Chapter 24 Alternating Currents

CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL
PHYSICS
ALTERNATING
CURRENTS
L E A R N I N G O U TC O M E S
NO.
LEARNING OUTCOME
Analyse and interpret the nature of alternating currents

and voltages.
ii
Read off current (voltage) vs. time graphs values of peak

current (voltage), frequency and period. Write and
interpret equations for alternating currents and voltages.
iii
U n d e r s t a n d w h a t i s m e a n t b y r. m . s v a l u e s . R e l a t e m a x i m u m
p o w e r w i t h r. m . s p o w e r
iv
Apply knowledge of electromagnetic induction to explain

how transformers operate. This includes efficiency issues
related to transformers.
Understand how to smoothen the output from a

t r a n s f o r m e r. D i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n h a l f w a v e a n d f u l l w a v e
rectification.
vi
Understand the use of a capacitor in rectification and its

relationship with time constant.
A LT E R N AT I N G C U R R E N T S
Alternating current is current that
flows in both directions.
The polarity of the power source
reverses every half cycle.
This causes current to flow opposite
to the initial direction.
Alternating current is periodic; i.e. it
repeats itself after a regular time
interval.
A LT E R N AT I N G C U R R E N T
The graph on the left
shows how AC varies
with time.
Observe the sinusoidal
nature of the graph.
Can you identify where
one cycle completes?
Can you locate points
where the current
Figure 7.39; Page 192, Chapter 7: Electricity;
direction reverses?
Section 7.5: Alternating Currents, International
Can you identify where
A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and
current is maximum?
Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom,
2008.
A LT E R N AT I N G V O LTA G E
If current flow is reversed, the
polarities of the devices connected
in the circuit will also reverse
(positive becomes negative, and
negative becomes positive).
The voltage across any device initially
increases from zero to a maximum,
and then decreases to zero. The
voltage then reverses, increases in
magnitude to a maximum value, and
then decreases to 0.
This is repeated in a periodic manner.
The maximum voltage is
known as the peak value.
The time taken for one
complete cycle is known as
the period, of the
alternating voltage/current.
The inverse of the period, or
the number of cycles per
second, is the frequency of
the alternating current /
voltage.
Diagram 31.1, Chapter 31: Alternating Current, Section 31.1, page 1022, Sears and
Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson
Education, San Francisco, 2012.
M AT H E M AT I C A L
E Q UAT I O N S
If we look at both the graphs of voltage
/ current vs. time for alternating sources
of electricity, we can see that the graphs
have a sinusoidal shape.
We can represent this graphs
mathematically by using the equation in
the forms of:
I.
II.

, for current, and

,

for voltage
M AT H E M AT I C A L
E Q UAT I O N S
We can represent this graphs mathematically
by using the equation in the forms of:
I.

, for current, and
II.
, for voltage
where:
instantaneous current, A;
peak current, A;
angular frequency, rad s-1 ;
t = time, s;
instantaneous voltage, V;
peak

voltage, V.
Recall
R O O T M E A N S Q UA R E D
( R . M . S ) VA LU E S
Alternating current that flows is time
varying. This results in time varying
values of current (voltage).
The effective value of the current
(voltage) is known as the root
mean squared (r.m.s) value of
current (voltage).
( R . M . S ) VA LU E S
Definition: The r.m.s value of a
current (voltage) is that value of the
of the direct current (voltage) that
would produce the same heat in a
resistor.
The r.m.s calue is also known as the
declared value.
( R . M . S ) VA LU E S
To obtain the r.m.s value of a current (or
voltage) , we:
1.
2.
3.
square the equation for current (or

voltage) vs. time,
find the average of the (or and,
then square the mean.
This calculation involves integration, so

we would not delve into it.
However, there is an easy way to
calculate the or .
( R . M . S ) VA LU E S

We use the equation

for

current, and
for voltage.

Source of Image:http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/physics/images/waveform2.gif
MAXIMUM POWER vs.

