profile. Figure
10.7 shows statistical spread of F , moment of inertia I, and moment of
resistance W for steel-profiles HE-A, HE-B, and IFE. With these one can
calculate the spread or distribution of yield-moment M F and plasticity-moment
MP

The load also, is not a deterministic size. There is uncertainty attached to the
estimation of for instance deck-loads and wind- and wave-loads. These loads are
stochastically determined processes and the only good ways to describe them are
by means of statistical parameters.
Lets assume that the capacity R, due to the spread of F and WP has a probability
density f R around a mean-value r. Likewise the load-effect S has a density
f S round a mean-value s. The situation is shown in figure 10.8

The criteria for fracture is, as before

RS 0

(10.2)

We can see that even if the mean-value of resistance is greater than the meanvalue of load-effect: r s > 0
There can be a significant probability of fracture. With a basis in figure 10.8 this
probability can be calculated.
The probability that the load-effect is larger than a chosen value x1 is given by:

Where FS is the cumulative distribution of S.

The probability that the capacity is in the region between x1 and x1 + dx is:

The probability for fracture when R = x1 thus becomes:

We obtain the total probability of fracture by integrating all possible x1 :

This can, if preferable, be rewritten by partial integration:

We now define the reliability as:

By doing this it is in principle possible to determine Pf or Ps when the

distribution functions are given. Usually they are not known, and the
constructions are normally statically undefined. This means that we do not get a
total collapse even if one element yields. (System-effect) Furthermore we can
have many loads with different distributions which are more or less correlated.
Calculation of the integral 10.6 is therefore a complex procedure. In addition
will we, as engineers, face the inverse problem, to determine the dimensions so
that we obtain a given probability of fracture. For practicality we make use of
simplified methods most of the time, one such method is used in the Oil
Directorates regulations and in Norsk Standard. It is called the method of
partial coefficients.

10.4

The method of partial coefficients

This method springs out from a characteristic value for load, and capacity, both
defined by a probability-level. (Annual probability of excess)
For the load, the characteristic value qk is given by P(Q > qk ) = Pq , where the
probability Pq is the hatched area in figure 10.9
k

If we now assume that the distribution of Q is known, the characteristic load can
be expressed as: qk = q + ksq
Where q is observed to be the mean-value of Q, and sq is the standard-deviation
and k is a factor determined by Pq .
k

The dimensioning load is then determined by multiplying the characteristic load

with a load-coefficient q that is meant to deal with the uncertainty of the load.
(Possibility for exceeding qk ) This coefficient is different for the different limit
states because the consequences are different.
qd = q k q

The probability-level is often given in the form of return period. If the annual
probability of exceeding is Pq , the return period is:
k

Tk =

1
Pqk

A return period of 5 years equals a Pq = 0,2

k

Similarly for the capacity, we determine a characteristic material-stability rk so

that
P (R < rk ) = Prk

Where the probability Pr is the hatched area in figure 10.10

The characteristic material-stability can therefore be written as:
k

rk = r k r

Where r is the mean-value, r is the standard-deviation, and k is a factor

determined by Pr
k

The dimensioning material-stability now becomes

rd =

rk

Where m is the material-coefficient.

The method of partial coefficients is called semi-probabilistic because it is, as

shown above, stochastically defined, and has one given safety-level.

10.5

Characteristic loads
The Oil Directorate defines the following categories of loads.
Permanent loads
Weight of structure
Hydro-static pressure
Variable function-loads
Service-loads such as personnel, helicopters, cranes, equipment etc.
Nature-loads

Waves, current, wind

Ice, snow
Earthquake
Marine growth

Deformation-loads

Temperature
Creep, and atrophy in concrete
Pre-tension
Fabrication-loads

Accidental-loads
Explosions
Fire
Collisions, etc

The values of these loads are dependent on the time they are acting:

During temporary fazes

During normal operation
During abnormal influence
During damaged conditions

Normally you disregard the most abnormal loads, this meaning the loads with a
probability below 104 per year.
It is also normal to use mean-values as the characteristic loads for permanent
loads, and a value equivalent to Pq = 0.02 (2% probability of exceeding) for
variable loads. (According to NS 3479) This is related to k = 2.04 for the normal
distribution. In the Oil Directorates regulations the characteristic loads are
defined as shown in table 10.1
k

10.6

Load-coefficients
The uncertainty of loads and load-combinations are expressed by loadcoefficients/partial-coefficients for loads. These are meant to take in to
consideration
The possibility that the loads deviates from the characteristic value 1
The possibility that different loads act with characteristic value at the
same time 2
Possible inaccuracy in the calculation of load-effects 3
All these coefficients are often combined into one coefficient
q = 1 2 3

This coefficient will vary depending on the load-type, load-combinations, and

limit states.
The Oil Directorate says:
Serviceability Limit State: q = 1 for all loads
Fatigue Limit State: q = 1 , but calculated damage from the Miner-Palmgrens
hypothesis shall be multiplied with a fatigue-factor in the range 1-10 depending
on availability and significance. As shown in table 10.2

Ultimate limit state: Controlled for two load-combinations with loadcoefficients as shown in table 10.3

In the table 10.3 we have:

P = permanent loads
L = variable loads
E = nature loads
D = deformation loads

In certain cases the coefficients may be reduced, for instance if the construction
is unmanned during bad weather. In this case the coefficients for wind-, wave-,
and current-loads can be taken as 1.15 in load-combination b.
Progressive collapse limit state: q = 1.0 for all loads.
10.7

Characteristic capacity
Normally we take P = 0.05 as characteristic value for material-strength. This is
related to k = 1.64 for the normal-distribution.
k

The Oil Directorate gives the following characteristic values:

Geotechnical calculations: mean-values
Fatigue limit state: 2.5% fractal for the S-N-curve
For the serviceability limit state the capacity is defined from user-requirements.
10.8

Material-coefficients
When deciding the material-coefficients the following is taken into
consideration:
The possibility that the strength deviates from the characteristic values
1

The possibility for local modified strength due to construction 2

The possibility for inaccuracy in determining the resistance 3
The effect of dimensional-tolerances 4
These coefficients are often combined into one single coefficient
m = 1 2 3 4

The Oil Directorate gives the following:

Serviceability limit state: Defined from user requirements
Fatigue limit state: m = 1
Ultimate limit state:
Steel, concrete, aluminium-constructions
Cables, chains

m = 1.15
m = 1 .5

Geotechnical analysis: m = 1.2 1.3 depending on the method of analysis

Progressive collapse limit state: m = 1

10.8

Summary
The process of dimensioning can be summed up as shown in figure 10.11

Fig. 10.11 The process of dimensioning