Course Code: 15GN1001

Case Studies for Ecology

Case Studies submitted to
K L University under the partial fulfillment of
B.Tech (1 Year) during 2015-16

By
(Student Name)
(Id Number)

Under the guidance of

.,

K.L. UNIVERSITY
Green fields, Vaddeswaram, Guntur
Dist.522502

Course Code: 15GN1001

DECLARATION
We

declare

that

the

Case

Studies

entitled

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

.was carried out by us during July to November

2015, and this work is not the same as that of any other and has not been
submitted for award of any other degree/diploma

Place:

Signature of the

Student
Date:

Course Code: 15GN1001

Signature of the Faculty

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express my sincere gratitude to -------------------------------------------------for
encouraging and guiding us to undertake this Case Studies work.
We express my deep sense of gratitude to --------------------------------and
.our beloved course professors of department for their encouragement.

Place:
Date:

Course Code: 15GN1001

CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Discussion on Case Study (Include Images, Problems,
Issues, Advantages and Disadvantages)
4. Conclusion
5. Your suggestions

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Case Study 1

Environmental, socio-economic Impacts of conversion of agricultural lands.

ABSTRACT

This study examines the level of intensity, trend and the main drivers of agricultural land
conversion (ALC) worldwide. Considering the World Bank classification and using a
stratified random sampling, 94 countries were selected in three different groups: less
developing, developing and developed countries. Data were obtained from two databases;
Nation Master and Earth Trends for the period of 19612003. The empirical results revealed
some differences in the level of intensity and the trend of ALC among the groups.
Agricultural land loss was more intensified in developing countries experiencing rapid
economic growth and a transition in their economic structure. The results also showed that
there is a positive correlation between ALC and productivity, capitallabor ratio and urban
population. Urban population was identified as the main driver affecting ALC in all the
countries. Furthermore, although urbanization process exists in all the groups, the developed
countries are more successful in managing urban development and ALC. Considering the
increasing trend of ALC in the future and its socio-economic and environmental impacts, this
study concluded that governments intervention in land policies is needed to preserve
agricultural lands.
Introduction
Land conversion is a process by which land is changed from agricultural to urban uses. There
is a debate on whether agricultural land fringing should be maintained or converted to other
uses. This debate can be shown from both the proruralist and the pro-urbanist perspectives. In
the proruralists view, land conversion has negative impacts: the loss of prime agricultural
land, reduced agricultural jobs and wasted
investment in irrigation infrastructure. Consequently, it could affect agricultural production
and threaten the food security. Proruralists conclude that agricultural land should be kept to
maintain food production. On-the-other-hand, the pro-urbanists argue that land conversion is
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a logical consequence of urban growth. The decline of agricultural production, they argue,
can be solved by intensification and technological production. Hence, land conversion is not
considered as a threat in their view.

Agricultural Land Conversion Drivers

The phenomenon of ALC in different countries is varied in terms of intensity, trend and
drivers. According to Setiawan and Purwanto (in Firman, 1997), there are two main drivers
that contribute to ALC: internal and external. The former is related to the location and land
potential (including land productivity), ownership pattern (including land size) and household
size and income. The later includes urbanization, socio-economic conditions and government
policies.
External drivers
Industrialization. Industrial development is widely seen as an engine for economic growth
(Lichtenberg and Ding, 2008). China, for example, is known for its rapid economic growth.
During the 1980s1990s, Chinese growth was closely supported by the development of
Chinas rural non-agricultural sector, particularly the spread of enterprises owned by rural
communities, called township village enterprises (TVEs) (Ho and Lin, 2004). In China, rural
industries are located in areas where agriculture is better developed and located close to urban
centres. The 62% of TVEs were concentrated in coastal provinces; hence, the rural industries
exerted significantly more pressure on rural communities to convert agricultural land to nonagricultural uses.
Firman (1999) found that industrial estates development, particularly in regions
surrounding Jakarta, was the main factor causing extensive ALC in Indonesia. This land
conversion was followed by other transformation. There are some regions (peripheral areas)
that show a transition from agricultural economy to industrial and service-based activities.
This transition is also reflected by employment structure. The employment structure
transforms from a primary economy to secondary and tertiary industries. Additionally, the
number of households involved in agricultural activities was declining. The strategy to attract
foreign direct investments and to improve global competitiveness in Indonesias industrial
sector exacerbates rapid ALC in the urban periphery. This strategy stimulates the
development of many light industries such as footwear, electronics and plastics
manufacturing. The strategy has therefore made the ALC more severe.
Urbanization. The urbanization process and ruralurban migration are two major factors that
influence ALC and have been widely studied. Han and He (1999) studied the distribution
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pattern of farmland loss in several cities in China and also examined the relationship between
urbanization and farmland conversion in the cities. They found that there was a significant
positive correlation between the urban population growth (as the main measurement of
urbanization) and farmland conversion in coastal cities. Their results support Ho and Lins
(2004) study that showed industrialization also causes farmland conversion in coastal cities in
China. They conclude that the industrialization process in China is often synchronized with
urbanization and consequently causes farmland conversion.