R.M.S POWER
Let us graph the following,
power vs. time, for alternating
currents
graphs:
using
the
I. Current, I vs. time, t , and

II. Voltage, V vs. time, t
following
MAXIMUM POWER vs.

R.M.S POWER
Lets assume that we have a resistive
load (e.g. a resistor) that has
alternating current flowing through
it.
The voltage across and the current
through the resistor is time varying.
MAXIMUM POWER vs.

R.M.S POWER
When the voltage across it is
maximum, the current through it
will also be maximum.
Hence, the maximum power
dissipated,
!

MAXIMUM POWER vs.

R.M.S POWER
Hence,
!
" !
.

!

or

This implies that the r.m.s value of

the power dissipated by a resistive
load is half of the value of the
maximum power it dissipates.
EXAMPLES
Question 1, Set 60:
Simple A.C. Circuits;
page 191;
PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill Book
Company, Sydney
1985.
EXAMPLES
Question 4, Set 60: Simple A.C. Circuits; page 191; PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L McKITTRICK; McGraw Hill Book Company, Sydney 1985.
EXAMPLES
Question 5, Set 60: Simple A.C. Circuits; page 191; PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L McKITTRICK; McGraw Hill Book Company, Sydney 1985.
EXAMPLES
Question .
Example; Page 194, Chapter 7: Electricity; Section 7.5: Alternating Currents,

International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder
Education, United Kingdom, 2008.
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are devices that are to amplify
or attenuate alternating voltages.
Figure 12.41; Page 342, Chapter 12: Electromagnetism; Section 12.3:

Electromagnetic Induction, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle,
Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is made up
of:
I. A primary coil,
II. A secondary coil, and
III.A laminated soft iron core.
TRANSFORMERS
An A.C input is connected across the
primary coil.
Alternating current flows through
the primary turnings, which behaves
like a solenoid.
This produces a magnetic field
around the primary turnings.
TRANSFORMERS
The magnetic field around the
primary coil is time varying.
If we plot the magnetic flux
density, B around the primary coil
vs. time, we obtain a sinusoidal
graph.
TRANSFORMERS
The magnetic field lines that
exist around the primary
turnings pass through the
secondary coil.
This produces a magnetic flux
linkage between the turnings in
the secondary coil.
TRANSFORMERS
The magnetic flux linkage
between the secondary windings
is time varying.
If we sketch the graph of
magnetic flux through the
secondary coil vs. time, we obtain
the same shape as B vs. time for
the primary coil.
TRANSFORMERS
According to Faradays Law, this
would produce an induced e.m.f
across the ends of the secondary
windings.
This is because the magnetic flux
through the secondary coil is
time varying.
TRANSFORMERS
The secondary coil behaves like
an A.C battery as long as there is
A.C flowing in the primary coil.
Current will flow in the output if
the secondary coil is connected
to an output device.
TRANSFORMERS
Will the current / voltage at the
output be in phase or be out of
phase with the current / voltage at
the input?
To answer this question, sketch the
curves for:
I.
II.
Flux through secondary coil, and

Induced e.m.f / current for the
secondary coil using Faradays law.
TRANSFORMERS
What is the function
laminated soft iron core?
of the
The soft iron core intensifies the

magnetic flux linkage in the
secondary coil.
It is laminated (cut into smaller
sheets and separated by insulators)
to prevent excessive heating that
could damage the transformer.
TRANSFORMERS
Diagram 31.24, Chapter 31: Alternating Current, Section 31.6, page 1042, Sears and
Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson
Education, San Francisco, 2012.
TRANSFORMERS
The type of transformers we deal
with are considered ideal (100 %
efficient).
This means that all the power
delivered to the primary coil is
delivered at the output.
Mathematically, this can be
written
#

as # #
or
#
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers can either be :
I. step up, or
II. step down.
Step up transformers amplify the

input voltage (at the output)
while step down transformers
attenuate the input voltage.
TRANSFORMERS
The turns ratio of a transformer
determines
whether
the
transformer is a step up or step
down transformer.
$

The turns ratio
$#
#
If the turns ratio
, then it is a
step up transformer, while if the
turns ratio is
, it is a step down
transformer.
TRANSFORMERS
If we were combine the
equations on the previous three
$

slides, we can obtain
#

$#
#
TRANSFORMERS
For practical transformers, the
efficiency is less than 100 %.
The 2 main causes of loss of
energy are:
I.
Thermal energy dissipation in

the windings, and
II. Thermal energy dissipation in
the iron core due to the eddy
currents that flow.
EXAMPLES
Example; Page 343, Chapter 12: Electricity; Section 12.3: Electromagnetic Induction,
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
Questions 11 and
12, Set 60: Simple
A.C. Circuits; page
193; PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill
Book Company,
Sydney 1985.
EXAMPLES
Question 13, Set
60: Simple A.C.
Circuits; page 193;
PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill
Book Company,
Sydney 1985.
A D VA N TA G E S O F
One advantage of using A.C is
that A.C. voltages can be stepped
up or stepped down using
transformers while we cannot
step up or down D.C.
Why do we need to step up or
step down voltages?
Electricity transmission using
higher voltages offer economical
benefit compared to lower
voltages.
When A.C voltage is stepped up
using a transformer at generation
site, the output current will be
lower (by the same factor the
voltage was stepped up).
Recall
$
$#

#
#

Since electricity needs to be
transmitted over long distances, a
lower current will significantly

reduce resistive heat
losses.
EXAMPLE
RECTIFICATION
The output of a transformer is
also A.C.
How do we convert this A.C
output into D.C?
We use a rectifier to convert A.C
into D.C.
RECTIFICATION
Rectification employs the use of
diodes to rectify and capacitors
to smoothen the output.
We will look at both half wave
and full wave rectification.
H A L F WAV E
R E C T I F I C AT I O N
Figure 29.15, page 460, Chapter 29:Alternating Currents; Cambridge International AS

and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
H A L F WAV E
The diagram on the previous
slide shows a half wave
rectifier circuit.
The diode allows current to
flow in only when it is forward
biased.
H A L F WAV E
This happens when the base
of the triangle has a higher
potential than its vertex.
When the diode is forward
biased, it acts as a short circuit;
i.e p.d. across the diode is
equal to 0.
H A L F WAV E
This happens when the base of
the triangle has a higher
potential than its vertex.
There is no current flowing
through the diode when it is
reverse biased; the base of the
triangle has a lower potential
than its vertex.
H A L F WAV E
The diagram above compares the input and output of a half

wave rectifier.
Note that the negative portion of the voltage is chopped
off.
Figure 7.41; Page 194, Chapter 7: Electricity; Section 7.5: Alternating Currents,
H A L F WAV E
The issue with a half wave rectifier is that the power

received at the output is less than the power delivered to the
input.
Solution: use a full wave / bridge rectifier.
F U L L WAV E