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AGRICULTURAL LAND CONVERSION DRIVERS

using Landsat images of Dongguan (a county-level city in the Pearl River Delta in
Guangdong) taken in 1988 and 1993, Ho and Lin (2004) constructed a land use conversion
matrix for the region and found that nearly 94% of the construction sites in 1993 were
agricultural lands in 1988.
Government policy. Most of economic development policies tend to foster industrial growth
and indirectly stimulate intensive land conversion in many developing countries, like
Indonesia, China, Vietnam, and the Philip-pines (Van den Berg et al., 2003; Macaque and
Yochai, 2007; Irwin, 2008; Lichtenberg and Ding, 2008). Furthermore, spatial development
policy, which determines whether an area becomes industrial site or residential, boosts the
conversion of agricultural land in that area. The policy of establishing industrial zones in the
urban periphery of Jakarta, such as Tangerang, Bekasi and Kerrawang caused extensive ALC
in Indonesia (Fireman, 1997). Chinas government decided to relocate industrial zones to
suburban areas to solve the congestion problem and also caused huge farmland loss in coastal
provinces (Ho and Lin, 2004).
Current housing regulations in China support local government to provide housing for the
growing population by expanding into rural areas rather than intensifying the density within
urban areas. Local government considers that redevelopment of existing municipal land
requires it to pay compensation to current tenants and to cover resettlement expenses. The
compensation payment to current residents is much higher than the payments to the rural
inhabitants. Furthermore, it is more expensive to provide new infrastructures in high dense
population areas. For those reasons, it is more profitable for local governments to fulfil the
need for housing by converting farmland to residential areas rather than increasing density
within urban boundaries.
Internal drivers
Land productivity. Levia and Page (2000) examined the driving forces of ALC to
residential uses. Farm size, farm slope and distance to nearest cities and highways are the
variables hypothesized as factors fostering farmland conversion in Massachusetts. They
found that all those variables are the primary determinants of the ALC. Farm size is an
important variable which should be considered due to the scale of economy and land value.
From the housing developers point of view, it is more feasible and profitable to choose large
farms rather than small farms due to the scale economy. Therefore, the land value increases
alongside the farm size. The vast majority of farmland conversion is of those farms which
have little slope. Farms with slopes greater than 15 degrees are less profitable for residential
development due to high cost of landscape levelling. Construction costs (e.g. road
construction, foundations and

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Agricultural Land Conversion in Different Countries

An ANOVA estimation was run to find the mean difference of the ALC among the countries.
Table I shows that all the strata have negative means which indicate that they are all affected
by the ALC. However, there are some differences among the strata that show different
conversion intensities, where developing countries experience the highest land conversion
(_0_712) and developed countries face the least (_0_102).
As previously discussed, developing countries are in the phase of transition from a low
income, agrarian rural economy to an industrial urban economy. In this transition process,
there is a transformation in composition of economic activities and a shift of allocation in the
main production factor (land). The land which was previously allocated to a low productivity
sector such as agriculture will be converted to high productivity sector such as industry,
commerce, services, etc. The urban uses that encroach on fertile agricultural lands are also
stimulated by rapid population growth in developing countries.

Figure 1. The ALC trend in less developed, developing and developed countries.
price in city centres, many firms would go to suburban areas and consequently many workers
will become commuters.
Agricultural Land Conversion Drivers
A time-series regression analysis was used to understand the relationship between the ALC as
dependent variable and productivity, capitallabour ratio and urban population as independent
(explanatory) variables.

Moreover, during the studied period (19612003), most of developed countries gradually
began to concern that economic growth, urbanization and population decentrali-zation
accelerate the conversion of farmlands to urban uses. Therefore, in the late-1960s, the idea of
controlling urban development to preserve the farmlands started to emerge (Nelson, 1990).
On-the-other-hand, during that period, most of developing countries experienced a great leap
forward: a cultural revolution, economic structure transformation and reorientation from
agricultural to manufacturing investment (OHara, 2006). Hence, the amazing conversion of
agricultural lands to urban uses occurred in that period.

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CONCLUSION
As discussed in this paper, ALC is widely seen as a consequence of industrialization. The
growing population and its needs, particularly in urban areas demands more land that is fixed
in supply. Therefore, land in urban areas becomes scarcer and more expensive. In order to
meet the growing demand for land, city development expands to fringe areas where prime
and fertile agricultural lands are located. This development causes intensive ALC in urban
fringe areas. ALC is therefore argued as a logical result of population growth and economic
development and it has been neglected as an unavoidable consequence in the development
process. However, for a long period, ALC will lead to many negative impacts, such as loss of
prime farmlands, production, jobs and infrastructure. Urbanization is therefore often
considered as a threat to agricultural land in many countries. In developing countries with
rapid economic growth, the economic structure tends to shift from an agricultural-based to a
non-agricultural-based economy. The development of the industrial sector that is believed to
be the engine of economic growth accelerates the conversion of agricultural lands.
Furthermore, some governmental industrialization policies encourage the development of
industrial zones to grab agricultural lands in urban fringe areas. The development of these
zones not only attracts industrial investments but also encourages people to migrate and look
for new job opportunities. This situation could be exacerbated by higher rates of land
conversion resulting in residential and recreation areas, and from development of
infrastructure and services.
This study showed that ALC in different countries is intensifying. While developing countries
show the highest, developed countries show the lowest rate of land loss. Additionally, the
ALCs trend for all the three groups is increasing. Whereas the developing and developed
countries have respectively experienced the highest and lowest average of ALC. Obviously,
this result leads to the conclusion that ALC will be continuing in the future if there is no
government intervention to halt it.
The results also showed that urbanization could (significantly) be considered as the main
cause of the ALC, especially in developing countries where the urbanization has the fastest
growth while developed countries have been successful in managing their urbanization
process and therefore receive the least impacts. Therefore, proper management and planning
may restrict ALC. Planning directs urban expansion to desired ways that protect fertile
agricultural lands (e.g. the Dutch Government not only has strong comprehensive spatial
planning, but also keeps a serious commitment at all governmental levels, and maintains
inter-governmental coordination, a financial mechanism and public support in order to
prevent the conversion of their farmlands). Therefore, a stricter implementation of land use
and spatial planning or even land conversion laws are needed. Furthermore, the legal
approach (law and regulation) must be accompanied by other approaches (such as economic
controls including tax incentives and agricultural subsidies) not only to encourage farmers to
remain, but also to improve their farming activities.

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Case Study 2

A case study on EIA of Agriculture after green revolution.