F U L L WAV E
The diagram in the previous slide
shows a full - wave or a bridge
rectifier circuit.
There are four diodes that form a
bridge circuit.
It is very important to remember
how the four diodes are
connected with each other.
F U L L WAV E
Diodes allow current to flow only
when forward biased; i.e. current
flows into the base of the
triangle.
Also note that current can only
flow from higher potential to
lower potential.
F U L L WAV E
Figure 29.17 a,
page 460, Chapter
29:Alternating
Currents;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level
Physics
Coursebook,
Sang, Jones,
Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition,
Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
F U L L WAV E
shows the flow of current during
the positive half cycle of the
input current (A has a higher
potential than B).
F U L L WAV E
Current only flows through
diodes that are forward biased
and from higher potential to
lower potential.
The voltage across R will be only
the positive half cycles of the
input.
F U L L WAV E
Figure 29.17 b,
page 460, Chapter
29:Alternating
Currents;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level
Physics
Coursebook,
Sang, Jones,
Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition,
Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
F U L L WAV E
shows the flow of current during
the negative half cycle of the
input current (A has a lower
potential than B).
F U L L WAV E
Current only flows through
diodes that are forward biased
and from higher potential to
lower potential.
The voltage across R will be only
the negative half cycles of the
input.
F U L L WAV E
F U L L WAV E
The graphs shows the input and output
voltages in a full wave (bridge) rectifier
circuit.
The output is the combination of the
outputs of both the positive and
negative half cycle of the inputs.
The positive half cycle is replicated, while
the negative half cycle gets flipped.
SMOOTHING THE
OUTPUT
If we refer to the output of a
rectifier, it does not at all look
like a d.c. source.
How do we then obtain a d.c
output?
The answer is connect a
capacitor in parallel with the
output load resistor.
SMOOTHING THE
OUTPUT

SMOOTHING THE
OUTPUT
The diagram above shows how a
capacitor can be connected in
parallel with an output load
resistor to smoothen the output
of from a half wave rectifier.
SMOOTHING THE
OUTPUT

SMOOTHING THE
OUTPUT
The diagram above shows how
the p.d. across the resistor varies
with time.
The p.d across the resistor rises
to the maximum value, charging
the capacitor to that maximum
value.
SMOOTHING THE
OUTPUT
When the input voltage drops
(gradient of input voltage
becomes negative), the capacitor
starts discharging through the
resistor, causing the p.d. across
the capacitor and resistor to
decrease.
SMOOTHING THE
OUTPUT
The rate of discharge depends on a
physical quantity known as the time
constant,
of the circuit.
The inverse of the time constant
gives us the slope of the
discharging section of the output
voltage.
SMOOTHING THE
OUTPUT
The higher the value of the time
constant, the longer it takes for
the capacitor to discharge; i.e.
less steep discharging curve.
If we have a small value as the
time constant, the voltage drop
during discharging will be large.
EXAMPLES
Question 16, page 461, Chapter 29: Alternating Currents; Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
EXAMPLES
Question 17 and Figure 29.19 , page 461, Chapter 29: Alternating Currents;
Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha
and Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
EXAMPLES
Question 18 and Figure
29.20 , page 461, Chapter
29: Alternating Currents;
Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang, Jones,
Chadha and Woodside,
2nd edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
HOMEWORK
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Question 6, Paper 4, Winter 2008.

Question 6, Paper 41, Summer 2010.
HOMEWORK
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.


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CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL

Analyse and interpret the nature of alternating currents

Read off current (voltage) vs. time graphs values of peak

Apply knowledge of electromagnetic induction to explain

Understand how to smoothen the output from a

Understand the use of a capacitor in rectification and its

square the equation for current (or

This calculation involves integration, so

We use the equation 

MAXIMUM POWER vs.

I. Current, I vs. time, t , and

MAXIMUM POWER vs.

MAXIMUM POWER vs.

MAXIMUM POWER vs.

This implies that the r.m.s value of

Example; Page 194, Chapter 7: Electricity; Section 7.5: Alternating Currents,

Figure 12.41; Page 342, Chapter 12: Electromagnetism; Section 12.3:

Flux through secondary coil, and

The soft iron core intensifies the

Step up transformers amplify the

Thermal energy dissipation in

Figure 29.15, page 460, Chapter 29:Alternating Currents; Cambridge International AS

The diagram above compares the input and output of a half

The issue with a half wave rectifier is that the power

Figure 29.16, page 460, Chapter 29:Alternating Currents; Cambridge International AS

Figure 29.18, page 461, Chapter 29:Alternating Currents; Cambridge International AS

Figure 29.18, page 461, Chapter 29:Alternating Currents; Cambridge International AS

Question 6, Paper 4, Winter 2008.

Question 5, Paper 42, Summer 2011.

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