Abstract
The Green Revolution in India has achieved self-sufficiency in food production. However, in
the state of Haryana this has resulted in continuous environmental degradation, particularly of
soil, vegetation and water resources. Soil organic matter levels are declining and the use of
chemical inputs is intensifying. Newly introduced crop varieties have been responsive to
inputs but this has necessitated both increased fertilizer application and use of irrigation
resulting in water contamination by nitrate and phosphate and changes in the ground water
table. With 82% of the geographic area already under cultivation, the scope for increased
productivity lies in further intensification which is crucially dependent on more energyintensive inputs. Declining nutrient-use efficiency, physical and chemical degradation of soil,
and inefficient water use have been limiting crop productivity, whilst the use of
monocultures, mechanization and an excessive reliance on chemical plant protection have
reduced crop, plant and animal diversity in recent years. About 60% of the geographical area
faces soil degradation (waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity) which threatens the region's food
security in the future. Since 1985, the water table has risen more than 1 m annually, and
patches of salinity have started to appear at the farm level. The situation is worse in higher
rainfall areas where waterlogging follows shortly after the rains. Apart from affecting
agricultural crops, a high water table causes floods even following slight rains due to the
reduced storage capacity of the soil. Such ecological impacts are motivating farmers to
reduce fertilizer and pesticides use. This has led to an increased investment in alternative
technology and products including an interest in Integrated Pest Management. The paper
discusses major physical, hydrological, chemical and biological constraints relating to soil
and water resources for ecosystem sustainability.
Introduction
Prior to the mid-1960s, increased crop production in India was largely achieved by
expansion of cultivated area. To gain self-sufficiency in food grain production, a new
agricultural strategy popularly known as the `Green Revolution' was implemented in the mid1960s. This strategy involved the use of modern technology, including HYV (high yielding
variety) seeds, chemical fertilizers, irrigation facilities, improvements farm implements and
crop protection measures. It succeeded, and food self-sufficiency was attained. Food grain
production increased from 72 10 6 Mg in 19651966 to 167 106 Mg in 19911992, 198 106
Mg in 19941995 and 203 106 Mg in 19981999. This production increased due to both
extensification.
Green Revolution and the environmental problems encountered.

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Land use change: an emerging scenario

After the Green Revolution there has been some extensification in Haryana state. The net
sown area was recorded as approximately 78% in 19661967 and in excess of 81% in 1990
1991. Intensification has in-creased with a significant expansion in the area with more than
one crop sown per year, during 30 years between 19501951 to 19801981, this increased
from 11 to 42% and again to 53.6% in 19901991, this is mainly due to the improvements in
irrigation and agricultural technology. As land use intensity has increased, the area of land
under irrigation has also increased, from approximately 61% in 19841985 to 73% in 1990
1991. The total area under irrigation has increased from 1:29 106 ha in 19651966 to 2:66 106
ha in 19941995.
Impact of the Green Revolution on cropping systems
There has been a remarkable shift in India in the cropping patterns for both wet season and
winter crops since the Green Revolution (Table 1). Rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum)
have replaced pulses, bajra (Pearl millet), jowar/sorghum (Syricum), as dominant food crops,
while cotton (Gossypium spp.) is the key cash crop. The main wet season crops in 19651966
comprised bajra (46%), rice (13%) and sorghum (12%); however in 19951996 rice (34%)
was the major crop followed by bajra (27%) and cot-ton (24%). For winter crops wheat has
increased in production as major crop from 43% in 19651966 to 64% in 19951996. In
Haryana, the yields of rice and wheat have increased considerably (Table 2). Gurgaon district
recorded highest compound growth rate of 5.22% for wheat crops during 19861995.
Environmental consequences of agricultural development
Increasing pressure of the population on the land dictates the need for potential utilization of
all avail-able land. However, large parts of the land are de-graded by desertification, soil
salinity, waterlogging, floods, and droughts, due to inefficient agricultural practices, and
deforestation has caused excessive soil erosion (Gill, 1992; Randhawa, 1992). The increasing
demand for food, fodder, fiber and fuel can only be met through bringing more of these
degraded areas into cultivation and forestry. Sensing the gravity of the problem, the
Government of India has set up a National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB) with the
objective of bringing all the wastelands un-der productive use in the country through a
massive programme of afforestation.
Based on national classification of the different types and categories of wastelands, two
major types have been considered in this study: culturable waste-land, and non-culturable
wasteland. Haryana has about 7.54% of land under these categories in total. The largest area
comprises sandy stretches in Sirsa.
Need for land and water conservation
The monitoring of land and water detects significant changes in the soil characteristics that
directly or indirectly affect the quality of the land and its ability to produce the basic needs of
food, fibre and timber. An integrated assessment of the status and risk of soil degradation will
produce one of the essential data sets for national understanding (Singh, 1997). The
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objectives for producing a soil degradation map are to identify the dangers resulting from
inappropriate land and soil management; to improve the capability in regional and national
institutions; and to deliver accurate information for agricultural planning purposes. Other
states and centre funded work includes reclamation of salt and alkaline affected lands, field
channel and water channels (warabandi) construction work (Alexander, 1985).
Soil reclamation and land leveling are prominent in the annual plan for Haryana. The
Planning Commission has allocated funds for the development of culturable as well as nonculturable wasteland and various chemical inputs have been allocated for the land. Land
Reclamation and Development Boards are engaged in this task and also provide subsidies for
agricultural inputs in Haryana.
The districts of Hissar, Rohtak and Gurgaon have been largely reclaimed through different
develop-mental programmes initiated by the Government of Haryana. The committee on
Natural Resources, Planning Commission, New Delhi's study on wastelands, including saline,
alkaline and waterlogged land and their reclamation measures has estimated that about 6000,
4000 and 2000 ha of land affected by salinity and alkalinity were reclaimed in the Hissar,
Rohtak and Gurgaon districts, respectively. As general characteristics the alkali soils of
Haryana have a high pH value of average 9.3, with a higher proportion of sodium bicarbonate
in the upper 1 m depth and negligible infiltration rates. On an average depth of 1.5 m the soils
have a calcic horizon, thus signifying the presence of pedogenic calcium carbonate. The task
of desalinization in such soil is quite formidable. The low percolation also leads to rapid
waterlogging.
Various agencies are taking stock of the salinization and various remedial measures are
being planned to regenerate the wastelands. Studies are being carried out by the Ministries of
Environment and Forest, Agriculture, the Planning Commission, National Commission on
Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Universities and various other agencies on wasteland
development. There is an urgent need to create aware-ness among people for prudent use of
land resources by implementing action-oriented projects and to re-claim wastelands. Policies
can be formed to shift land use from traditional to modern technical use. An at-tempt should
be made not only to increase production but also to sustain the increased production for
wheat and rice without further degradation of our natural resources.
Conclusions
In the Haryana state much progress was made in agricultural productivity, but at the cost of
land and water degradation. Intensive agriculture during the Green Revolution has brought
significant land and water problems relating to soil degradation over exploitation of ground
water and soil pollution due to the uses of high doses of fertilizers and pesticides. Land and
water conservation is an important concern not only to the farmers and the rural communities
in Haryana but also to the country as a whole. Conservation of these resources is essential for
sustainable agricultural development. The future food grain requirement of India in 2010 will
show an increase amounting to 269 106 Mg over 211 106 Mg in 2000.
An attempt should be made not only to increase the production but also to sustain the
increased production without further degradation of the natural resources. Possible
reclamation measures are required to be taken up for restoration of physical health of soils
and its productivity. By analyzing the shift in cropped area and cropping pattern, it is quite
evident that monocultures are the dominant systems as the shift has taken place from jowar,
bajra, to rice during Kharif (summer cropping) season and wheat has replaced crops such as
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barley and gram during Rabi (winter cropping) sea-son due to an expansion of irrigation
facilities in these states. People prefer high yielding and more remunerative crops like wheat
and rice, although barley and gram are still grown in rainfed areas. Although some
diversification, and the productivity and profitability of crop husbandry continues to be an
integral part of the existing cropping pattern, wheat and rice with highest growth yields per
hectare, and high economic returns, will continue to be dominant. In the light of this, incentives for checking environmental degradation (soil, water and biodiversity, etc.) caused by
the growth of these crops should be encouraged through incentive packages.
Diversification of agriculture to increase the percentage area under agroforestry, oilseeds
and pulses is being encouraged. Sunflower is becoming a prominent crop among the oilseeds;
its water requirement is quite high. Although the sugarcane area has been substantially
increased, it has not reduced pressure on ground water. The region has been achieving
regeneration of wastelands by improving irrigation facilities with a degree of success mainly
on plain areas. Technologies for managing soil problems and suitability of poor quality
ground water for different crops and cropping system need to be refined. To optimize results
from the reclamation of degraded areas, there is a need to create awareness of soil
degradation and the importance of soil development. The integrated and sustainable
monitoring and management of agriculture and forestry requires a focus on the issues such as
collection and effective utilization of land and water inventory data for land use planning,
nutrient management, increased biomass productivity and need for diversification, reenrichment of inherent fertility and agroforestry, moisture conservation and water harvesting,
the recharging of ground water reservoirs in areas of water table decline, and agro-industrial
watershed based planning. In this way, understanding of environmental consequences of
agricultural development helps to illustrate the nature and complexity of forces driving the
change and now these imply the concerns for food security of the region.

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Case study 3

A case study on Cooling Off a Warming Planet

Cooling a Warming Planet:
A Global Air Conditioning Surge
The U.S. has long used more energy for air conditioning than all other nations combined. But
as demand increases in the worlds warmer regions, global energy consumption for air
conditioning is expected to continue to rise dramatically and could have a major impact on
climate change.
BY STAN COX

The world is warming, incomes are rising, and smaller families are living in larger houses in
hotter places. One result is a booming market for air conditioning world sales in 2011
were up 13 percent over 2010, and that growth is expected to accelerate in coming decades.
By my very rough estimate, residential, commercial, and industrial air conditioning
worldwide consumes at least one trillion kilowatt-hours of electricity annually. Vehicle air
conditioners in the United States alone use 7 to 10 billion gallons of gasoline annually. And
thanks largely to demand in warmer regions, it is possible that world consumption of energy
for coolingcould explode tenfold by 2050, giving climate change an unwelcome dose of extra
momentum.
The United States has long consumed more energy each year for air conditioning than the rest
of the world combined. In fact, we use more electricity for cooling than the entire continent
of Africa, home to a billion people, consumes for all purposes. Between 1993 and 2005, with
summers growing hotter and homes larger, energy consumed by residential air
China is expected to surpass the U.S. as the worlds biggest user of electricity for air
conditioning by 2020.
conditioning in the U.S. doubled, and it leaped another 20 percent by 2010. The climate
impact of air conditioning our buildings and vehicles is now that of almost half a billion
metric tons of carbon dioxide per year.
Yet with other nations following our lead, Americas century-long reign as the world cooling
champion is coming to an end. And if global consumption for cooling grows as projected to
10 trillion kilowatt-hours per year equal to half of the worlds entire electricity supply
today the climate forecast will be grim indeed.
Because it is so deeply dependent on high-energy cooling, the United States is not very well
positioned to call on other countries to exercise restraint for the sake of our common
atmosphere. But we can warn the world of what it stands to lose if it follows our path, and
that would mean making clear what we ourselves have lost during the age of air conditioning.
For example, with less exposure to heat, our bodies can fail to acclimatize physiologically to
summer conditions, while we develop a mental dependence on cooling. Community cohesion
also has been ruptured, as neighborhoods that on warm summer evenings were once filled
with people mingling are now silent save for the whirring of air-conditioning units. A half15

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century of construction on the model of refrigerated cooling has left us with homes and
offices in which natural ventilation often is either impossible or ineffective. The result is that
the same cooling technology that can save lives during brief, intense heat waves is helping
undermine our health at most other times.
The time window for debating the benefits and costs of air conditioning on a global scale is
narrowing once a country goes down the air-conditioned path, it is very hard to change
course.

Air conditioners on an office building in Chinas Fujiang Province

China is already sprinting forward and is expected to surpass the United States as the worlds
biggest user of electricity for air conditioning by 2020. Consider this: The number of U.S.
homes equipped with air conditioning rose from 64 to 100 million between 1993 and 2009,
whereas 50 million air-conditioning units were sold in China in 2010 alone. And it is
projected that the number of air-conditioned vehicles in China will reach 100 million in 2015,
having more than doubled in just five years.
As urban China, Japan, and South Korea approach the air-conditioning saturation point, the
greatest demand growth in the post-2020 world is expected to occur elsewhere, most
prominently in South and Southeast Asia. India will predominate already, about 40 percent
of all electricity consumption in the city of Mumbai goes for air conditioning. The Middle
East is already heavily climate-controlled, but growth is expected to continue there as well.
Within 15 years, Saudi Arabia could actually be consuming more oil than it exports, due
largely to air conditioning. And with summers warming, the United States and Mexico will
continue increasing their heavy consumption of cool.
Countries are already struggling to keep up with peak power demand in hot weather. This
summer, India is seeing a shortfall of 17 gigawatts, with residential electricity shut off for 16
hours per day in some areas. China is falling short by 30 to 40 gigawatts, resulting in energy
rationing and factory closings.
In most countries, the bulk of electricity that runs air conditioners in homes and businesses is
generated from fossil fuels, most prominently coal. In contrast, a large share of space heating
in cooler climates is done by directly burning fuels usually natural gas, other gases, or oil,
all of which have somewhat smaller carbon emissions than coal. That, together with the
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energy losses involved in generation and transmission of electric power, means that on
average, an air conditioner causes more greenhouse emissions when pushing heat out of a
house than does a furnace when putting the same quantity of heat into a house.
Based on projected increases in population, income, and temperatures around the world,
Morna Isaac and Detlef van Vuuren of the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
predict that in a warming world, the increase in emissions from air conditioning will be faster
than the decline in emissions from heating; as a result, the combined greenhouse impact of
heating and cooling will begin rising soon after 2020 and then shoot up fast through the end
of the century.
Refrigerants fluids that absorb and release heat efficiently at the right temperatures are
the key to air conditioning and refrigeration, but they can also be serious troublemakers when
released into the atmosphere. Refrigerants such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that harm the
stratospheric ozone layer are being phased out under the 1989 Montreal Protocol; however,
most ozone-friendlier substitutes are, like CFCs,
The U.S. experience provides little hope that renewable energy can satisfy a growing share of
air conditioning demand.
powerful greenhouse gases.
Most prominent worldwide in the new generation of refrigerants are compounds known as
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). They have a smaller climate-warming potential than do the
ozone-depleting compounds they are replacing, but they still have hundreds to thousands of
times the greenhouse potency of carbon dioxide (on a pound-for-pound basis, that is; carbon
dioxide is released in vastly larger quantities and has a larger total impact.) Rapid growth in
air conditioning threatens to swamp out the marginal climate benefits of replacing current
refrigerants with HFCs.
According to a recent forecast by Guus Velders of the Netherlands National Institute for
Public Health and the Environment and his colleagues, refrigerants that accumulate in the
atmosphere between now and 2050 (increasingly HFCs, mostly from refrigeration and air
conditioning) will add another 14 to 27 percent to the increased warming caused by all
human-generated carbon dioxide emissions. Recent years, therefore, have seen a research
stampede to find refrigerants with lighter greenhouse potential. Several promising candidates
have been discarded on the basis of flammability, toxicity, ozone depletion, or other
problems. None of the remaining prospects is ideal in all respects.
One important consideration is efficiency. A refrigerant that has smaller direct greenhouse
potential than those currently in use but that exchanges heat less efficiently causing an air
conditioner to consume more energy for the same amount of cooling could have a larger
total climate impact.
Isaac and Van Vuuren predict that even if demand for air conditioning is satisfied with
successively more efficient generations of equipment, global electricity consumption for
home cooling will still rise eightfold by 2050, which is not much better than the tenfold
increase that would occur without efficiency improvements. A similar dominance of growth
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over efficiency has prevailed in the United States. From 1993 to 2005, energy efficiency of
air-conditioning equipment improved by almost 30 percent, but household energy
consumption for air conditioning doubled.
There is hope that renewable energy could satisfy a growing share of air-conditioning
demand, but there is little inspiration to be drawn from the U.S. experience. Here, renewable
electricity production from wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal sources could expand to five
times its current
Is it fair to expect people in Mumbai to go without air conditioning when so many in Miami
use it freely?
production (an increase that the Environmental Protection Agency does not expect to be
achieved until 2030) and still not cover the nations air-conditioning demand, let alone other
needs. Today, worldwide renewable production is estimated at about 750 billion kilowatt
hours, which, I estimate, covers about three-fourths of current global air-conditioning
demand. The International Energy Agency predicts that renewable generation will expand to
six times its current output by 2050. But even if that is achieved, renewable sources will still
be satisfying only three-fourths of air-conditioning demand.
Each supply-side option has its own problems. Attempts to catch up with cooling demand by
expanding hydroelectric power generation have caused serious ecological disruption and
displacement of many millions of rural people in India, China, Brazil, and other countries.
And we see hints that proliferation of air conditioning will provide an incentive to revive and
expand nuclear power. Last month, in the face of strong opposition from the public, Japanese
Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda announced that his government was ending the moratorium
on nuclear energy generation that had been in place since the tsunami disaster at the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in 2011. Noda acknowledged that the timing of the
restart of two reactors in western Japan was no accident; the additional power will be needed
to satisfy the summer surge in air conditioner use.
In thinking about global demand for cooling, two key questions emerge. Is it fair to expect
people in Mumbai to go without air conditioning when so many in Miami use it freely? And
if not, can the world find ways to adapt to warmer temperatures that are fair to all and do not
depend on the unsupportable growth of air conditioning?
Currently, efforts to develop low-energy methods for warm climates are in progress on every
continent. Passive cooling projects in China, India, Egypt, Iran, Namibia, and other countries
combine traditional technologies like wind towers and water evaporation with newly
designed, ventilation-friendly architectural features. Solar adsorption air conditioning
performs a magicians trick, using only the heat of the sun to cool the indoor air, but so far it
is not very affordable or adaptable to home use. Meanwhile in India and elsewhere, cooling is
being achieved solely with air pumped from underground tunnels.

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Case study 4

A case study on migratory birds in Andhra Pradesh.

ABSTRACT
Kolleru Lake the largest fresh water lake in India falls in the West Godavari and
Krishna districts of the state of Andhra Pradesh. The catchment of the lake extends up to 6121
km2, of which 4763 km2 comprise of upland, and 1358 km2 deltaic. Considering that the lake
functions as a flood moderating reservoir between the Krishna and Godavari deltas (Fig-1)
and that it supports several vulnerable species and a variety of resident and migratory birds,
the Kolleru wetland was declared as a Wildlife Sanctuary, a RAMSAR site and also as an
Important Bird Area (IBA) During the last couple of decades, the changing socio-economic
and political milieu of the state in general and the region in particular brought enormous
alteration to the lake area and consequent strains on this wetland ecosystem. The lucrative
business of aquaculture made far reaching consequence on the habitual land use in the Lake
area.
The lake receives water from several sources of these; the streams Budameru, Tammileru
(East and West branches), Ramileru, Gunderu and Bulusuvagu are natural and foremost in
terms of water input. Minor streams, Jayanthi, Kattaleru, Ippalavagu, Telleru, Ballaleru and
Nadimeru flowing through several mandals also join the lake Kolleru (Table 1). The rest of
inflow drains are largely manmade and contribute lesser inputs. The estimated total inflow via
the sea sources is about 9.6 TMC (Thousand million cubic feet per annum. The Budameru
flows through the Mandals of Vijayawada, Gannavaram, Gudivada and Kaikaluru, while the
rest of the streams flow through the West Godavari district. Tammileru originating from
Bethupalli in Khammam district reaches Kolleru Lake after passing through Nagireddygudem
reservoir in Chintalapudi Mandal. The lake Kolleru debouches into the Bay of Bengal, at
Peranatalakanuma through the channel called Upputeru which is about 65 km long the
channel is under strong tidal influence and turns brackish especially towards the downstream
stretch.

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Fig: 1. Kolleru Lake between Krishna and Godavari rivers.

The Lake Kolleru is largely a freshwater body, except towards its south eastern portion
where the water may turn brackish particularly during summer months due to salt water
ingression through Upputeru. Around 26% of the lake area in eastern zone gets affected by
high tides, particularly in summer (Amaraneni et al.,2004).
Water quality:
Kolleru lake system is located amid the deltas of the rivers Godavari and Krishna and
the lake is fed directly by several seasonal rivulets and is also linked to the Krishna and
Godavari systems through several inflowing drains and irrigation channels. The lake is not
directly connected with either Krishna or Godavari rivers. Nevertheless, the Kolleru wetland
receives huge quantity of nutrient rich sediments from the flood plains of these rivers.
Meteorologically the Kolleru basin falls under semi-arid climate class, with three seasons,
namely summer, monsoon and winter. The basin enjoys rainfall from both southwest as well
as northeast monsoons. The rainfall was found to vary widely across the years. The normal
rainfall in the area is about 715 mm not much variation is seen in temperature across the
seasons winter last for a period of three months (December February) followed by summer,
which lasts till June to mid-July. Dry situation have been reported frequently in the uplands of
the basin due to failure or delayed monsoon. Similarly flood due to depression (in the Bay of
Bengal) induced rainfall / storms are frequent in the basin generally during August to
November.
Pollution:
The major sources of pollution are agricultural run-off containing residues of several
agrochemicals, fertilizers, fish tank discharges containing antibiotics, pro-biotics, food wastes
and others, industrial effluents containing chemical residues and organics of different types
and municipal and domestic sewage. As a result, the water of the lake turned more alkaline in
nature, turbid, nutrient rich, low in dissolved oxygen (DO) and high in biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD). Changes in total dissolved solids (TDS) and salinity imbalance in the lake
has been reported (Rao et al., 2006). Annually around 116800 tons of inorganic fertilizers are
used there, of which about one fourth ends up in the lake via run-off and leaching
(Gopalakrishnayya, 1999). Besides, natural nutrients from the vast catchment, from the
natural levees of Godavari and Krishna rivers, drift down to the lake taking along 68,000 tons
of cattle manures as deltaic area is dense with cattle population. The vegetation along the
river banks also contributes substantially to the nutrient load, while their litters decay. In
addition, about 7.4 lakh ducks (Gopalakrishnayya, 1999) also was known to enter the lake
adding on their excrements. High levels of organic pollutants are also reported from the
Kolleru Lake (Rao and Pillala, 2001). The total organochlorine pesticides used in and around
the lake area is estimated to be about 1600 tons / year. Residues of methyl parathion used in
the first cropping season find its way into the lake, and is another major source of pollution
threatening the biota with residual effects. The study conducted by the School of Chemistry,
Andhra University concluded that the contamination of pesticide in the ambient air of the
lake may be due to uncontrolled use of pesticides in agriculture and aquaculture (Sreenivasa
Rao and Rama Rao, 2000). Poly cyclic hydrocarbons are also reported from sediments of
Kolleru Wetland (Amaraneni, 2004).
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Untreated municipal sewage from Vijayawada, Gudiwada and Eluru and domestic
sewage from other human habitations on the sides of the inlets, flows into the lake. It is
reported that the Eluru Municipal Corporation alone discharges around 24 MLD (Million
liters/day) untreated sewage to the lake. Organic rich wastes cause various changes in water
quality including depletion of oxygen levels leading to fish kills and bacterial contamination.
Fecal waste in water leads to the proliferation of pathogens such as Salmonella.
The lakes eutrophication and deterioration in ecological health has occurred steadily
and consistently. Kolleru Lake receives large quantity of nutrients, leading to eutrophication.
Eutrophication is known to cause wide changes in structure and function of aquatic systems
(Smith et al., 1999). Rise in turbidity, increase in phytoplankton biomass, blooms of toxic or
in edible phytoplankton and gelatinous zooplankton, decline in the biomass of benthic and
epiphytic algae, changes in macrophyte species composition and biomass, fall in dissolved
oxygen, fish kills, change in species composition of fish and other fauna, reductions in
harvestable fish and shellfish and fall in aesthetic value of the water body are some common
consequences of eutrophication. Variations in water level, human pressure on land and
increasing landscape modification have added to further deterioration of the lake. Huge
quantities of inorganic fertilizers are used in the catchment area for agriculture which is likely
to increase with augmented irrigation as and when the Polavaram right canal becomes
functional. As a result of leaching and run-off, it is estimated that about one fourth of the
fertilizers will end up in the lake (Gopalakrishnayya, 1999). The expanding rooted and
floating weeds aid trapping suspended sediment sand other materials, and reduce the flow of
water augmenting further eutrophication of the lake.
Flora & fauna:
The Kolleru Lake is rich in floral biodiversity. But the land use changes in water
quality and other environmental changes is reflected in floral composition as well. Invasive
species such as Eichhorrnia crassipes,
Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta have spread over the lake, clogging many areas and
filling several open water areas. The spread of floating weeds would have serious impacts on
the submerged, algal and epiphytic flora as well. However, such changes in Kolleru so far
remain largely un-documented and needs further investigations. Phragmites karka seems to
have invaded all the exposed areas in the lake especially towards the lower ends.
The Lake Kolleru has been habitat for a variety of waterfowl; resident, migratory, rare and
endangered
species since time immemorial. It acts as a staging post and refueling station for migratory
birds on their onward journey. Bird watchers have been conducting bird census in January of
every year in different parts of the lake. The data available on bird census is shown Red Data
Book. Rose and Scott (1994) while reporting Spot billed pelican population in South and
South East Asia to be around 11500 noted a perceptible trend of decrease in its population.
The species is considered a Globally threatened species under the category vulnerable.
The changes in the flora and environment had apparent impacts on the faunal forms of the
lake. Species such as apple snail has reduced considerably. Apple snail is one of the
important food species for storks. Similarly several fish species have reportedly disappeared
and the fish species composition has changed after establishment of shrimp farms, Apple

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snail (Pila virens), the staple food of Asian Open billed stork (Anastomus oscitans), was
being collected for feeding tigershrimp (Penaeus monodon) to fatten it. Consequently largescale commercial exploitation of this snail in and around Kolleru has led to 60% destruction
of its population (Seshagiri Rao and Varhala Raju, 1996).
According to the study conducted by the Regional Ayurvedic Research Centre,
Vijayawada there are about 30 medicinal plant species in the lake area which can be another
source of livelihood. A strategy for sustainable and ecologically benign harvesting, value
addition and marketing has to be developed for these.
The lake can be developed as a major tourist destination and that will create direct and
indirect employment for the people of the area. The lake harboring rare and endangered
species of migratory birds has high potential to develop into a major attraction for general
tourists, students, researchers and other special interest groups. Ecotourism should be targeted
at socio economical development especially of the local communities and should be
community based. These activities should be aimed at developing soft and hard infrastructure
and all infrastructure development should be environmentally sensitive and culturally sound,
keeping local landscape in mind and should at all times involve the local community. Benefits
of ecotourism must go only to the local stakeholders with minimum investment from outside
agencies. Appropriate means such as Eco-development committees (EDC) may be formed to
implement such programs.

Case Study 5

Environmental impact assessment on KrishnaPatnam Port.

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Abstract
Environmental impact assessment is an important legislative and scientific tool that may
assist and improve the quality assistance for the decision-making process in sustainable
development. The flexible EIA techniques suitable for the infrastructure and resources of
a specific country, taking into account institutional, technical and financial constraints.
Improvements are required in public participation, awareness, as well as in
environmental control and data system sectors, besides simply enacting legislation to
achieve the goals of the EIA system. Thermal Power Plants found to affect
Environmental segments of the surrounding region very badly. Environmental
deterioration is attributed to emission of large amount of SOx, NOx, SPM & RSPM
which disperses over 25 Kms radius and cause respiratory and related ailments to human
beings and animal kingdom. It also affects photosynthesis process, balance of minerals &
micro and major nutrients in the plants, soil strata, structures & buildings get affected due
to corrosive reactions.
INTRODUCTION
A massive expansion of the thermal power generation capacity of the country is on the
anvil. The total installed electricity generation capacity in India as on 30 April 2015 was
174,361 Megawatts (MW). Of this, coal-based capacity was 94,653 MW, while gasbased capacity was 17,706 MW, taking 1 the total thermal capacity to 113,559 MW .
Information collected from the central Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
shows that huge additions of thermal power capacity are in the pipeline. With the
Electricity Act 2003 delicensing thermal power generation, this sector is no longer within
the scope of any systematic planning process. It is proposed to study the onging projects
in the state of Andhra Pradesh to suggest various methods of EIA process and revision of
existing methods of preparing the EIA process and revision of existing methods of
preparing the EIA reports which is a mandatory document for any industry in this country
as per EP Act. The projects located in Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh, In-dia.
Fig: 1 Location Map of the Study Area

OBJECTIVE
The overall objective of the study has been to incorporate environmental considerations into
planning and prepare an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for improving of the air
environmental Quality. The specific objectives of the study are:

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To map the characteristics and environmental profile of study area and to identify the air
environmental pollution in and around surrounding areas.
Prepare an environmental management plan that includes rehabilitation and mitigation
measures.
To prepare an environmental monitoring schedule with respect to the proposed project.
To recommend guidelines for environmentally compatible land use planning and to
prepare the EIA re-port

4. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

Methodology used in this paper refers to a simple set of methods to rationale this particular
study for the analysis of the principles and procedures of inquiry in EIA. By defining research
questions, the problem space was sub-divided into sub spaces to make it simple. Personal
communications at Nellore district played an important role to understand the system and
problems lying within it. Data collection encompasses several phases, including: oral
questionnaires, interviewers, stakeholder analysis and in the end processing the data.
Unofficial interviews and discussion with different consultants and stakeholders like Environmental Protection Agency, Common Public and Consultants lead to achieve the predefined objectives. Review of different laws and documents produced and comparison in
international context by review of international papers on EIA, Environmental Management
Plan, SEA and Sustainable development was included in the study.
a) Requirement of Coal
The coal requirement of the plant operated of on 100% imported coal estimated to be about
2.07milion tonnes (@ 100%PLF) (TED, 1997). The blend coal requirement is estimated to be
about 2.70 million tonnes (@100% PLF) with blending ratio of 70% imported coal & 30%
Indian coal. Based on the established norm/guidelines of central Electricity Authority, the
station Heat rate is considered as 2550 Kcal/Kwh and Imported coal having Gross calorific
value of 5800 Kcal/kg, Indian coal having Grass Calorific Values of 2900 kcal/kg has been
considered for working out the annual coal requirement for the power plan (Venkatasubramaniyam et. al., 2012).
b) Transportation Of Coal/ Belt Conveyor From North Port To South Port
SEPL has the following modes of coal transportation to the plant site
SEPL Wharf: coal will be unloaded at the designated wharf of SEPL and transported by
means of conveyor or by road through the dedicated corridor up to the plant.
Krishnapatnam port company Ltd(KPCL) also has planned to transfer coal from the Northern
berth to south side by means of a conveyor arrangement to their designated coal stack yard
for further utilization by the proposed power plant in the south of the port including SEPL.
SEPL will implement a dedicated conveyor system from the KPCL coal stack yard to its coal
handling plant located in-side the power plant.
c) Industrial Source Complex Short term
Dispersion model (ISCST3)
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The pollutants released in to the atmosphere will disperse in the down wind direction and
finally reach the ground at farther distance from the source. The concentration of ground level
concentrations mainly depends upon the emission source and micrometeorology of the study
area.
In order to estimate the ground level concentrations due to the emission from the proposed
power plant, an EPA approved ISCST3; Industrial source complex short term dispersion
model has been employed. ISCST3 provides option to model emission from a wide range of
sources that are presents at a typical industrial source complex including terrain parameters
(Smith and Egan, 1979). The model considers the source and receptors in undulated terrain as
well as plain terrain and combination of both. The basis of the model is the straight line
steady state Gaussian plume equation, with modifications to model simple point source
emission from stacks, emission from stack that experience the effects of aerodynamics down
wash due to nearby building, isolated vents, multiple vents, storage piles, conveyor belts etc.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
a) Impact on Environment and Control Measures
The proposed power plant will result in emission of particulate Matter, Sulphur dioxide and
oxides of nitrogen due to burning of coal in the boilers.
The boiler will be based on Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Technology. Boilers are
designed for the worst coal quality of 24 %ash and Sulphur content of 3.15 %.
SEPL will initially commission 2135 MW plant under Phase-1. 2135 MW will be
commissioned under phase-II making the total installed power generation capacity of the
plant at 540 MW
Environmental Monitoring Program
Environmental parameters viz. air, water, noise, will be monitored regularly in order to
evaluate any changes from the baseline status and take appropriate midcourse correction.
Monitoring program will be followed till the mining operations ceases; every year as per the
schedule below:
Air Quality Monitoring: One location in core zone and two locations in the buffer zone will
be monitored for once per season except monsoon.
Noise Levels Monitoring: Noise levels in the working area will be monitored once in every
month till the continuation of operations. Ambient noise levels will also be monitored once in
a season in the buffer zone to evaluate the noise levels in surrounding community.
Water Quality Monitoring: Water environment will be assessed periodically for both surface
water and ground water. Surface water quality will be monitored at identified rivers during all
four seasons. Ground water level and quality on seasonal basis will be assessed in the open /
dug wells to evaluate the impacts of ongoing operations. Water levels will also be monitored
on seasonal basis in sur-rounding wells.

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Ecological monitoring:
Half yearly monitoring of afforestation program will be done for the survival rate and plant
growth within the core zone. Plantation, before the onset of monsoon season, will be done
progressively till the final closure of the mine.

The monitoring system will also include:

Continued analysis of mine site
drainage water at regular
intervals to monitor suspended
solid content in particular and
other parameters in general.
Efficacy of check dams, gully
plugs, retaining walls and
settling tank and to improve the
silt arresting arrangement.
Compliance management with
all environmental legislations
Implementation
of
various
environmental
management
programs and reporting the
performance
to
the
top
management.
Coordinating the environment
related activities within the
project as well as with outside
agencies
Green belt development, etc.

CONCLUSIONS
The project development and consequent economic development should lead to improvement
through better living and greater social awareness. As thermal power project cannot be
stopped unless we want to revert back to medieval ages, solution lies in advanced planning
and environ-mental management and protection as a part and parcel of the system. As the
proposed operation is small scale, the adverse impacts on the environment will be very little.
The above EIA and EMP is proposed to make this mining operation less damaging to the
surrounding environment. The less is committed to implement the above project in a time
bound manner.

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